There are two main approaches to studying morality according to the text: the scientific/descriptive approach and the philosophical/normative approach. The scientific approach observes human behavior and conduct empirically, while the philosophical approach examines the rational justification of moral claims and principles. Key concepts in morality discussed include good/bad, right/wrong, happiness/pleasure, and amorality. Historically, figures like Plato, Aristotle and Kant contributed differing views around perfection, virtue, and rational will as the subject matter of moral philosophy.

1. MORAL PHILOSOPHY
CHAPTER ONE: THE NATURE OF MORAL
PHILOSOPHY

2. Perfectionism is a moral theory according
to which certain states or activities of
human beings, such as knowledge,
achievement and artistic creation, are
good apart from any pleasure or
happiness they bring, and what is morally
right is what most promotes these human
‘excellences’ or ‘perfections’. Some
versions of perfectionism hold that the
good consists, at bottom, in the
development of properties central to
human nature, so that if knowledge and

3. With or without this view, perfectionisms can
differ about what in particular is good, for
example, about the relative merits of
knowing and doing. The most plausible
versions of perfectionism affirm both self-
regarding duties to seek the excellences in
one’s own life and other-regarding duties to
promote them in other people. Some critics
argue that the latter duties, when applied to
political questions, are hostile to liberty and
equality, but certain versions of
perfectionism endorse liberty and equality.

4. • Historically, perfectionism is associated with
ethical theories that characterize the human
good in terms of the development of human
nature. Writers as diverse as Aristotle, Aquinas,
Spinoza, Marx, and T.H. Green are perfectionists
in this sense.
• Speaking generally, perfectionist writers
advance an objective account of the good and
then develop an account of ethics and/or politics
that is informed by this account of the good.
Different perfectionist writers propose different
accounts of the good and arrive at different
ethical and political conclusions. But all
perfectionists defend an account of the good
that is objective in the sense that it identifies
states of affairs, activities, and/or relationships

5. 1. Perfectionism and Value Theory
• The good life for human beings can be understood in
at least two importantly different ways. On the first
understanding, such a life is construed in terms of
well-being. The best life for a human being is a life that
goes maximally well for the person who leads it. On
the second understanding, the good life for a human
being is construed in terms of excellence or success.
An excellent human life could be a life that is best in
terms of well-being, but it need not be, for it is possible
that such a life requires a human being to make
sacrifices in his own well-being for the sake of other
persons or goods. Thus the notion of an excellent
human life is broader than that of a life high in well-
being. And since it is the broader notion, a general
characterization of perfectionism should employ it
rather than well-being.

6. Perfectionism, so understood, contrasts with both
hedonism and desire satisfaction accounts of the
human good. Let ‘X’ refer to an object, an activity or a
relationship. Then, for the perfectionist, if X is good,
then it is not good in virtue of the fact that it is desired,
or would be desired under appropriate conditions, by
human beings. Likewise, for the perfectionist, if X is
good, it does not follow that X must be a pleasant
mental state or causally related to one. Perfectionist
accounts of the human good, of course, can allow that
some goods are experiential, but they reject the
hedonistic thesis that all intrinsic human goods consist
in pleasurable sensations or attitudes.
Perfectionist accounts of the human good, by contrast, are accounts
that seek to identify the goods that contribute to the value of a
life for human beings.

7. Two Versions of Perfectionism
1. Putting nonhumanistic perfectionism aside,
perfectionist goods are components of an
excellent human life. Historically, as noted
above, perfectionists have related these goods
to the development of human nature. For
example, the development of rationality is often
considered to be a perfectionist good because
it is a capacity essential to human nature.
2. characterized perfectionism without any reference to
human nature. John Rawls characterizes perfectionism
as requiring the maximum “achievement of human
excellence in art, science and culture” (Rawls 1971,
325). Derek Parfit characterizes perfectionism in terms
of the achievement or realization of “the best things in
life” (Parfit 1986, 162).

9. Two Importantly Different Ways, The
Good Life For Human Beings
Perfectionist accounts of the human good, by
contrast, are accounts that seek to identify the
goods that contribute to the value of a life for
human beings:
1. A life is construed in terms of well-being. The
best life for a human being is a life that goes
maximally well for the person who leads it.
2. The good life for a human being is construed in
terms of excellence or success. An excellent
human life could be a life that is best in terms of
well-being,

10. Perfectionist Ethics
Perfectionism as a moral theory directs human beings to protect
and promote objectively good human lives. As such, it can take
an egoistic or non-egoistic form. Egoistic forms of
perfectionism are well represented in the history of moral
philosophy. These theories direct each human being to perfect
himself as much as possible, or at least to some threshold
level. Egoistic forms of perfectionism need not be narrowly
self-interested. A number of perfectionist writers have held that
the good of others contributes substantially to one’s own good
(Green 1986; Hobhouse 1911). By promoting the good of
others, one can thereby promote one’s own good. On such
views, there is no deep conflict between one’s own perfection
and the perfection of others.
Non-egoistic forms of perfectionism, by contrast, allow for such
conflicts. They hold that each human being has a non-
derivative duty to perfect others as well as a duty to perfect
himself. Such views, at least in principle, can direct human
beings to sacrifice their own perfection for the sake of others
Perfectionism is best understood as a moral theory that directs
human beings to care about the perfection of others as well

11. This claim is consistent with recognizing, what is
evidently true, that there are serious limits to
our ability to bring about the perfection of
others. These limits explain why some
philosophers, most notably Kant, have held
that we cannot have a duty to promote the
perfection of others (Kant 1797).

12. Consequentialism and Deontology
The best life for a human being might be one
that simultaneously best perfects himself and
best perfects others.

13. According to Plato's Theory of Forms, perfection cannot exist in the
physical world but only the realm of the philosophers; the ones
who choose to lurk deeper in the veiled mysteries of metaphysics.
According to Plato, his Theory of Forms states perfection only lives
in the realm of thought. There only exists one of every ideal and the
rest is just a copy. This one creation is called a form, the most
flawless representation of an idea. In the physical world everything
is a copy of these forms and all copies are imperfect. Plato believed
in two worlds; the intelligible world and the illusionistic world. The
intelligible world is where everything is unchanging and eternal. We
can only grasp the intelligible world with our mind. It is the world of
ideas and not senses. A place where there are perfect forms of the
things we know on Earth. According to Plato everything in the world
we live in is an illusion. All objects are only shadows of their true
forms. His theory further states every group of objects that have
the same defying properties must have an ideal form.

14. Allegory of the Cave
Plato's Theory of Forms draws parallels to The
Allegory of the Cave, highlighting the concept
of human beings being ignorant to true
perfection. In the writing Plato uses symbols
to convey a veiled meaning.

15. 1.2. The Basic Features of Moral Philosophy
• philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, Aquinas, Marx, Hegel and
• Nietzsche thought that the highest good was connected with the development and
• perfection of skills and talents of various kinds1. It is characteristic of perfectionism that
• it, in contrast to most other theories, has an objective view of human goods. Certain states
• of affairs and certain activities are good in themselves and not good because they are
• desired or valued by human beings. Hurka (1993) has a relatively narrow conception of
• what is good: “What is good, ultimately, is the development of human nature.” Other
• writers have a broader view that includes goods in various social and cultural spheres.
• Rawls (1971) talks about “Maximizing the achievement of human excellence in art,
• science, and culture.” Perfectionism is a philosophical theory that contains a theory of
• value, a moral theory and a political theory

16. What does the soul ultimately desire? What mak
es asoul good? Egoism is one answer to both
questions. Thereare passages in which
Socratesappears to be committed toversions
of egoism, such as in theEuthydemus, Meno,
And Protagoras

17. according to Plato
• What is perfection?
• Plato's idea of perfection is articulated in his
Theory of Forms. The Forms represent the
abstract, ideal moulds of all things and
concepts in existence, rather than actual
things themselves. In short, the idea of
something is more perfect than the tangible
thing itself.

18. Aristotle
• What does Aristotle say about perfection?
• It is more perfect than things like wealth which are always chosen for the sake of something else; and it is more perfect than things like honour which are chosen for their own sake, but
also for the sake of something else (1097b1–6). Perfection is given by Aristotle as a formal property which happiness must possess
• thought that eudaimonia, translated as “happiness”, was the
• undisputable highest good. For Aristotle happiness is linked to an active life. “And as at
• the Olympic Games it is not the most beautiful or the strongest who are crowned but
• those who compete (for it is some of these who become victors), so in life it is those who
• act rightly who become the winners of good and noble things.” (1099a) 12. Aristotle thus
• seems to link function and goal, ontology and ethic, into one total frame. Since human
• beings have a certain way of being we ought to develop and perfect this way of being3.
• Aristotle’s view on human self-realization and perfection opened up for two views.
• According to one view theoretical thinking is the highest activity. The other view values
• the many-sided development of a broader spectrum of human nature, including the
• physical side of human beings4 Hurka’s theory of perfectionism takes good care of this
• physical side of human nature.
• Hurka’s theory starts from an account of the good human life. In order to decide
• what the desirable human life is we have to know which properties constitute human
• nature. “The good life, it then says, develops these properties to a high degree or realizes
• what is central to human nature” (Hurka 1993, 3). What is central differs among
• philosophers. For Aristotle and Aquinas humans are rational. For Marx humans are homo
• faber; they transform nature through cooperative labour. For Hegel human beings realize
• the Spirit. According to Nietzsche humans exercise the will to power. Broader theories
• include ideas of a harmonious development of corporeal, mental, intellectual and modal
• faculties. Hurka uses “”perfectionism” (or “narrow perfectionism”) to refer to a moral
• theory based on human nature, and “broad perfectionism” for the more inclusive view that values some development of capacities or some achievement of excellence”(Hurka
• 1993,4)
• The goal of perfectionism is to develop human nature and exercise essential
• human capacities

19. Perfection is given by Aristotle as a formal property which
happiness must possess.
Happiness is the most perfect (teleion) of all things: it is
chosen for its own sake and never for anything else; it
is never chosen for the sake of honour, pleasure,
understanding, or virtue.
The word ‘perfect’ in both treatises
(Nicomachean and Eudemian) can bear either of the
meanings ‘complete’ or ‘final’. But in the definition of
happiness the Nicomachean treatise places the
emphasis on finality, while the Eudemian places the
emphasis on comprehensiveness.

20. 1.3. Morality as a Subject –Matter
the subject matter of moral philosophy is
rationality, but that does not mean that all of it is
based on reason. Kant argued that the subject
matter of moral philosophy is the nature and
content of principles.
This ultimately determines our rational will. If we
have a priori knowledge of what is ethical, we can
decide how to act. However, we must still
consider the circumstances in which we act.
There are two fundamental ways to decide
whether or not we act ethically.

21. • Virtue
• Virtue is also considered an objective good. The ancient Greek
philosophers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle considered virtue to be
essential to a good life. In ancient Greek, the word for virtue
was arête, which can also be translated as “excellence.” To
determine the arête, or excellence, of something, you have to know
what its purpose or function is. For example, the purpose of a knife
is to cut things, so its arête is sharpness. A good knife is a sharp
knife. It is easier to determine the arête of a practical object like a
knife than the arête of a person. For this reason, Socrates argues
that people need to “discuss virtue everyday” and continually
examine their lives (Plato [399–360 BCE] 2002, 41). Virtue is not
simply a characteristic or personality trait for the ancient Greeks. It
is a way of living.

23. 1.4. Amorality
Amoral means having no moral sense, or being
indifferent to right and wrong. This term can be
applied to very few people. Certain people who
have had prefrontal lobotomies tend to act
amorally after the operation; that is, they have no
sense of right and wrong. And there are a few
human beings who, despite moral education,
have remained or become amoral. Such people
tend to be found among certain criminal types
who can’t seem to realize they’ve done anything
wrong. They tend not to have any remorse,
regret, or concern for what they have done.

24. “a person characterized by emotional instability,
lack of sound judgment, perverse and
impulsive (often criminal) behavior, inability to
learn from experience, amoral and asocial
feelings, and other serious personality
defects.”6 He describes “the most important
feature of the psychopath...as his monumental
irresponsibility

25. • “No sense of conscience, guilt, or remorse is
present. Harmful acts are committed without
discomfort or shame.”8 Amorality, then, is
basically an attitude that some—luckily only a
few—human beings possess

26. Nonmoral
Nonmoral The word nonmoral means out of the realm of
morality altogether. For example, inanimate objects
such as cars and guns are neither moral nor immoral. A
person using the car or gun may use it immorally, but
the things themselves are nonmoral. Many areas of
study (e.g., mathematics, astronomy, and physics) are
in themselves nonmoral, but because human beings
are involved in these areas, morality may also be
involved. A mathematics problem is neither moral nor
immoral in itself; however, if it provides the means by
which a hydrogen bomb can be exploded, then moral
issues certainly will be forthcoming

27. 1.5. The Key Concepts in Morality
GOOD, BAD, RIGHT, WRONG, HAPPINESS, OR
PLEASURE.
Amoral

28. Ethics and Morality ;the subject matter of morality moral philosophy
The words “moral” and “morality” come from the Latin
moralis and moralitas, which in turn have their root in
mos, meaning “custom.” Similarly, the word “ethics”
comes from the Greek ethike, whose root is ethos,
again meaning “custom” or, sometimes, “character.” As
these English terms have taken on standardized
meanings, especially in philosophy,
morality refers to the sum total of values, good practices,
principles of right behavior, etc. (as well as their
opposites: disvalues, bad practices, wrongful types of
behavior, etc.) recognized by individuals or cultures;
and ethics refers to the reflective or disciplined study of
morality, understood in just this way.

29. APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF
MORALITY
Scientific, or Descriptive, Approach There are two major approaches to
the study of morality. The first is scientific, or descriptive. This
approach is most often used in the social sciences and, like ethics,
deals with human behavior and conduct. The emphasis here,
however, is empirical; that is, social scientists observe and collect
data about human behavior and conduct and then draw certain
conclusions. For example, some psychologists, after having
observed many human beings in many situations, have reached the
conclusion that human beings often act in their own self-interest.
This is a descriptive, or scientific, approach to human behavior—the
psychologists have observed how human beings act in many
situations, described what they have observed, and drawn
conclusions. However, they make no value judgments as to what is
morally right or wrong nor do they prescribe how humans ought to
behave.

30. Philosophical Approach
the philosophical approach, and it consists of two parts:
in the interest of others” (altruism), or “Human beings should always
act in the interest of all concerned, self included” (utilitarianism).
These three conclusions are no longer merely descriptions, but
prescriptions; that is, the statements are prescribing how human
beings should behave, not merely describing how they do, in fact,
behave. Another aspect of normative, or prescriptive, ethics is that
it encompasses the making of moral value judgments rather than
just the presentation or description of facts or data. For example,
such statements as “Abortion is immoral” and “Lupe is a morally
good person” may not prescribe anything, but they do involve those
normative moral value judgments that we all make every day of our
lives.