This document discusses digital modulation techniques used in modern mobile communication systems. It explains that digital modulation translates digital data into analog signals and provides advantages over analog transmission like greater noise immunity and easier multiplexing. Key factors that influence the choice of digital modulation scheme are low bit error rates, performance in fading environments, minimum bandwidth usage, and cost-effective implementation. Modulation techniques are evaluated based on their power efficiency and bandwidth efficiency. Power efficiency is defined as preserving signal fidelity at low signal-to-noise ratios, while bandwidth efficiency is utilizing the allocated bandwidth to maximize data throughput.
analog communication system for undergraduate .pdfAlaAwouda
This document provides an outline and introduction to the concepts of analog and digital communication systems. It discusses key topics such as modulation techniques, signal systems, bandwidth, and noise. Modulation techniques covered include amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, phase modulation, amplitude shift keying, frequency shift keying, and phase shift keying. It also discusses pulse code modulation, differential pulse code modulation, delta modulation, and adaptive delta modulation. Production of amplitude modulated signals using a block diagram approach is described.
Modulation is the process of encoding information from a message source for transmission. It involves translating a baseband message signal to a bandpass signal at higher frequencies. Modulation can be done by varying the amplitude, phase, or frequency of a carrier signal based on the message signal. Digital modulation uses a discrete time sequence of symbols to represent bits of information, allowing for robustness and enabling techniques like error correction coding. The choice of digital modulation influences factors like bit error rate, power efficiency, bandwidth occupancy, and performance in fading channels.
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Digital communication viva questions.( 50+)
MCQ of digital communication (50+)
communication systems MCQ. (50+)
communication systems viva questions (50+)
covered topic list:
sampling,quantization,digital,discrete,AM,FM,PM,ASK,FSK,PSK,DM,DPCM,QPSK,ADM,differences,modulation,block diagram,applications,PAM,PWM,PPM,line encoding,polar encoding,bipolar encoding,unipolar encoding,RZ,NRZ,AMI,HDB3,B8ZS
Lecture Notes: EEEC6440315 Communication Systems - Spectral EfficiencyAIMST University
This document discusses methods for improving spectral efficiency in communication systems. It provides information on different modulation techniques and factors that influence spectral efficiency, such as signal-to-noise ratio, bandwidth efficiency, forward error correction, data compression, and MIMO. It also describes how modulation and demodulation are implemented using software-defined radios and digital signal processing. The pursuit of greater spectral efficiency is important given the finite amount of radio spectrum and growing demand for wireless services.
This document discusses analog and digital modulation techniques used in communication systems. It defines key concepts like signals, bandwidth, transmitters, receivers and communication channels. It then explains different types of analog modulation like amplitude modulation, frequency modulation and phase modulation. Next, it covers digital modulation techniques and their advantages over analog techniques like higher noise immunity. The document lists various digital modulation schemes including amplitude shift keying, frequency shift keying, phase shift keying etc and provides a brief overview of each. In less than 3 sentences.
1) Analog to digital conversion involves sampling, quantizing, and encoding an analog signal to represent it as discrete digital values. Pulse code modulation is the most common technique which uses a low pass filter, sampler, and encoder.
2) Digital to analog conversion reconstructs the analog signal from discrete digital values using techniques like amplitude shift keying, frequency shift keying, and phase shift keying that modulate properties of a carrier signal.
3) A wireless sensor network is an ad hoc network of sensors that monitor physical conditions and communicate wirelessly, enabling applications in areas like environmental monitoring and healthcare. Challenges include energy efficiency, security, and coping with node failures.
analog communication system for undergraduate .pdfAlaAwouda
This document provides an outline and introduction to the concepts of analog and digital communication systems. It discusses key topics such as modulation techniques, signal systems, bandwidth, and noise. Modulation techniques covered include amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, phase modulation, amplitude shift keying, frequency shift keying, and phase shift keying. It also discusses pulse code modulation, differential pulse code modulation, delta modulation, and adaptive delta modulation. Production of amplitude modulated signals using a block diagram approach is described.
Modulation is the process of encoding information from a message source for transmission. It involves translating a baseband message signal to a bandpass signal at higher frequencies. Modulation can be done by varying the amplitude, phase, or frequency of a carrier signal based on the message signal. Digital modulation uses a discrete time sequence of symbols to represent bits of information, allowing for robustness and enabling techniques like error correction coding. The choice of digital modulation influences factors like bit error rate, power efficiency, bandwidth occupancy, and performance in fading channels.
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Digital communication viva questions.( 50+)
MCQ of digital communication (50+)
communication systems MCQ. (50+)
communication systems viva questions (50+)
covered topic list:
sampling,quantization,digital,discrete,AM,FM,PM,ASK,FSK,PSK,DM,DPCM,QPSK,ADM,differences,modulation,block diagram,applications,PAM,PWM,PPM,line encoding,polar encoding,bipolar encoding,unipolar encoding,RZ,NRZ,AMI,HDB3,B8ZS
Lecture Notes: EEEC6440315 Communication Systems - Spectral EfficiencyAIMST University
This document discusses methods for improving spectral efficiency in communication systems. It provides information on different modulation techniques and factors that influence spectral efficiency, such as signal-to-noise ratio, bandwidth efficiency, forward error correction, data compression, and MIMO. It also describes how modulation and demodulation are implemented using software-defined radios and digital signal processing. The pursuit of greater spectral efficiency is important given the finite amount of radio spectrum and growing demand for wireless services.
This document discusses analog and digital modulation techniques used in communication systems. It defines key concepts like signals, bandwidth, transmitters, receivers and communication channels. It then explains different types of analog modulation like amplitude modulation, frequency modulation and phase modulation. Next, it covers digital modulation techniques and their advantages over analog techniques like higher noise immunity. The document lists various digital modulation schemes including amplitude shift keying, frequency shift keying, phase shift keying etc and provides a brief overview of each. In less than 3 sentences.
1) Analog to digital conversion involves sampling, quantizing, and encoding an analog signal to represent it as discrete digital values. Pulse code modulation is the most common technique which uses a low pass filter, sampler, and encoder.
2) Digital to analog conversion reconstructs the analog signal from discrete digital values using techniques like amplitude shift keying, frequency shift keying, and phase shift keying that modulate properties of a carrier signal.
3) A wireless sensor network is an ad hoc network of sensors that monitor physical conditions and communicate wirelessly, enabling applications in areas like environmental monitoring and healthcare. Challenges include energy efficiency, security, and coping with node failures.
1. Digital modulation techniques are used to modulate digital information so that it can be transmitted via different mediums. Common digital modulation methods include binary amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), and phase shift keying (PSK).
2. FSK conveys information by changing the instantaneous frequency of a carrier wave. It is less susceptible to errors than ASK but has a larger spectrum bandwidth. PSK varies the phase of the transmitted signal. BPSK uses two phases while QPSK uses four phases.
3. The performance of digital modulation techniques can be compared using the energy per bit to noise power spectral density ratio (Eb/N0). Lower Eb/N0 values
Multiplexing is a technique where multiple users can use the same medium simultaneously with minimal interference. There are four main types of multiplexing: space division, frequency division, time division, and code division.
Time division multiplexing involves all senders using the same frequency but transmitting at different time intervals with guard spaces between transmissions to avoid interference. Precise synchronization is required between users.
Frequency shift keying and phase shift keying are digital modulation techniques used to convert digital data to analog signals for transmission. In frequency shift keying, two different frequencies represent binary 1 and 0, while in phase shift keying a 180 degree phase shift represents a change between 1 and 0.
This document summarizes research on performance analysis of adaptive multi-user OFDM systems. It describes using adaptive modulation to maximize throughput by selecting modulation schemes on a per-subcarrier basis to maintain bit error rate while maximizing spectral efficiency. Adaptive user allocation is also analyzed to improve signal power by optimizing user-subcarrier combinations based on frequency selective fading differences between users. Simulation results show adaptive modulation providing 12-16dB SNR improvement over fixed modulation. Adaptive user allocation provides an additional 3-5dB average signal power gain. The document concludes these adaptive techniques allow OFDM systems to approach channel capacity limits given constraints of the radio channel, transmitter power and quality of service requirements.
This document analyzes the simulation parameters of a pulse shaping FIR filter for WCDMA. It simulates a square root raised cosine pulse shaping filter in MATLAB Simulink with varying group delay parameters. The simulation measures the number of bits, number of errors, and bit error rate at different group delays. It finds that the bit error rate is minimized at a group delay of 6 symbol periods. The optimal values found are a group delay of 6 and a roll off factor of 0.22.
This document summarizes various techniques for encoding digital and analog signals. It discusses encoding digital data into digital signals using techniques like NRZ-L, Manchester encoding, and differential Manchester encoding. It also covers converting analog data to digital signals using pulse code modulation and delta modulation. Additionally, it describes modulating digital and analog data onto analog carriers using techniques like amplitude shift keying, frequency shift keying, and phase shift keying.
Computer Communication & Computer Networking Module 1 , 2 Notes.pdfnavikvel
This document discusses various digital transmission techniques. It begins by explaining how data is converted from analog to digital form for computer use. It then covers different digital-to-digital and analog-to-digital conversion encoding schemes such as unipolar, polar, bipolar and PCM. It also discusses digital-to-analog conversion techniques like ASK, FSK and PSK. The document concludes by summarizing bandwidth utilization methods like multiplexing, spreading and different switching techniques including circuit, message and packet switching.
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM)
[1] is a method of encoding digital data on multiple carrier
frequencies. OFDM[1] has developed into a popular scheme
for wideband digital communication, whether wireless or
over copper wires, used in applications such as digital television
and audio broadcasting, DSL Internet access, wireless networks,
powerline networks, and 4G mobile communications. In the
Several wireless standards such as IEEE 802.11a[2] and
HiperLAN2[3].The orthogonality of the subcarriers is no longer
maintained which results in ICI (Inter carrier Interference)[4]
.ICI reduction techniques achieve a better SNR and BER in
OFDM at zero phase noise variance . This technique will use a
large number of closely spaced orthogonal subcarriers to avoid
phase noise. It provides high data rates with sufficient robustness
to radio channel damages. A major problem in OFDM is carrier
frequency offset error between the transmitted and received
signals. Due to this the orthogonality of the subcarriers is no
longer maintained which results in ICI (Inter carrier
Interference). In this paper, we used the ICI self-cancellation
technique and reduced the ICI and improved the BER and SNR
we are also calculate the SNR=15db and 20db at different phase
noise variance.
Analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) is an electronic process in which a continuously variable, or analog, the signal is changed into a multilevel digital signal without altering its essential content.
This document discusses various techniques for encoding digital signals for transmission, including:
1) Non-return-to-zero (NRZ) encoding schemes which use different voltage levels to represent 1s and 0s without returning to a baseline between bits.
2) Manchester and differential Manchester encoding which add transitions in the middle or start of each bit to provide clocking functionality.
3) Phase-shift keying (PSK) and quadrature PSK (QPSK) which represent data by shifting the phase of the carrier signal.
4) Amplitude-shift keying (ASK), frequency-shift keying (FSK), and quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) which are used to transmit
Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a digital modulation technique that encodes data by manipulating the phase of a carrier wave. In PSK, the phase of the carrier is shifted by 0 or 180 degrees for binary digits 0 and 1. The two most common PSK types are BPSK, which uses two phases separated by 180 degrees, and QPSK, which uses four phases separated by 90 degrees to encode two bits per symbol. PSK has advantages like power efficiency and bandwidth efficiency compared to other modulation techniques. It is used in wireless networks and RFID standards. MATLAB can be used to simulate and demodulate PSK signals.
Investigation and Analysis of SNR Estimation in OFDM systemIOSR Journals
Estimation of signal to noise ratio (SNR) of received signal and to transmit the signal effectively for
the modern communication system. The performance of existing non-data-aided (NDA) SNR estimation methods
are substantially degraded for high level modulation scheme such as M-ary amplitude and phase shift keying
(APSK) or quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM).In this paper SNR estimation proposed method which uses
zero point auto-correlation of received signal per block and auto/cross- correlation of decision feedback signal
in orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) system. Proposed method can be studied into two types;
Type 1 can estimate SNR by zero point auto-correlation of decision feedback signal based on the second
moment property. Type 2 uses both zero point auto-correlation and cross-correlation based on the fourth
moment property. In block-by-block reception of OFDM system, these two SNR estimation methods can be
possible for the practical implementation due to correlation based the estimation method and they show more
stable estimation performance than the earlier SNR estimation methods.
This document contains a summary of key concepts in digital communication. It discusses digital communication, quantizing, encoding, advantages and disadvantages of digital communication, basic signal processing operations, common channels used, telephone channel specifications, adaptive equalization, waveform coding techniques including pulse modulation, analog pulse modulation types, digital pulse modulation types like PCM and DM, sampling, quantizing, uniform and non-uniform quantization, companding, applications of PCM, advantages and disadvantages of delta modulation and DPCM, and an introduction to digital modulation techniques.
This document discusses the design considerations for analog circuits that process signals before they are digitized for further digital signal processing. It compares all-analog systems to hybrid analog-digital systems. Key factors for digitized systems are noise floor, quantization noise, jitter, resolution, dynamic range, and bandwidth. Real-world signals can have a wide range of amplitudes, from thermal noise up to nearby strong signals. Maximizing dynamic range is challenging and requires techniques like filtering, high-linearity components, and gain/attenuation control. Practical digital radio designs will continue to rely on downconversion and other established analog methods to meet performance needs until ADC technology improves.
This document discusses the design considerations for analog circuits that process signals before they are digitized for further digital signal processing. It compares all-analog systems to hybrid analog-digital systems. Key factors for digitized systems are noise floor, quantization noise, jitter, resolution, dynamic range, and bandwidth. Real-world signals can have a wide range of amplitudes, from thermal noise up to nearby strong signals. Maximizing dynamic range is challenging and requires techniques like filtering, high-linearity components, and gain/attenuation control. Practical digital radio designs will continue to rely on downconversion and other established analog methods to meet performance needs until ADC technology improves.
This document summarizes various techniques for encoding digital and analog signals for transmission, including:
1) Digital signals can be encoded using NRZ-L, NRZ-I, Manchester, and differential Manchester encoding. Encoding schemes involve representing bits as voltage levels or transitions.
2) Analog signals can be digitized using PCM or delta modulation before transmission. PCM involves sampling and quantizing an analog signal into digital pulses.
3) Analog signals can also be modulated by varying the amplitude, frequency, or phase of a carrier signal before transmission. This allows for techniques like frequency division multiplexing.
Modulation is the process of varying the characteristics of a high-frequency carrier wave in order to transmit a message signal or information signal. There are two main types of modulation: analog and digital. Analog modulation varies amplitude, frequency, or phase of the carrier wave based on the message signal. Common analog modulation techniques are amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM). Digital modulation maps discrete messages to discrete variations in one or more properties of the carrier wave. Common digital modulation techniques are amplitude-shift keying (ASK), frequency-shift keying (FSK), phase-shift keying (PSK), and minimum-shift keying (MSK). Modulation is necessary for communication systems in order
Simulation of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum for Wireless Communication Syst...ijtsrd
In this work, a simulation model for Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) scheme for wireless communication systems has been proposed. Unlike the case of a single frequency carrier, the modulated signal in DSSS occupies a much wider bandwidth in order to reduce the possible interferences with narrow band communication signals. In telecommunications, DSSS is a spread spectrum modulation technique used to reduce overall signal interference. The spreading of this signal makes the resulting wideband channel more noisy, allowing for greater resistance to unintentional and intentional interference. Y.V.S Durga Prasad | K. Venkateswarlu"Simulation of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum for Wireless Communication Systems using Simulink" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-4 , June 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd14118.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electronics-and-communication-engineering/14118/simulation-of-direct-sequence-spread-spectrum-for-wireless-communication-systems-using-simulink/yvs-durga-prasad
Digital modulation techniques allow for more efficient transmission of digital data by varying certain properties of the carrier signal, such as amplitude, frequency, or phase, based on the digital bit stream. There are tradeoffs between bandwidth efficiency, power efficiency, and implementation complexity for different modulation schemes. Common digital modulation techniques include amplitude-shift keying (ASK), frequency-shift keying (FSK), phase-shift keying (PSK), and quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), with higher-order schemes transmitting more than one bit per symbol. Performance metrics like bit error rate (BER) are used to evaluate and compare modulation techniques.
what is modulation and types of it, amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, Phase modulation, Digital to Analog , Analog to Digital, Amplitude Shift Keying, Frequency Shift Keying, Phase Shift Keying
This document provides an overview of noise in amplitude modulation systems. It discusses the noise calculation and signal-to-noise ratio for various AM systems, including double sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC), single sideband suppressed carrier (SSB-SC), and AM with envelope detection. It describes the components and operation of a basic AM receiver, including RF amplification, mixing, intermediate frequency filtering and amplification, and demodulation. It also explains the advantages of the superheterodyne receiver principle for gain, filtering, and multiplexing of different carrier frequencies.
This document provides information about the course "ANALOG COMMUNICATION" including the course code, instructor details, course contents which are divided into 5 units covering topics like introduction to communication systems, amplitude modulation, angle modulation, transmitters and receivers, and noise in analog communication. It lists the textbooks recommended for different units. One of the units is about noise in analog communication which is further divided into two parts - part 1 covering topics like introduction to noise, sources of noise (external and internal), classification of noise, thermal noise calculations, signal to noise ratio, noise figure and cascaded amplifiers etc.
1. Digital modulation techniques are used to modulate digital information so that it can be transmitted via different mediums. Common digital modulation methods include binary amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), and phase shift keying (PSK).
2. FSK conveys information by changing the instantaneous frequency of a carrier wave. It is less susceptible to errors than ASK but has a larger spectrum bandwidth. PSK varies the phase of the transmitted signal. BPSK uses two phases while QPSK uses four phases.
3. The performance of digital modulation techniques can be compared using the energy per bit to noise power spectral density ratio (Eb/N0). Lower Eb/N0 values
Multiplexing is a technique where multiple users can use the same medium simultaneously with minimal interference. There are four main types of multiplexing: space division, frequency division, time division, and code division.
Time division multiplexing involves all senders using the same frequency but transmitting at different time intervals with guard spaces between transmissions to avoid interference. Precise synchronization is required between users.
Frequency shift keying and phase shift keying are digital modulation techniques used to convert digital data to analog signals for transmission. In frequency shift keying, two different frequencies represent binary 1 and 0, while in phase shift keying a 180 degree phase shift represents a change between 1 and 0.
This document summarizes research on performance analysis of adaptive multi-user OFDM systems. It describes using adaptive modulation to maximize throughput by selecting modulation schemes on a per-subcarrier basis to maintain bit error rate while maximizing spectral efficiency. Adaptive user allocation is also analyzed to improve signal power by optimizing user-subcarrier combinations based on frequency selective fading differences between users. Simulation results show adaptive modulation providing 12-16dB SNR improvement over fixed modulation. Adaptive user allocation provides an additional 3-5dB average signal power gain. The document concludes these adaptive techniques allow OFDM systems to approach channel capacity limits given constraints of the radio channel, transmitter power and quality of service requirements.
This document analyzes the simulation parameters of a pulse shaping FIR filter for WCDMA. It simulates a square root raised cosine pulse shaping filter in MATLAB Simulink with varying group delay parameters. The simulation measures the number of bits, number of errors, and bit error rate at different group delays. It finds that the bit error rate is minimized at a group delay of 6 symbol periods. The optimal values found are a group delay of 6 and a roll off factor of 0.22.
This document summarizes various techniques for encoding digital and analog signals. It discusses encoding digital data into digital signals using techniques like NRZ-L, Manchester encoding, and differential Manchester encoding. It also covers converting analog data to digital signals using pulse code modulation and delta modulation. Additionally, it describes modulating digital and analog data onto analog carriers using techniques like amplitude shift keying, frequency shift keying, and phase shift keying.
Computer Communication & Computer Networking Module 1 , 2 Notes.pdfnavikvel
This document discusses various digital transmission techniques. It begins by explaining how data is converted from analog to digital form for computer use. It then covers different digital-to-digital and analog-to-digital conversion encoding schemes such as unipolar, polar, bipolar and PCM. It also discusses digital-to-analog conversion techniques like ASK, FSK and PSK. The document concludes by summarizing bandwidth utilization methods like multiplexing, spreading and different switching techniques including circuit, message and packet switching.
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM)
[1] is a method of encoding digital data on multiple carrier
frequencies. OFDM[1] has developed into a popular scheme
for wideband digital communication, whether wireless or
over copper wires, used in applications such as digital television
and audio broadcasting, DSL Internet access, wireless networks,
powerline networks, and 4G mobile communications. In the
Several wireless standards such as IEEE 802.11a[2] and
HiperLAN2[3].The orthogonality of the subcarriers is no longer
maintained which results in ICI (Inter carrier Interference)[4]
.ICI reduction techniques achieve a better SNR and BER in
OFDM at zero phase noise variance . This technique will use a
large number of closely spaced orthogonal subcarriers to avoid
phase noise. It provides high data rates with sufficient robustness
to radio channel damages. A major problem in OFDM is carrier
frequency offset error between the transmitted and received
signals. Due to this the orthogonality of the subcarriers is no
longer maintained which results in ICI (Inter carrier
Interference). In this paper, we used the ICI self-cancellation
technique and reduced the ICI and improved the BER and SNR
we are also calculate the SNR=15db and 20db at different phase
noise variance.
Analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) is an electronic process in which a continuously variable, or analog, the signal is changed into a multilevel digital signal without altering its essential content.
This document discusses various techniques for encoding digital signals for transmission, including:
1) Non-return-to-zero (NRZ) encoding schemes which use different voltage levels to represent 1s and 0s without returning to a baseline between bits.
2) Manchester and differential Manchester encoding which add transitions in the middle or start of each bit to provide clocking functionality.
3) Phase-shift keying (PSK) and quadrature PSK (QPSK) which represent data by shifting the phase of the carrier signal.
4) Amplitude-shift keying (ASK), frequency-shift keying (FSK), and quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) which are used to transmit
Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a digital modulation technique that encodes data by manipulating the phase of a carrier wave. In PSK, the phase of the carrier is shifted by 0 or 180 degrees for binary digits 0 and 1. The two most common PSK types are BPSK, which uses two phases separated by 180 degrees, and QPSK, which uses four phases separated by 90 degrees to encode two bits per symbol. PSK has advantages like power efficiency and bandwidth efficiency compared to other modulation techniques. It is used in wireless networks and RFID standards. MATLAB can be used to simulate and demodulate PSK signals.
Investigation and Analysis of SNR Estimation in OFDM systemIOSR Journals
Estimation of signal to noise ratio (SNR) of received signal and to transmit the signal effectively for
the modern communication system. The performance of existing non-data-aided (NDA) SNR estimation methods
are substantially degraded for high level modulation scheme such as M-ary amplitude and phase shift keying
(APSK) or quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM).In this paper SNR estimation proposed method which uses
zero point auto-correlation of received signal per block and auto/cross- correlation of decision feedback signal
in orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) system. Proposed method can be studied into two types;
Type 1 can estimate SNR by zero point auto-correlation of decision feedback signal based on the second
moment property. Type 2 uses both zero point auto-correlation and cross-correlation based on the fourth
moment property. In block-by-block reception of OFDM system, these two SNR estimation methods can be
possible for the practical implementation due to correlation based the estimation method and they show more
stable estimation performance than the earlier SNR estimation methods.
This document contains a summary of key concepts in digital communication. It discusses digital communication, quantizing, encoding, advantages and disadvantages of digital communication, basic signal processing operations, common channels used, telephone channel specifications, adaptive equalization, waveform coding techniques including pulse modulation, analog pulse modulation types, digital pulse modulation types like PCM and DM, sampling, quantizing, uniform and non-uniform quantization, companding, applications of PCM, advantages and disadvantages of delta modulation and DPCM, and an introduction to digital modulation techniques.
This document discusses the design considerations for analog circuits that process signals before they are digitized for further digital signal processing. It compares all-analog systems to hybrid analog-digital systems. Key factors for digitized systems are noise floor, quantization noise, jitter, resolution, dynamic range, and bandwidth. Real-world signals can have a wide range of amplitudes, from thermal noise up to nearby strong signals. Maximizing dynamic range is challenging and requires techniques like filtering, high-linearity components, and gain/attenuation control. Practical digital radio designs will continue to rely on downconversion and other established analog methods to meet performance needs until ADC technology improves.
This document discusses the design considerations for analog circuits that process signals before they are digitized for further digital signal processing. It compares all-analog systems to hybrid analog-digital systems. Key factors for digitized systems are noise floor, quantization noise, jitter, resolution, dynamic range, and bandwidth. Real-world signals can have a wide range of amplitudes, from thermal noise up to nearby strong signals. Maximizing dynamic range is challenging and requires techniques like filtering, high-linearity components, and gain/attenuation control. Practical digital radio designs will continue to rely on downconversion and other established analog methods to meet performance needs until ADC technology improves.
This document summarizes various techniques for encoding digital and analog signals for transmission, including:
1) Digital signals can be encoded using NRZ-L, NRZ-I, Manchester, and differential Manchester encoding. Encoding schemes involve representing bits as voltage levels or transitions.
2) Analog signals can be digitized using PCM or delta modulation before transmission. PCM involves sampling and quantizing an analog signal into digital pulses.
3) Analog signals can also be modulated by varying the amplitude, frequency, or phase of a carrier signal before transmission. This allows for techniques like frequency division multiplexing.
Modulation is the process of varying the characteristics of a high-frequency carrier wave in order to transmit a message signal or information signal. There are two main types of modulation: analog and digital. Analog modulation varies amplitude, frequency, or phase of the carrier wave based on the message signal. Common analog modulation techniques are amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM). Digital modulation maps discrete messages to discrete variations in one or more properties of the carrier wave. Common digital modulation techniques are amplitude-shift keying (ASK), frequency-shift keying (FSK), phase-shift keying (PSK), and minimum-shift keying (MSK). Modulation is necessary for communication systems in order
Simulation of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum for Wireless Communication Syst...ijtsrd
In this work, a simulation model for Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) scheme for wireless communication systems has been proposed. Unlike the case of a single frequency carrier, the modulated signal in DSSS occupies a much wider bandwidth in order to reduce the possible interferences with narrow band communication signals. In telecommunications, DSSS is a spread spectrum modulation technique used to reduce overall signal interference. The spreading of this signal makes the resulting wideband channel more noisy, allowing for greater resistance to unintentional and intentional interference. Y.V.S Durga Prasad | K. Venkateswarlu"Simulation of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum for Wireless Communication Systems using Simulink" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-4 , June 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd14118.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electronics-and-communication-engineering/14118/simulation-of-direct-sequence-spread-spectrum-for-wireless-communication-systems-using-simulink/yvs-durga-prasad
Digital modulation techniques allow for more efficient transmission of digital data by varying certain properties of the carrier signal, such as amplitude, frequency, or phase, based on the digital bit stream. There are tradeoffs between bandwidth efficiency, power efficiency, and implementation complexity for different modulation schemes. Common digital modulation techniques include amplitude-shift keying (ASK), frequency-shift keying (FSK), phase-shift keying (PSK), and quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), with higher-order schemes transmitting more than one bit per symbol. Performance metrics like bit error rate (BER) are used to evaluate and compare modulation techniques.
what is modulation and types of it, amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, Phase modulation, Digital to Analog , Analog to Digital, Amplitude Shift Keying, Frequency Shift Keying, Phase Shift Keying
Similar to Modulation_techniques4th unit.pptx (20)
This document provides an overview of noise in amplitude modulation systems. It discusses the noise calculation and signal-to-noise ratio for various AM systems, including double sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC), single sideband suppressed carrier (SSB-SC), and AM with envelope detection. It describes the components and operation of a basic AM receiver, including RF amplification, mixing, intermediate frequency filtering and amplification, and demodulation. It also explains the advantages of the superheterodyne receiver principle for gain, filtering, and multiplexing of different carrier frequencies.
This document provides information about the course "ANALOG COMMUNICATION" including the course code, instructor details, course contents which are divided into 5 units covering topics like introduction to communication systems, amplitude modulation, angle modulation, transmitters and receivers, and noise in analog communication. It lists the textbooks recommended for different units. One of the units is about noise in analog communication which is further divided into two parts - part 1 covering topics like introduction to noise, sources of noise (external and internal), classification of noise, thermal noise calculations, signal to noise ratio, noise figure and cascaded amplifiers etc.
This document describes the contents of a course on digital system design. The course covers topics like Boolean algebra, minimization techniques, combinational and sequential circuits, and finite state machines. It lists the course code, instructor details, textbook references, and outlines the topics to be covered in each of the 5 units of the course. These include Boolean algebra, minimization techniques like Karnaugh maps, combinational circuits, sequential circuits, and digital logic families.
This document provides an overview of a digital system design course, including its units and textbooks. The first unit covers Boolean algebra and minimization techniques. Boolean algebra is defined using variables that can have two values, like true/false or 1/0 in digital systems. Boolean functions use operators like AND, OR, and NOT to manipulate variables. Truth tables and identities like De Morgan's law are discussed. Common logic gates like AND, OR, NOT, NAND, and NOR are also introduced, which implement Boolean functions in digital circuits.
This document provides information about the Digital System Design course offered at Government Engineering College Raipur. The course code is B000313(028) and it is a 4 credit course taught over 3 lectures and 1 tutorial per week. The course aims to teach students to design, analyze, and interpret combinational and sequential circuits. It covers topics like Boolean algebra, minimization techniques, combinational circuits, sequential circuits, and digital logic families. The document lists 5 expected learning outcomes and provides a brief overview of the topics to be covered in each of the 5 units. It also mentions the relevant textbooks.
Introduction to communication system part 2Unit-I Part 2.pptxAshishChandrakar12
This document contains information about a course on communication systems including:
1) The course contains 5 units covering topics like introduction to communication systems, amplitude modulation, angle modulation, transmitters and receivers, and noise in analog communication.
2) Textbook references are provided for each unit from authors like Taub and Schilling, George F Kennedy, Simon Haykin, and R P Singh.
3) Additional reference books are also listed including works by Proakis and B.P. Lathi.
4) Unit 1 is further described covering topics like classification of signals, Fourier transforms, signal bandwidth, distortionless transmission, Parseval's theorem, and introduction to convolution and correlation of signals.
5
Introduction of communication system_Unit-I Part 2.pptxAshishChandrakar12
This document discusses various types of signals that are commonly used in communication systems. It covers topics such as:
1) Signals can be classified based on properties like continuity, amplitude quantization, periodicity, causality, symmetry, and length. Common types include continuous-time/discrete-time, analog/digital, periodic/aperiodic, causal/non-causal, even/odd, and finite/infinite length signals.
2) Operations like time-shifting, scaling, and inversion are useful for analyzing and manipulating signals.
3) Key concepts for characterizing signal strength include energy, power, and norms. Energy signals have finite energy while power signals have finite non-zero power
This document discusses various propagation models used in wireless communications. It begins by introducing the free space propagation model and 2-ray ground reflection model. It then describes the key propagation mechanisms of reflection, diffraction, and scattering. Reflection from smooth surfaces and conductors is explained. Fresnel zone geometry and knife edge diffraction models are used to analyze diffraction. Buildings can help diffraction by providing some gain, with the amount of diffracted energy dependent on factors like height and frequency. Propagation effects must be considered for accurate wireless system design and performance prediction.
The document discusses key elements of wireless communication systems including base stations, control channels, forward and reverse channels, handoff, mobile stations, and more. It then provides details on how cellular telephone systems work including dividing geographic regions into cells and reusing frequencies/channels at different cell locations to maximize capacity. Key aspects covered include mobile stations communicating with base stations, the mobile switching center coordinating calls between cells, and the use of handoff to allow calls to continue seamlessly when users move between cells.
This document provides an overview of wireless communications. It begins by defining wireless communication as transmitting and receiving voice and data using electromagnetic waves without physical connections. It then discusses the advantages of wireless communication such as mobility and lower installation costs compared to wired systems. The document outlines several challenges in wireless communications including efficient hardware, spectrum usage, and maintaining quality of service over unreliable links. It also describes different multiple access techniques used in wireless systems such as FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA to allow sharing of limited radio spectrum among users. Common existing wireless systems like cellular networks, Bluetooth, and WiFi are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
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3. Digital modulation
In modern mobile communication digital modulation is used.
Advancements in VLSI and DSP have made digital modulation techniques more
cost efficient and more useful than analog transmission systems
Advantages
Greater noise immunity as compared to analog,
Easier multiplexing of information, (voice, data and video)
It can accommodate digital transmission errors, source coding, encryption and
equalization.
Digital signal processors can implement digital modulators, demodulators
completely in software.
4. Factors influencing the choice of digital
modulation
A desirable modulation scheme provides
low bit error at low signal to noise ratio.
Efficient design of modulation techniques guarantee immunity or at least better
performance in terms of low SNRs.
digital modulation techniques perform well in multipath fading environments.
It occupies a minimum bandwidth.
Easy and cost effective implementation with the advent of DSPs but all of these
effects cannot be achieved simultaneously so it allows for a tradeoff.
5. Power & BW efficiency
Power efficiency is defined as the ability to preserve the fidelity of digital
message over low level SNRs
7. Bandwidth of digital signals
The absolute bandwidth is a range of frequencies over which the PSD is non-zero
Null to null bandwidth- It is the width of the main spectral lobe
Half power bandwidth also known as a 3 dB bandwidth- It is defined as an interval
between the frequencies at which the power spectral density drops to half power or
minus 3 dB below the peak value
8. Line Coding
Line coding will ensure that there is enough flips between zero’s and one’s or enough
changes so that the synchronization can be maintained.
Line coding is also important for wireless communication. Line codes are used to
provide particular spectral characteristic of a pulse train
Some of the commonly used line codes are as follows;
Return to zero or RZ- implies that the pulse returns to zero within every bit period,
Non-return to zero or NRZ, implies that the pulse do not return to zero in a bit duration.
Manchester code is the special type of NRZ, it uses two pulses to represent each binary
symbol, Manchester code will ensure no matter how long is the chain of one’s or zero’s,
there will always be transition. Hence we can recover back the carrier or can recover
back the synchronization at the receiver.
10. Properties of Line Coding
Transmission bandwidth should be as small as possible.
Power efficiency for a given bandwidth and a specified detection error probability
should be as small as possible.
Error detection and error correction capability, it should be possible to detect and
preferably correct detection errors.
Favorable power spectral density desirable to have a zero power spectral density at zero
frequency.
Adequate timing content it should be possible to extract exact timing or clock
information. So it’s important for the clock recovery to maintain synchronization
between the transmitter and receiver.
Transparency: should be possible to transmit a digital signal correctly regardless of the
patterns of one’s and zero’s.
11. Pulse Shaping Techniques
When rectangular pulses are passed through a bandlimited channel, the pulses will spread in time,
and the pulse for each symbol will smear into the time intervals of succeeding symbols. This causes
intersymbol interference (ISI) and leads to an increased probability of the receiver making an error
in detecting a symbol.
One obvious way to minimize inter-symbol interference is to increase the channel bandwidth.
However, mobile communication systems operate with minimal bandwidth, and techniques that
reduce the modulation bandwidth and suppress out-of-band radiation, while reducing intersymbol
interference, are highly desirable.
Out-of-band radiation in the adjacent channel in a mobile radio system should generally be 40 dB to
80 dB below that in the desired passband. Since it is difficult to directly manipulate the transmitter
spectrum at RF frequencies, spectral shaping is done through baseband or IF processing.
pulse shaping techniques are used to simultaneously reduce the intersymbol effects and the spectral
width of a modulated digital signal.
12. Nyquist criteria for ISI cancellation
The effect of ISI could be completely nullified if the overall response of the communication
system (including transmitter, channel, and receiver) is designed so that at every sampling
instant at the receiver, the response due to all symbols except the current symbol is equal to
zero
If heff(t) is the impulse response of the overall communication system, this condition can be
mathematically stated
where Ts is the symbol period, n is an integer, and K is a non-zero constant.
13. Types of Digital modulation
linear, non-linear spread spectrum
bandwidth efficient, Higher BW but high
immunity against random
FM noise
Inefficient for single users
but efficient for multi-users
useful for accommodating
more users in a limited
spectrum.
FSK, GMSK Gaussian
minimum shift key and
MFSK.
transmission bandwidth is
much greater than the
minimum required signal
bandwidth.
The popular methods are
QPSK, OQPSK,
π
4
QPSK
the amplitude of the
transmitted signal S (t)
varies linearly with the
message signal m (t),
amplitude of the carrier is
constant
14. Digital modulation
Digital data(0 and 1) is translated into an analog signal( baseband signal)
It is required if digital data has to be transmitted over a medium that allows only analog transmission.
In wireless n/w, digital transmission cannot be used, and binary bit stream has to be translated into an analog
signal first. e.g ASK, FSK, PSK
Apart from the translation of digital data into analog signals, wireless transmission requires an additional
modulation, an analog modulation that shifts the center frequency of the baseband signal generated by the
digital modulation up to the radio carrier. For example, digital modulation translates a 1 Mbit/s bit-stream
into a baseband signal with a bandwidth of 1 MHz. There are several reasons why this baseband signal
cannot be directly transmitted in a wireless system:
Antenna size
Frequency division multiplexing: Using only baseband transmission, FDM could not be applied. Analog modulation
shifts the baseband signals to different carrier frequencies. The higher the carrier frequency, the more bandwidth that
is available for many baseband signals
Medium characteristics: Path-loss, penetration of obstacles, reflection,scattering, and diffraction – all the effects
depend heavily on the wavelength of the signal. Depending on the application, the right carrier frequency with the
desired characteristics has to be chosen: long waves for submarines, short waves for handheld devices, very short
waves for directed microwave transmission etc.
15. Modulation & Demodulation
The first step is the digital modulation of data into the analog baseband signal. The analog modulation then
shifts the center frequency of the analog signal up to the radio carrier. This signal is then transmitted via the
antenna
The receiver receives the analog radio signal via its antenna and demodulates the signal into the analog
baseband signal with the help of the known carrier. For digital data, another step is needed. Bits or frames have
to be detected, i.e., the receiver must synchronize with the sender. How synchronization is achieved, depends on
the digital modulation scheme. After synchronization, the receiver has to decide if the signal represents a digital
1 or a 0, reconstructing the original data.
16. Factors influencing choice of digital modulation
A desirable modulation scheme provides low bit error rates at low received signal-to noise ratios,
performs well in multipath and fading conditions, occupies a minimum of bandwidth, and is easy
and cost-effective to implement.
Some modulation schemes are better in terms of the bit error rate performance, while others are
better in terms of bandwidth efficiency. Depending on the demands of the particular application,
trade-offs are made when selecting a digital modulation.
Performance of a modulation scheme is measured in terms of its power efficiency ɳ𝑝 &
bandwidth efficiency ɳ𝐵
ɳ𝑝 is the ability of a modulation technique to preserve the fidelity of the digital message at low
power levels.
In order to increase noise immunity, it is necessary to increase the signal power. However, the
amount by which the signal power should be increased to obtain a certain level of fidelity
(i.e., an acceptable bit error probability) depends on the particular type of modulation
employed. The power efficiency, ɳp (sometimes called energy efficiency) of a digital
modulation scheme is a measure of how favorably this tradeoff between fidelity and signal
power is made, and is often expressed as the ratio of the signal energy per bit to noise power
spectral density (Eb/No) required at the receiver input for a certain probability of error.
17. ɳ𝐵 is the ability of a modulation scheme to accommodate data within a limited
bandwidth.
↑sing the data rate implies ↓sing the pulse width of a digital symbol. which
increases the bandwidth of the signal. Thus, there is an unavoidable relationship
between data rate & bandwidth occupancy.
ɳ𝐵reflects how efficiently the allocated bandwidth is utilized and is defined as the
ratio of the throughput data rate per Hertz in a given bandwidth. If R is the data
rate in bits per second, and B is the bandwidth occupied by the modulated RF
signal, then
ɳ𝐵=
𝑅
𝐵
The system capacity of a digital mobile communication system is directly related
to the bandwidth efficiency of the modulation scheme, since a modulation with a
greater value of ɳ𝐵 will transmit more data in a given spectrum allocation.
18. There is a fundamental upper bound on achievable bandwidth efficiency.
Shannon's channel coding theorem states that for an arbitrarily small probability of error, the
maximum possible bandwidth efficiency is limited by the noise in the channel, and is given by the
channel capacity formula
𝐶 = 𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑔2 1 + 𝑆𝑁𝑅 , where C is the channel capacity (in bps), B is the RF bandwidth, and S/N
is signal to noise ratio.
In the design of a digital communication system, very often there is a tradeoff between bandwidth
efficiency and power efficiency
For example, adding error control coding to a message increases the bandwidth occupancy (and
this, in turn, reduces the bandwidth efficiency), but at the same time reduces the required received
power for a particular bit error rate, and hence trades bandwidth efficiency for power efficiency
On the other hand, higher level modulation schemes (M-ary keying) decrease bandwidth
occupancy (increases bandwidth efficiency) but increase the required received power, and hence
trade power efficiency for bandwidth efficiency.
19. Amplitude Shift Keying
The two binary values, 1 and 0, are represented by two different amplitudes. This simple scheme
only requires low bandwidth, but is very susceptible to interference. Effects like multi-path
propagation, noise, or path loss heavily influence the amplitude. In a wireless environment, a
constant amplitude cannot be guaranteed, so ASK is typically not used for wireless radio
transmission.
However, the wired transmission scheme with the highest performance, namely optical
transmission, uses ASK. Here, a light pulse may represent a 1, while the absence of light
represents a 0. The carrier frequency in optical systems is some hundred THz. ASK can also be
applied to wireless infra red transmission, using a directed beam or diffuse light.
20. Linear Modulation Techniques
In linear modulation techniques, the amplitude of the transmitted signal, s(t), varies linearly with the
modulatng digital signal, m(t).
They are bandwidth efficient and hence are very attractive for use in wireless communication systems where
there is an increasing demand to accommodate more and more users within a limited spectrum.
In a linear modulation scheme, the transmitted signal s (t) can be expressed as [s(t) = Re [Am (t) exp
(j2πfct}
= A [mR (t) cos (2πfct)— mI (t) sin (2πfct)]
where A is the amplitude, fc is the carrier frequency, and m(t) = mR (t) + j mI (t) is a complex envelope
representation of the modulated signal
the amplitude of the carrier varies linearly with the modulating signal.
do not have a constant envelope. As shown subsequently, some nonlinear modulations may have either linear
or constant carrier envelopes, depending on whether or not the baseband waveform is pulse shaped.
While linear modulation schemes have very good spectral efficiency, they must be transmitted using linear
RF amplifiers which have poor power efficiency.
Using power efficient nonlinear amplifiers leads to the regeneration of filtered sidelobes which can cause
severe adjacent channel interference, and results in the loss of all the spectral efficiency gained by linear
modulation.
21. Phase Shift Keying
PSK uses shifts in the phase of a signal to represent data. Fig. shows a phase shift of
180° or π as the 0 follows the 1 (the same happens as the 1 follows the 0). This
simple scheme, shifting the phase by 180° each time the value of data changes, is
also called binary PSK (BPSK).
To receive the signal correctly, the receiver must synchronize in frequency and phase
with the transmitter. This can be done using a phase lock loop (PLL).
Compared to FSK, PSK is more resistant to interference, but receiver and transmitter
are also more complex
22.
23. QPSK
Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) has twice the bandwidth efficiency of BPSK, since 2 bits are
transmitted in a single modulation symbol. The phase of the carrier takes on 1 of 4 equally spaced
values, such as 0, π/2, π,and 3π/2, where each value of phase corresponds to a unique pair of
message bits. The QPSK signal for this set of symbol states may be defined as
where Ts is the symbol duration and is equal to twice the bit period.
Using trigonometric identities, the above equations can be rewritten for the interval 0≤ 𝑡 ≤ Ts
as
24. QPSK
The bit error probability of QPSK is identical to BPSK, but twice as much data can be sent in the same
bandwidth. Thus when compared to BPSK, QPSK provides twice the spectral efficiency with exactly
the same energy efficiency.
The amplitude of a QPSK signal is ideally constant. However, when QPSK signals are pulse shaped,
they lose the constant envelope property. The occasional phase shift of π radians can cause the signal
envelope to pass through zero for just an instant. Any kind of hardlimiting or nonlinear amplification
of the zero-crossings brings back the filtered sidelobes since the fidelity of the signal at small voltage
levels is lost in transmission.
To prevent the regeneration of sidelobes and spectral widening, it is imperative that QPSK signals be
amplified only using linear amplifiers, which are less efficient. A modified form of QPSK, called
offset QPSK (OQPSK) or staggered QPSK is less susceptible to these deleterious effects and supports
more efficient amplification.
25. Quadrature PSK
The QPSK system discussed is called offset or staggered QPSK
abbreviated OQPSK. Phase change only by 900. In non-offset
QPSK there is an additional D-FF in one line of Fig. 6.10, thus
even-odd could be same time, phase change could be 1800.
27. Offset QPSK
OQPSK signaling is similar to QPSK signaling, except for the time alignment of the even and odd bit
streams. In QPSK, the bit transitions of mI (t) and mq(t) occur at the same time instants, but in OQPSK
signaling, mI (t) and mq(t)are offset in their relative alignment by one bit period (half-symbol period).
Due to the time alignment of mI (t) and mq (t) in standard QPSK, phase transitions occur only once every Ts
= 2Tb s, and will be a maximum of 180o if there is a change in the value of both mI (t) and mQ (t) . In
OQPSK, bit transitions (and hence phase transitions) occur every Tb s. Since the transitions instants of mI (t)
and mQ (t) are offset, at any given time only one of the two bit streams can change values. Hence the
maximum phase shift of the transmitted signal at any given time is limited to ±90°. Hence, by switching
phases more frequently (i.e., every Tb s instead of 2Tb s) OQPSK signaling eliminates 180° phase
transitions.
28. Constant envelope modulation
The constant envelope family of modulations has the advantage of satisfying a number of
conditions
Power efficient Class C amplifiers can be used without introducing degradation in the
spectrum occupancy of the transmitted signal.
Low out-of-band radiation of the order of -60 dB to -70 dB can be achieved.
Limiter-discriminator detection can be used, which simplifies receiver design and provides
high immunity against random FM noise and signal fluctuations due to Rayleigh fading.
While constant envelope modulations have many advantages, they occupy a larger
bandwidth than linear modulation schemes.
In situations where bandwidth efficiency is more important than power efficiency, constant
envelope modulation is not well-suited.
29. Frequency Shift Keying
A modulation scheme often used for wireless transmission is frequency shift keying (FSK). The simplest
form of FSK, also called binary FSK (BFSK), assigns one frequency f1 to the binary 1 and another
frequency f2 to the binary 0. A very simple way to implement FSK is to switch between two oscillators, one
with the frequency f1 and the other with f2, depending on the input.
To avoid sudden changes in phase, special frequency modulators with continuous phase modulation,
(CPM) can be used. Sudden changes in phase cause high frequencies, which is an undesired side-effect.
A simple way to implement demodulation is by using two bandpass filters, one for f1 the other for f2. A
comparator can then compare the signal levels of the filter outputs to decide which of them is stronger. FSK
needs a larger bandwidth compared to ASK but is much less susceptible to errors.
30. MSK
MSK is known to be special type of Continuous Phase FSK
The peak frequency deviation is ¼ the Bit Rate. In other words, modulation index is
kept at 0.5 to make the signals orthogonal to each other.
Orthogonality make the signal more Uncorrelated so that easy to separate at the receiver
end.
Kfsk= (2Δf)/Rb
Δf – Peak Frequency Deviation Rb – Bit Rate
Provides constant envelope Good Spectral Efficiency Good BER performance
MSK is also called Fast FSK, Because the Frequency shift is only Half that of used in
FSK
31.
32. MSK
Two FSK signals VH(t) and VL(t) are said to be orthogonal if
An MSK signal can be thought of as a special form of OQPSK where the baseband
rectangular pulses are replaced with half-sinusoidal pulses. If half-sinusoidal pulses are used
instead of rectangular pulses, the modified signal can be defined as MSK and for an N-bit
stream is given by
33. MSK (Continous phase frequency shift keying)
A famous FSK scheme used in many wireless systems is minimum shift keying(MSK). MSK is basically
BFSK without abrupt phase changes, i.e., it belongs to CPM schemes.
data bits are separated into even and odd bits, the duration of each bit being doubled.
The scheme also uses two frequencies: f1, the lower frequency, and f2, the higher frequency, with f2 = 2f1.
According to the following scheme, the lower or higher frequency is chosen (either inverted or non-inverted) to
generate the MSK signal:
if the even and the odd bit are both 0, then the higher frequency f2 is inverted (i.e., f2 is used with a phase shift of 180°);
if the even bit is 1, the odd bit 0, then the lower frequency f1 is inverted. This is the case, e.g., in the fifth to seventh
columns
if the even bit is 0 and the odd bit is 1, as in columns 1 to 3, f1 is taken without changing the phase,
if both bits are 1 then the original f2 is taken.
A high frequency is always chosen if even and odd bits are equal. The signal is inverted if the odd bit equals 0.
This scheme avoids all phase shifts in the resulting MSK signal.
34.
35.
36.
37. GMSK
GMSK is a simple binary modulation scheme.
It is a derivative of MSK
The side lobe levels of the MSK spectrum are further reduced by passing the
modulating non-return to zero data waveform through a Gaussian pulse shaping filter.
So the data waveform is first passed through a Gaussian pulse shaping filter and then
the MSK is used.
It gives better spectral properties because of pulse shaping. Gaussian baseband pulse
shaping smooth’s the phase trajectory of the MSK signal.
38.
39. Advantages of GMSK over MSK
GMSK is a derivative of MSK where the bandwidth required is further reduced by
passing the modulating waveform through a Gaussian filter.
The Gaussian filter minimizes the instantaneous frequency variations over time.
GMSK is a spectrally efficient modulation scheme and it’s particularly useful in mobile
radio systems. It is a standard in GSM.
It has a constant envelop spectrally efficient, good BER performance and self-
synchronizing so a lot of advantages of GMSK.
40. QAM
It’s a hybrid modulation technique. both amplitude and phase variations occur in order
to encode the data.
The general form of an M-ary QAM signal can be defined as
where Emin is the energy of the signal with the lowest amplitude, and ai and bi, are a
pair of independent integers chosen according to the location of the particular signal
point.
41. The constellation diagram of a 16-ary QAM consists of a square lattice of
signal points
42. Spread Spectrum
It is a special modulation technique that spreads the transmitted signal over a frequency
range much wider than the minimum bandwidth required to send the signal.
For the first time we are trying to be greedy in terms of bandwidth. But we know from
channels theorem that if we have to invest, it is better to invest in bandwidth than increasing
your signal to noise ratio because the capacity of a system grows linearly with bandwidth
and logarithmically with SNR.
The frequency range which will actually be used for transmission will be much more than
the signal bandwidth. Widening the signal bandwidth in this fashion increases the
probability that the received information will closely match the transmitted information.
There are two basic types of spread spectrum modulation techniques.
direct sequence technique DSSS
frequency hopped technique FHSS
43. This system is very bandwidth inefficient for a single user, the advantage of spread spectrum is that
many users can simultaneously use the same bandwidth without significantly interfering with one
another. In a multiple-user, multiple access interference (MAI) environment, spread spectrum
systems become very bandwidth efficient.
Apart from occupying a very large bandwidth, spread spectrum signals are pseudorandom and have
noise-like properties when compared with the digital information data.
The spreading waveform is controlled by a pseudo-noise (PN) sequence or pseudo-noise code,
which is a binary sequence that appears random but can be reproduced in a deterministic manner by
intended receivers.
Spread spectrum signals are demodulated at the receiver through cross correlation with a locally-
generated version of the pseudorandom carrier Crosscorrelation with the correct PN sequence
despreads the spread spectrum signal and restores the modulated message in the same narrow band
as the original data, whereas crosscorrelating the signal from an undesired user results in a very
small amount of wideband noise at the receiver output.
44. Advantages
Its inherent interference rejection capability. Since each user is assigned a unique PN code which is
approximately orthogonal to the codes of other users, the receiver can separate each user based on
their codes, even though they occupy the same spectrum at all times. This implies that, up to a certain
number of users, interference between spread spectrum signals using the same frequency is
negligible.
Not only can a particular spread spectrum signal be recovered from a number of other spread
spectrum signals, it is also possible to completely recover a spread spectrum signal even when it is
jammed by a narrowband interferer. Since narrowband interference effects only a small portion of the
spread spectrum signal, it can easily be removed through notch filtering without much loss of
information.
Since all users are able to share the same spectrum, spread spectrum may eliminate frequency
planning, since all cells can use the same channels.
Resistance to multipath fading is another fundamental reason for considering spread spectrum
systems for wireless communications. Since spread spectrum signals have uniform energy over a
very large bandwidth, at any given time only a small portion of the spectrum will undergo fading.
Viewed in the time domain, the multipath resistance properties are due to the fact that the delayed
versions of the transmitted PN signal will have poor correlation with the original PN sequence, and
will thus appear as another uncorrelated user which is ignored by the receiver.
Spread spectrum systems are not only resistant to inultipath fading, but they can also exploit the
multipath components to improve the performance of the system. This can be done using a RAKE
receiver which combines the information obtained from several resolvable multipath components.
45. Pseudo-noise (PN) Sequences
A pseudo-noise (PN) or pseudorandom sequence is a binary sequence with an autocorrelation
that resembles, over a period, the autocorrelation of a random binary sequence.
Its autocorrelation also roughly resembles the autocorrelation of band-limited white noise.
Although it is deterministic, a pseudonoise sequence has many characteristics that are similar
to those of random binary sequences, such as having a nearly equal number of 0s and is, very
low correlation between shifted versions of the sequence, very low crosscorrelation between
any two sequences, etc. The PN sequence is usually generated using sequential logic circuits.
A feedback shift register, consists of consecutive stages of two state memory devices and
feedback logic. Binary sequences are shifted through the shift registers in response to clock
pulses, and the output of the various stages are logically combined and fed back as the input
to the first stage. When the feedback logic consists of exclusive-OR gates, which is usually
the case, the shift register is called a linear PN sequence generator.