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Modulation_techniques4th unit.pptx

This document discusses digital modulation techniques used in modern mobile communication systems. It explains that digital modulation translates digital data into analog signals and provides advantages over analog transmission like greater noise immunity and easier multiplexing. Key factors that influence the choice of digital modulation scheme are low bit error rates, performance in fading environments, minimum bandwidth usage, and cost-effective implementation. Modulation techniques are evaluated based on their power efficiency and bandwidth efficiency. Power efficiency is defined as preserving signal fidelity at low signal-to-noise ratios, while bandwidth efficiency is utilizing the allocated bandwidth to maximize data throughput.

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UNIT-IV Mrs. Chetna Sinha Jaiswal Assistant Professor GEC Raipur
Modulation Techniques Modulation Analog Modulation (1G mobile Radio) AM,FM, PM Digital Modulation(Present & Future Systems) QPSK,QAM,QFSK MSK,GMSK, CDMA, FH- SS,DS-SS
Digital modulation  In modern mobile communication digital modulation is used.  Advancements in VLSI and DSP have made digital modulation techniques more cost efficient and more useful than analog transmission systems  Advantages  Greater noise immunity as compared to analog,  Easier multiplexing of information, (voice, data and video)  It can accommodate digital transmission errors, source coding, encryption and equalization.  Digital signal processors can implement digital modulators, demodulators completely in software.
Factors influencing the choice of digital modulation  A desirable modulation scheme provides  low bit error at low signal to noise ratio.  Efficient design of modulation techniques guarantee immunity or at least better performance in terms of low SNRs.  digital modulation techniques perform well in multipath fading environments.  It occupies a minimum bandwidth.  Easy and cost effective implementation with the advent of DSPs but all of these effects cannot be achieved simultaneously so it allows for a tradeoff.
Power & BW efficiency  Power efficiency is defined as the ability to preserve the fidelity of digital message over low level SNRs
BW efficiency
Bandwidth of digital signals  The absolute bandwidth is a range of frequencies over which the PSD is non-zero  Null to null bandwidth- It is the width of the main spectral lobe  Half power bandwidth also known as a 3 dB bandwidth- It is defined as an interval between the frequencies at which the power spectral density drops to half power or minus 3 dB below the peak value
Line Coding  Line coding will ensure that there is enough flips between zero’s and one’s or enough changes so that the synchronization can be maintained.  Line coding is also important for wireless communication. Line codes are used to provide particular spectral characteristic of a pulse train  Some of the commonly used line codes are as follows;  Return to zero or RZ- implies that the pulse returns to zero within every bit period,  Non-return to zero or NRZ, implies that the pulse do not return to zero in a bit duration.  Manchester code is the special type of NRZ, it uses two pulses to represent each binary symbol, Manchester code will ensure no matter how long is the chain of one’s or zero’s, there will always be transition. Hence we can recover back the carrier or can recover back the synchronization at the receiver.
Line Coding Unipolar NRZ Unipolar RZ Manchester NRZ
Properties of Line Coding  Transmission bandwidth should be as small as possible.  Power efficiency for a given bandwidth and a specified detection error probability should be as small as possible.  Error detection and error correction capability, it should be possible to detect and preferably correct detection errors.  Favorable power spectral density desirable to have a zero power spectral density at zero frequency.  Adequate timing content it should be possible to extract exact timing or clock information. So it’s important for the clock recovery to maintain synchronization between the transmitter and receiver.  Transparency: should be possible to transmit a digital signal correctly regardless of the patterns of one’s and zero’s.
Pulse Shaping Techniques  When rectangular pulses are passed through a bandlimited channel, the pulses will spread in time, and the pulse for each symbol will smear into the time intervals of succeeding symbols. This causes intersymbol interference (ISI) and leads to an increased probability of the receiver making an error in detecting a symbol.  One obvious way to minimize inter-symbol interference is to increase the channel bandwidth. However, mobile communication systems operate with minimal bandwidth, and techniques that reduce the modulation bandwidth and suppress out-of-band radiation, while reducing intersymbol interference, are highly desirable.  Out-of-band radiation in the adjacent channel in a mobile radio system should generally be 40 dB to 80 dB below that in the desired passband. Since it is difficult to directly manipulate the transmitter spectrum at RF frequencies, spectral shaping is done through baseband or IF processing.  pulse shaping techniques are used to simultaneously reduce the intersymbol effects and the spectral width of a modulated digital signal.
Nyquist criteria for ISI cancellation  The effect of ISI could be completely nullified if the overall response of the communication system (including transmitter, channel, and receiver) is designed so that at every sampling instant at the receiver, the response due to all symbols except the current symbol is equal to zero  If heff(t) is the impulse response of the overall communication system, this condition can be mathematically stated  where Ts is the symbol period, n is an integer, and K is a non-zero constant.
Types of Digital modulation linear, non-linear spread spectrum bandwidth efficient, Higher BW but high immunity against random FM noise Inefficient for single users but efficient for multi-users useful for accommodating more users in a limited spectrum. FSK, GMSK Gaussian minimum shift key and MFSK. transmission bandwidth is much greater than the minimum required signal bandwidth. The popular methods are QPSK, OQPSK, π 4 QPSK the amplitude of the transmitted signal S (t) varies linearly with the message signal m (t), amplitude of the carrier is constant
Digital modulation  Digital data(0 and 1) is translated into an analog signal( baseband signal)  It is required if digital data has to be transmitted over a medium that allows only analog transmission.  In wireless n/w, digital transmission cannot be used, and binary bit stream has to be translated into an analog signal first. e.g ASK, FSK, PSK  Apart from the translation of digital data into analog signals, wireless transmission requires an additional modulation, an analog modulation that shifts the center frequency of the baseband signal generated by the digital modulation up to the radio carrier. For example, digital modulation translates a 1 Mbit/s bit-stream into a baseband signal with a bandwidth of 1 MHz. There are several reasons why this baseband signal cannot be directly transmitted in a wireless system:  Antenna size  Frequency division multiplexing: Using only baseband transmission, FDM could not be applied. Analog modulation shifts the baseband signals to different carrier frequencies. The higher the carrier frequency, the more bandwidth that is available for many baseband signals  Medium characteristics: Path-loss, penetration of obstacles, reflection,scattering, and diffraction – all the effects depend heavily on the wavelength of the signal. Depending on the application, the right carrier frequency with the desired characteristics has to be chosen: long waves for submarines, short waves for handheld devices, very short waves for directed microwave transmission etc.
Modulation & Demodulation  The first step is the digital modulation of data into the analog baseband signal. The analog modulation then shifts the center frequency of the analog signal up to the radio carrier. This signal is then transmitted via the antenna  The receiver receives the analog radio signal via its antenna and demodulates the signal into the analog baseband signal with the help of the known carrier. For digital data, another step is needed. Bits or frames have to be detected, i.e., the receiver must synchronize with the sender. How synchronization is achieved, depends on the digital modulation scheme. After synchronization, the receiver has to decide if the signal represents a digital 1 or a 0, reconstructing the original data.
Factors influencing choice of digital modulation  A desirable modulation scheme provides low bit error rates at low received signal-to noise ratios, performs well in multipath and fading conditions, occupies a minimum of bandwidth, and is easy and cost-effective to implement.  Some modulation schemes are better in terms of the bit error rate performance, while others are better in terms of bandwidth efficiency. Depending on the demands of the particular application, trade-offs are made when selecting a digital modulation.  Performance of a modulation scheme is measured in terms of its power efficiency ɳ𝑝 & bandwidth efficiency ɳ𝐵  ɳ𝑝 is the ability of a modulation technique to preserve the fidelity of the digital message at low power levels.  In order to increase noise immunity, it is necessary to increase the signal power. However, the amount by which the signal power should be increased to obtain a certain level of fidelity (i.e., an acceptable bit error probability) depends on the particular type of modulation employed. The power efficiency, ɳp (sometimes called energy efficiency) of a digital modulation scheme is a measure of how favorably this tradeoff between fidelity and signal power is made, and is often expressed as the ratio of the signal energy per bit to noise power spectral density (Eb/No) required at the receiver input for a certain probability of error.
 ɳ𝐵 is the ability of a modulation scheme to accommodate data within a limited bandwidth.  ↑sing the data rate implies ↓sing the pulse width of a digital symbol. which increases the bandwidth of the signal. Thus, there is an unavoidable relationship between data rate & bandwidth occupancy.  ɳ𝐵reflects how efficiently the allocated bandwidth is utilized and is defined as the ratio of the throughput data rate per Hertz in a given bandwidth. If R is the data rate in bits per second, and B is the bandwidth occupied by the modulated RF signal, then  ɳ𝐵= 𝑅 𝐵  The system capacity of a digital mobile communication system is directly related to the bandwidth efficiency of the modulation scheme, since a modulation with a greater value of ɳ𝐵 will transmit more data in a given spectrum allocation.
 There is a fundamental upper bound on achievable bandwidth efficiency.  Shannon's channel coding theorem states that for an arbitrarily small probability of error, the maximum possible bandwidth efficiency is limited by the noise in the channel, and is given by the channel capacity formula  𝐶 = 𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑔2 1 + 𝑆𝑁𝑅 , where C is the channel capacity (in bps), B is the RF bandwidth, and S/N is signal to noise ratio.  In the design of a digital communication system, very often there is a tradeoff between bandwidth efficiency and power efficiency  For example, adding error control coding to a message increases the bandwidth occupancy (and this, in turn, reduces the bandwidth efficiency), but at the same time reduces the required received power for a particular bit error rate, and hence trades bandwidth efficiency for power efficiency  On the other hand, higher level modulation schemes (M-ary keying) decrease bandwidth occupancy (increases bandwidth efficiency) but increase the required received power, and hence trade power efficiency for bandwidth efficiency.
Amplitude Shift Keying  The two binary values, 1 and 0, are represented by two different amplitudes. This simple scheme only requires low bandwidth, but is very susceptible to interference. Effects like multi-path propagation, noise, or path loss heavily influence the amplitude. In a wireless environment, a constant amplitude cannot be guaranteed, so ASK is typically not used for wireless radio transmission.  However, the wired transmission scheme with the highest performance, namely optical transmission, uses ASK. Here, a light pulse may represent a 1, while the absence of light represents a 0. The carrier frequency in optical systems is some hundred THz. ASK can also be applied to wireless infra red transmission, using a directed beam or diffuse light.
Linear Modulation Techniques  In linear modulation techniques, the amplitude of the transmitted signal, s(t), varies linearly with the modulatng digital signal, m(t).  They are bandwidth efficient and hence are very attractive for use in wireless communication systems where there is an increasing demand to accommodate more and more users within a limited spectrum.  In a linear modulation scheme, the transmitted signal s (t) can be expressed as [s(t) = Re [Am (t) exp (j2πfct}  = A [mR (t) cos (2πfct)— mI (t) sin (2πfct)]  where A is the amplitude, fc is the carrier frequency, and m(t) = mR (t) + j mI (t) is a complex envelope representation of the modulated signal  the amplitude of the carrier varies linearly with the modulating signal.  do not have a constant envelope. As shown subsequently, some nonlinear modulations may have either linear or constant carrier envelopes, depending on whether or not the baseband waveform is pulse shaped.  While linear modulation schemes have very good spectral efficiency, they must be transmitted using linear RF amplifiers which have poor power efficiency.  Using power efficient nonlinear amplifiers leads to the regeneration of filtered sidelobes which can cause severe adjacent channel interference, and results in the loss of all the spectral efficiency gained by linear modulation.
Phase Shift Keying  PSK uses shifts in the phase of a signal to represent data. Fig. shows a phase shift of 180° or π as the 0 follows the 1 (the same happens as the 1 follows the 0). This simple scheme, shifting the phase by 180° each time the value of data changes, is also called binary PSK (BPSK).  To receive the signal correctly, the receiver must synchronize in frequency and phase with the transmitter. This can be done using a phase lock loop (PLL).  Compared to FSK, PSK is more resistant to interference, but receiver and transmitter are also more complex
QPSK  Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) has twice the bandwidth efficiency of BPSK, since 2 bits are transmitted in a single modulation symbol. The phase of the carrier takes on 1 of 4 equally spaced values, such as 0, π/2, π,and 3π/2, where each value of phase corresponds to a unique pair of message bits. The QPSK signal for this set of symbol states may be defined as where Ts is the symbol duration and is equal to twice the bit period.  Using trigonometric identities, the above equations can be rewritten for the interval 0≤ 𝑡 ≤ Ts as
QPSK  The bit error probability of QPSK is identical to BPSK, but twice as much data can be sent in the same bandwidth. Thus when compared to BPSK, QPSK provides twice the spectral efficiency with exactly the same energy efficiency.  The amplitude of a QPSK signal is ideally constant. However, when QPSK signals are pulse shaped, they lose the constant envelope property. The occasional phase shift of π radians can cause the signal envelope to pass through zero for just an instant. Any kind of hardlimiting or nonlinear amplification of the zero-crossings brings back the filtered sidelobes since the fidelity of the signal at small voltage levels is lost in transmission.  To prevent the regeneration of sidelobes and spectral widening, it is imperative that QPSK signals be amplified only using linear amplifiers, which are less efficient. A modified form of QPSK, called offset QPSK (OQPSK) or staggered QPSK is less susceptible to these deleterious effects and supports more efficient amplification.
Quadrature PSK The QPSK system discussed is called offset or staggered QPSK abbreviated OQPSK. Phase change only by 900. In non-offset QPSK there is an additional D-FF in one line of Fig. 6.10, thus even-odd could be same time, phase change could be 1800.
QPSK
Offset QPSK  OQPSK signaling is similar to QPSK signaling, except for the time alignment of the even and odd bit streams. In QPSK, the bit transitions of mI (t) and mq(t) occur at the same time instants, but in OQPSK signaling, mI (t) and mq(t)are offset in their relative alignment by one bit period (half-symbol period).  Due to the time alignment of mI (t) and mq (t) in standard QPSK, phase transitions occur only once every Ts = 2Tb s, and will be a maximum of 180o if there is a change in the value of both mI (t) and mQ (t) . In OQPSK, bit transitions (and hence phase transitions) occur every Tb s. Since the transitions instants of mI (t) and mQ (t) are offset, at any given time only one of the two bit streams can change values. Hence the maximum phase shift of the transmitted signal at any given time is limited to ±90°. Hence, by switching phases more frequently (i.e., every Tb s instead of 2Tb s) OQPSK signaling eliminates 180° phase transitions.
Constant envelope modulation  The constant envelope family of modulations has the advantage of satisfying a number of conditions  Power efficient Class C amplifiers can be used without introducing degradation in the spectrum occupancy of the transmitted signal.  Low out-of-band radiation of the order of -60 dB to -70 dB can be achieved.  Limiter-discriminator detection can be used, which simplifies receiver design and provides high immunity against random FM noise and signal fluctuations due to Rayleigh fading.  While constant envelope modulations have many advantages, they occupy a larger bandwidth than linear modulation schemes.  In situations where bandwidth efficiency is more important than power efficiency, constant envelope modulation is not well-suited.
Frequency Shift Keying  A modulation scheme often used for wireless transmission is frequency shift keying (FSK). The simplest form of FSK, also called binary FSK (BFSK), assigns one frequency f1 to the binary 1 and another frequency f2 to the binary 0. A very simple way to implement FSK is to switch between two oscillators, one with the frequency f1 and the other with f2, depending on the input.  To avoid sudden changes in phase, special frequency modulators with continuous phase modulation, (CPM) can be used. Sudden changes in phase cause high frequencies, which is an undesired side-effect.  A simple way to implement demodulation is by using two bandpass filters, one for f1 the other for f2. A comparator can then compare the signal levels of the filter outputs to decide which of them is stronger. FSK needs a larger bandwidth compared to ASK but is much less susceptible to errors.
MSK  MSK is known to be special type of Continuous Phase FSK  The peak frequency deviation is ¼ the Bit Rate. In other words, modulation index is kept at 0.5 to make the signals orthogonal to each other.  Orthogonality make the signal more Uncorrelated so that easy to separate at the receiver end.  Kfsk= (2Δf)/Rb  Δf – Peak Frequency Deviation Rb – Bit Rate  Provides constant envelope Good Spectral Efficiency Good BER performance  MSK is also called Fast FSK, Because the Frequency shift is only Half that of used in FSK
MSK  Two FSK signals VH(t) and VL(t) are said to be orthogonal if  An MSK signal can be thought of as a special form of OQPSK where the baseband rectangular pulses are replaced with half-sinusoidal pulses. If half-sinusoidal pulses are used instead of rectangular pulses, the modified signal can be defined as MSK and for an N-bit stream is given by
MSK (Continous phase frequency shift keying)  A famous FSK scheme used in many wireless systems is minimum shift keying(MSK). MSK is basically BFSK without abrupt phase changes, i.e., it belongs to CPM schemes.  data bits are separated into even and odd bits, the duration of each bit being doubled.  The scheme also uses two frequencies: f1, the lower frequency, and f2, the higher frequency, with f2 = 2f1.  According to the following scheme, the lower or higher frequency is chosen (either inverted or non-inverted) to generate the MSK signal:  if the even and the odd bit are both 0, then the higher frequency f2 is inverted (i.e., f2 is used with a phase shift of 180°);  if the even bit is 1, the odd bit 0, then the lower frequency f1 is inverted. This is the case, e.g., in the fifth to seventh columns if the even bit is 0 and the odd bit is 1, as in columns 1 to 3, f1 is taken without changing the phase, if both bits are 1 then the original f2 is taken.  A high frequency is always chosen if even and odd bits are equal. The signal is inverted if the odd bit equals 0. This scheme avoids all phase shifts in the resulting MSK signal.
GMSK  GMSK is a simple binary modulation scheme.  It is a derivative of MSK  The side lobe levels of the MSK spectrum are further reduced by passing the modulating non-return to zero data waveform through a Gaussian pulse shaping filter.  So the data waveform is first passed through a Gaussian pulse shaping filter and then the MSK is used.  It gives better spectral properties because of pulse shaping. Gaussian baseband pulse shaping smooth’s the phase trajectory of the MSK signal.
Advantages of GMSK over MSK  GMSK is a derivative of MSK where the bandwidth required is further reduced by passing the modulating waveform through a Gaussian filter.  The Gaussian filter minimizes the instantaneous frequency variations over time.  GMSK is a spectrally efficient modulation scheme and it’s particularly useful in mobile radio systems. It is a standard in GSM.  It has a constant envelop spectrally efficient, good BER performance and self- synchronizing so a lot of advantages of GMSK.
QAM  It’s a hybrid modulation technique. both amplitude and phase variations occur in order to encode the data.  The general form of an M-ary QAM signal can be defined as  where Emin is the energy of the signal with the lowest amplitude, and ai and bi, are a pair of independent integers chosen according to the location of the particular signal point.
 The constellation diagram of a 16-ary QAM consists of a square lattice of signal points
Spread Spectrum  It is a special modulation technique that spreads the transmitted signal over a frequency range much wider than the minimum bandwidth required to send the signal.  For the first time we are trying to be greedy in terms of bandwidth. But we know from channels theorem that if we have to invest, it is better to invest in bandwidth than increasing your signal to noise ratio because the capacity of a system grows linearly with bandwidth and logarithmically with SNR.  The frequency range which will actually be used for transmission will be much more than the signal bandwidth. Widening the signal bandwidth in this fashion increases the probability that the received information will closely match the transmitted information.  There are two basic types of spread spectrum modulation techniques.  direct sequence technique DSSS  frequency hopped technique FHSS
 This system is very bandwidth inefficient for a single user, the advantage of spread spectrum is that many users can simultaneously use the same bandwidth without significantly interfering with one another. In a multiple-user, multiple access interference (MAI) environment, spread spectrum systems become very bandwidth efficient.  Apart from occupying a very large bandwidth, spread spectrum signals are pseudorandom and have noise-like properties when compared with the digital information data.  The spreading waveform is controlled by a pseudo-noise (PN) sequence or pseudo-noise code, which is a binary sequence that appears random but can be reproduced in a deterministic manner by intended receivers.  Spread spectrum signals are demodulated at the receiver through cross correlation with a locally- generated version of the pseudorandom carrier Crosscorrelation with the correct PN sequence despreads the spread spectrum signal and restores the modulated message in the same narrow band as the original data, whereas crosscorrelating the signal from an undesired user results in a very small amount of wideband noise at the receiver output.
Advantages  Its inherent interference rejection capability. Since each user is assigned a unique PN code which is approximately orthogonal to the codes of other users, the receiver can separate each user based on their codes, even though they occupy the same spectrum at all times. This implies that, up to a certain number of users, interference between spread spectrum signals using the same frequency is negligible.  Not only can a particular spread spectrum signal be recovered from a number of other spread spectrum signals, it is also possible to completely recover a spread spectrum signal even when it is jammed by a narrowband interferer. Since narrowband interference effects only a small portion of the spread spectrum signal, it can easily be removed through notch filtering without much loss of information.  Since all users are able to share the same spectrum, spread spectrum may eliminate frequency planning, since all cells can use the same channels.  Resistance to multipath fading is another fundamental reason for considering spread spectrum systems for wireless communications. Since spread spectrum signals have uniform energy over a very large bandwidth, at any given time only a small portion of the spectrum will undergo fading.  Viewed in the time domain, the multipath resistance properties are due to the fact that the delayed versions of the transmitted PN signal will have poor correlation with the original PN sequence, and will thus appear as another uncorrelated user which is ignored by the receiver.  Spread spectrum systems are not only resistant to inultipath fading, but they can also exploit the multipath components to improve the performance of the system. This can be done using a RAKE receiver which combines the information obtained from several resolvable multipath components.
Pseudo-noise (PN) Sequences  A pseudo-noise (PN) or pseudorandom sequence is a binary sequence with an autocorrelation that resembles, over a period, the autocorrelation of a random binary sequence.  Its autocorrelation also roughly resembles the autocorrelation of band-limited white noise. Although it is deterministic, a pseudonoise sequence has many characteristics that are similar to those of random binary sequences, such as having a nearly equal number of 0s and is, very low correlation between shifted versions of the sequence, very low crosscorrelation between any two sequences, etc. The PN sequence is usually generated using sequential logic circuits. A feedback shift register, consists of consecutive stages of two state memory devices and feedback logic. Binary sequences are shifted through the shift registers in response to clock pulses, and the output of the various stages are logically combined and fed back as the input to the first stage. When the feedback logic consists of exclusive-OR gates, which is usually the case, the shift register is called a linear PN sequence generator.

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Modulation_techniques4th unit.pptx

  • 1.
    UNIT-IV Mrs. Chetna SinhaJaiswal Assistant Professor GEC Raipur
  • 2.
    Modulation Techniques Modulation Analog Modulation (1Gmobile Radio) AM,FM, PM Digital Modulation(Present & Future Systems) QPSK,QAM,QFSK MSK,GMSK, CDMA, FH- SS,DS-SS
  • 3.
    Digital modulation  Inmodern mobile communication digital modulation is used.  Advancements in VLSI and DSP have made digital modulation techniques more cost efficient and more useful than analog transmission systems  Advantages  Greater noise immunity as compared to analog,  Easier multiplexing of information, (voice, data and video)  It can accommodate digital transmission errors, source coding, encryption and equalization.  Digital signal processors can implement digital modulators, demodulators completely in software.
  • 4.
    Factors influencing thechoice of digital modulation  A desirable modulation scheme provides  low bit error at low signal to noise ratio.  Efficient design of modulation techniques guarantee immunity or at least better performance in terms of low SNRs.  digital modulation techniques perform well in multipath fading environments.  It occupies a minimum bandwidth.  Easy and cost effective implementation with the advent of DSPs but all of these effects cannot be achieved simultaneously so it allows for a tradeoff.
  • 5.
    Power & BWefficiency  Power efficiency is defined as the ability to preserve the fidelity of digital message over low level SNRs
  • 6.
  • 7.
    Bandwidth of digitalsignals  The absolute bandwidth is a range of frequencies over which the PSD is non-zero  Null to null bandwidth- It is the width of the main spectral lobe  Half power bandwidth also known as a 3 dB bandwidth- It is defined as an interval between the frequencies at which the power spectral density drops to half power or minus 3 dB below the peak value
  • 8.
    Line Coding  Linecoding will ensure that there is enough flips between zero’s and one’s or enough changes so that the synchronization can be maintained.  Line coding is also important for wireless communication. Line codes are used to provide particular spectral characteristic of a pulse train  Some of the commonly used line codes are as follows;  Return to zero or RZ- implies that the pulse returns to zero within every bit period,  Non-return to zero or NRZ, implies that the pulse do not return to zero in a bit duration.  Manchester code is the special type of NRZ, it uses two pulses to represent each binary symbol, Manchester code will ensure no matter how long is the chain of one’s or zero’s, there will always be transition. Hence we can recover back the carrier or can recover back the synchronization at the receiver.
  • 9.
  • 10.
    Properties of LineCoding  Transmission bandwidth should be as small as possible.  Power efficiency for a given bandwidth and a specified detection error probability should be as small as possible.  Error detection and error correction capability, it should be possible to detect and preferably correct detection errors.  Favorable power spectral density desirable to have a zero power spectral density at zero frequency.  Adequate timing content it should be possible to extract exact timing or clock information. So it’s important for the clock recovery to maintain synchronization between the transmitter and receiver.  Transparency: should be possible to transmit a digital signal correctly regardless of the patterns of one’s and zero’s.
  • 11.
    Pulse Shaping Techniques When rectangular pulses are passed through a bandlimited channel, the pulses will spread in time, and the pulse for each symbol will smear into the time intervals of succeeding symbols. This causes intersymbol interference (ISI) and leads to an increased probability of the receiver making an error in detecting a symbol.  One obvious way to minimize inter-symbol interference is to increase the channel bandwidth. However, mobile communication systems operate with minimal bandwidth, and techniques that reduce the modulation bandwidth and suppress out-of-band radiation, while reducing intersymbol interference, are highly desirable.  Out-of-band radiation in the adjacent channel in a mobile radio system should generally be 40 dB to 80 dB below that in the desired passband. Since it is difficult to directly manipulate the transmitter spectrum at RF frequencies, spectral shaping is done through baseband or IF processing.  pulse shaping techniques are used to simultaneously reduce the intersymbol effects and the spectral width of a modulated digital signal.
  • 12.
    Nyquist criteria forISI cancellation  The effect of ISI could be completely nullified if the overall response of the communication system (including transmitter, channel, and receiver) is designed so that at every sampling instant at the receiver, the response due to all symbols except the current symbol is equal to zero  If heff(t) is the impulse response of the overall communication system, this condition can be mathematically stated  where Ts is the symbol period, n is an integer, and K is a non-zero constant.
  • 13.
    Types of Digitalmodulation linear, non-linear spread spectrum bandwidth efficient, Higher BW but high immunity against random FM noise Inefficient for single users but efficient for multi-users useful for accommodating more users in a limited spectrum. FSK, GMSK Gaussian minimum shift key and MFSK. transmission bandwidth is much greater than the minimum required signal bandwidth. The popular methods are QPSK, OQPSK, π 4 QPSK the amplitude of the transmitted signal S (t) varies linearly with the message signal m (t), amplitude of the carrier is constant
  • 14.
    Digital modulation  Digitaldata(0 and 1) is translated into an analog signal( baseband signal)  It is required if digital data has to be transmitted over a medium that allows only analog transmission.  In wireless n/w, digital transmission cannot be used, and binary bit stream has to be translated into an analog signal first. e.g ASK, FSK, PSK  Apart from the translation of digital data into analog signals, wireless transmission requires an additional modulation, an analog modulation that shifts the center frequency of the baseband signal generated by the digital modulation up to the radio carrier. For example, digital modulation translates a 1 Mbit/s bit-stream into a baseband signal with a bandwidth of 1 MHz. There are several reasons why this baseband signal cannot be directly transmitted in a wireless system:  Antenna size  Frequency division multiplexing: Using only baseband transmission, FDM could not be applied. Analog modulation shifts the baseband signals to different carrier frequencies. The higher the carrier frequency, the more bandwidth that is available for many baseband signals  Medium characteristics: Path-loss, penetration of obstacles, reflection,scattering, and diffraction – all the effects depend heavily on the wavelength of the signal. Depending on the application, the right carrier frequency with the desired characteristics has to be chosen: long waves for submarines, short waves for handheld devices, very short waves for directed microwave transmission etc.
  • 15.
    Modulation & Demodulation The first step is the digital modulation of data into the analog baseband signal. The analog modulation then shifts the center frequency of the analog signal up to the radio carrier. This signal is then transmitted via the antenna  The receiver receives the analog radio signal via its antenna and demodulates the signal into the analog baseband signal with the help of the known carrier. For digital data, another step is needed. Bits or frames have to be detected, i.e., the receiver must synchronize with the sender. How synchronization is achieved, depends on the digital modulation scheme. After synchronization, the receiver has to decide if the signal represents a digital 1 or a 0, reconstructing the original data.
  • 16.
    Factors influencing choiceof digital modulation  A desirable modulation scheme provides low bit error rates at low received signal-to noise ratios, performs well in multipath and fading conditions, occupies a minimum of bandwidth, and is easy and cost-effective to implement.  Some modulation schemes are better in terms of the bit error rate performance, while others are better in terms of bandwidth efficiency. Depending on the demands of the particular application, trade-offs are made when selecting a digital modulation.  Performance of a modulation scheme is measured in terms of its power efficiency ɳ𝑝 & bandwidth efficiency ɳ𝐵  ɳ𝑝 is the ability of a modulation technique to preserve the fidelity of the digital message at low power levels.  In order to increase noise immunity, it is necessary to increase the signal power. However, the amount by which the signal power should be increased to obtain a certain level of fidelity (i.e., an acceptable bit error probability) depends on the particular type of modulation employed. The power efficiency, ɳp (sometimes called energy efficiency) of a digital modulation scheme is a measure of how favorably this tradeoff between fidelity and signal power is made, and is often expressed as the ratio of the signal energy per bit to noise power spectral density (Eb/No) required at the receiver input for a certain probability of error.
  • 17.
     ɳ𝐵 isthe ability of a modulation scheme to accommodate data within a limited bandwidth.  ↑sing the data rate implies ↓sing the pulse width of a digital symbol. which increases the bandwidth of the signal. Thus, there is an unavoidable relationship between data rate & bandwidth occupancy.  ɳ𝐵reflects how efficiently the allocated bandwidth is utilized and is defined as the ratio of the throughput data rate per Hertz in a given bandwidth. If R is the data rate in bits per second, and B is the bandwidth occupied by the modulated RF signal, then  ɳ𝐵= 𝑅 𝐵  The system capacity of a digital mobile communication system is directly related to the bandwidth efficiency of the modulation scheme, since a modulation with a greater value of ɳ𝐵 will transmit more data in a given spectrum allocation.
  • 18.
     There isa fundamental upper bound on achievable bandwidth efficiency.  Shannon's channel coding theorem states that for an arbitrarily small probability of error, the maximum possible bandwidth efficiency is limited by the noise in the channel, and is given by the channel capacity formula  𝐶 = 𝐵𝑙𝑜𝑔2 1 + 𝑆𝑁𝑅 , where C is the channel capacity (in bps), B is the RF bandwidth, and S/N is signal to noise ratio.  In the design of a digital communication system, very often there is a tradeoff between bandwidth efficiency and power efficiency  For example, adding error control coding to a message increases the bandwidth occupancy (and this, in turn, reduces the bandwidth efficiency), but at the same time reduces the required received power for a particular bit error rate, and hence trades bandwidth efficiency for power efficiency  On the other hand, higher level modulation schemes (M-ary keying) decrease bandwidth occupancy (increases bandwidth efficiency) but increase the required received power, and hence trade power efficiency for bandwidth efficiency.
  • 19.
    Amplitude Shift Keying The two binary values, 1 and 0, are represented by two different amplitudes. This simple scheme only requires low bandwidth, but is very susceptible to interference. Effects like multi-path propagation, noise, or path loss heavily influence the amplitude. In a wireless environment, a constant amplitude cannot be guaranteed, so ASK is typically not used for wireless radio transmission.  However, the wired transmission scheme with the highest performance, namely optical transmission, uses ASK. Here, a light pulse may represent a 1, while the absence of light represents a 0. The carrier frequency in optical systems is some hundred THz. ASK can also be applied to wireless infra red transmission, using a directed beam or diffuse light.
  • 20.
    Linear Modulation Techniques In linear modulation techniques, the amplitude of the transmitted signal, s(t), varies linearly with the modulatng digital signal, m(t).  They are bandwidth efficient and hence are very attractive for use in wireless communication systems where there is an increasing demand to accommodate more and more users within a limited spectrum.  In a linear modulation scheme, the transmitted signal s (t) can be expressed as [s(t) = Re [Am (t) exp (j2πfct}  = A [mR (t) cos (2πfct)— mI (t) sin (2πfct)]  where A is the amplitude, fc is the carrier frequency, and m(t) = mR (t) + j mI (t) is a complex envelope representation of the modulated signal  the amplitude of the carrier varies linearly with the modulating signal.  do not have a constant envelope. As shown subsequently, some nonlinear modulations may have either linear or constant carrier envelopes, depending on whether or not the baseband waveform is pulse shaped.  While linear modulation schemes have very good spectral efficiency, they must be transmitted using linear RF amplifiers which have poor power efficiency.  Using power efficient nonlinear amplifiers leads to the regeneration of filtered sidelobes which can cause severe adjacent channel interference, and results in the loss of all the spectral efficiency gained by linear modulation.
  • 21.
    Phase Shift Keying PSK uses shifts in the phase of a signal to represent data. Fig. shows a phase shift of 180° or π as the 0 follows the 1 (the same happens as the 1 follows the 0). This simple scheme, shifting the phase by 180° each time the value of data changes, is also called binary PSK (BPSK).  To receive the signal correctly, the receiver must synchronize in frequency and phase with the transmitter. This can be done using a phase lock loop (PLL).  Compared to FSK, PSK is more resistant to interference, but receiver and transmitter are also more complex
  • 23.
    QPSK  Quadrature phaseshift keying (QPSK) has twice the bandwidth efficiency of BPSK, since 2 bits are transmitted in a single modulation symbol. The phase of the carrier takes on 1 of 4 equally spaced values, such as 0, π/2, π,and 3π/2, where each value of phase corresponds to a unique pair of message bits. The QPSK signal for this set of symbol states may be defined as where Ts is the symbol duration and is equal to twice the bit period.  Using trigonometric identities, the above equations can be rewritten for the interval 0≤ 𝑡 ≤ Ts as
  • 24.
    QPSK  The biterror probability of QPSK is identical to BPSK, but twice as much data can be sent in the same bandwidth. Thus when compared to BPSK, QPSK provides twice the spectral efficiency with exactly the same energy efficiency.  The amplitude of a QPSK signal is ideally constant. However, when QPSK signals are pulse shaped, they lose the constant envelope property. The occasional phase shift of π radians can cause the signal envelope to pass through zero for just an instant. Any kind of hardlimiting or nonlinear amplification of the zero-crossings brings back the filtered sidelobes since the fidelity of the signal at small voltage levels is lost in transmission.  To prevent the regeneration of sidelobes and spectral widening, it is imperative that QPSK signals be amplified only using linear amplifiers, which are less efficient. A modified form of QPSK, called offset QPSK (OQPSK) or staggered QPSK is less susceptible to these deleterious effects and supports more efficient amplification.
  • 25.
    Quadrature PSK The QPSKsystem discussed is called offset or staggered QPSK abbreviated OQPSK. Phase change only by 900. In non-offset QPSK there is an additional D-FF in one line of Fig. 6.10, thus even-odd could be same time, phase change could be 1800.
  • 26.
  • 27.
    Offset QPSK  OQPSKsignaling is similar to QPSK signaling, except for the time alignment of the even and odd bit streams. In QPSK, the bit transitions of mI (t) and mq(t) occur at the same time instants, but in OQPSK signaling, mI (t) and mq(t)are offset in their relative alignment by one bit period (half-symbol period).  Due to the time alignment of mI (t) and mq (t) in standard QPSK, phase transitions occur only once every Ts = 2Tb s, and will be a maximum of 180o if there is a change in the value of both mI (t) and mQ (t) . In OQPSK, bit transitions (and hence phase transitions) occur every Tb s. Since the transitions instants of mI (t) and mQ (t) are offset, at any given time only one of the two bit streams can change values. Hence the maximum phase shift of the transmitted signal at any given time is limited to ±90°. Hence, by switching phases more frequently (i.e., every Tb s instead of 2Tb s) OQPSK signaling eliminates 180° phase transitions.
  • 28.
    Constant envelope modulation The constant envelope family of modulations has the advantage of satisfying a number of conditions  Power efficient Class C amplifiers can be used without introducing degradation in the spectrum occupancy of the transmitted signal.  Low out-of-band radiation of the order of -60 dB to -70 dB can be achieved.  Limiter-discriminator detection can be used, which simplifies receiver design and provides high immunity against random FM noise and signal fluctuations due to Rayleigh fading.  While constant envelope modulations have many advantages, they occupy a larger bandwidth than linear modulation schemes.  In situations where bandwidth efficiency is more important than power efficiency, constant envelope modulation is not well-suited.
  • 29.
    Frequency Shift Keying A modulation scheme often used for wireless transmission is frequency shift keying (FSK). The simplest form of FSK, also called binary FSK (BFSK), assigns one frequency f1 to the binary 1 and another frequency f2 to the binary 0. A very simple way to implement FSK is to switch between two oscillators, one with the frequency f1 and the other with f2, depending on the input.  To avoid sudden changes in phase, special frequency modulators with continuous phase modulation, (CPM) can be used. Sudden changes in phase cause high frequencies, which is an undesired side-effect.  A simple way to implement demodulation is by using two bandpass filters, one for f1 the other for f2. A comparator can then compare the signal levels of the filter outputs to decide which of them is stronger. FSK needs a larger bandwidth compared to ASK but is much less susceptible to errors.
  • 30.
    MSK  MSK isknown to be special type of Continuous Phase FSK  The peak frequency deviation is ¼ the Bit Rate. In other words, modulation index is kept at 0.5 to make the signals orthogonal to each other.  Orthogonality make the signal more Uncorrelated so that easy to separate at the receiver end.  Kfsk= (2Δf)/Rb  Δf – Peak Frequency Deviation Rb – Bit Rate  Provides constant envelope Good Spectral Efficiency Good BER performance  MSK is also called Fast FSK, Because the Frequency shift is only Half that of used in FSK
  • 32.
    MSK  Two FSKsignals VH(t) and VL(t) are said to be orthogonal if  An MSK signal can be thought of as a special form of OQPSK where the baseband rectangular pulses are replaced with half-sinusoidal pulses. If half-sinusoidal pulses are used instead of rectangular pulses, the modified signal can be defined as MSK and for an N-bit stream is given by
  • 33.
    MSK (Continous phasefrequency shift keying)  A famous FSK scheme used in many wireless systems is minimum shift keying(MSK). MSK is basically BFSK without abrupt phase changes, i.e., it belongs to CPM schemes.  data bits are separated into even and odd bits, the duration of each bit being doubled.  The scheme also uses two frequencies: f1, the lower frequency, and f2, the higher frequency, with f2 = 2f1.  According to the following scheme, the lower or higher frequency is chosen (either inverted or non-inverted) to generate the MSK signal:  if the even and the odd bit are both 0, then the higher frequency f2 is inverted (i.e., f2 is used with a phase shift of 180°);  if the even bit is 1, the odd bit 0, then the lower frequency f1 is inverted. This is the case, e.g., in the fifth to seventh columns if the even bit is 0 and the odd bit is 1, as in columns 1 to 3, f1 is taken without changing the phase, if both bits are 1 then the original f2 is taken.  A high frequency is always chosen if even and odd bits are equal. The signal is inverted if the odd bit equals 0. This scheme avoids all phase shifts in the resulting MSK signal.
  • 37.
    GMSK  GMSK isa simple binary modulation scheme.  It is a derivative of MSK  The side lobe levels of the MSK spectrum are further reduced by passing the modulating non-return to zero data waveform through a Gaussian pulse shaping filter.  So the data waveform is first passed through a Gaussian pulse shaping filter and then the MSK is used.  It gives better spectral properties because of pulse shaping. Gaussian baseband pulse shaping smooth’s the phase trajectory of the MSK signal.
  • 39.
    Advantages of GMSKover MSK  GMSK is a derivative of MSK where the bandwidth required is further reduced by passing the modulating waveform through a Gaussian filter.  The Gaussian filter minimizes the instantaneous frequency variations over time.  GMSK is a spectrally efficient modulation scheme and it’s particularly useful in mobile radio systems. It is a standard in GSM.  It has a constant envelop spectrally efficient, good BER performance and self- synchronizing so a lot of advantages of GMSK.
  • 40.
    QAM  It’s ahybrid modulation technique. both amplitude and phase variations occur in order to encode the data.  The general form of an M-ary QAM signal can be defined as  where Emin is the energy of the signal with the lowest amplitude, and ai and bi, are a pair of independent integers chosen according to the location of the particular signal point.
  • 41.
     The constellationdiagram of a 16-ary QAM consists of a square lattice of signal points
  • 42.
    Spread Spectrum  Itis a special modulation technique that spreads the transmitted signal over a frequency range much wider than the minimum bandwidth required to send the signal.  For the first time we are trying to be greedy in terms of bandwidth. But we know from channels theorem that if we have to invest, it is better to invest in bandwidth than increasing your signal to noise ratio because the capacity of a system grows linearly with bandwidth and logarithmically with SNR.  The frequency range which will actually be used for transmission will be much more than the signal bandwidth. Widening the signal bandwidth in this fashion increases the probability that the received information will closely match the transmitted information.  There are two basic types of spread spectrum modulation techniques.  direct sequence technique DSSS  frequency hopped technique FHSS
  • 43.
     This systemis very bandwidth inefficient for a single user, the advantage of spread spectrum is that many users can simultaneously use the same bandwidth without significantly interfering with one another. In a multiple-user, multiple access interference (MAI) environment, spread spectrum systems become very bandwidth efficient.  Apart from occupying a very large bandwidth, spread spectrum signals are pseudorandom and have noise-like properties when compared with the digital information data.  The spreading waveform is controlled by a pseudo-noise (PN) sequence or pseudo-noise code, which is a binary sequence that appears random but can be reproduced in a deterministic manner by intended receivers.  Spread spectrum signals are demodulated at the receiver through cross correlation with a locally- generated version of the pseudorandom carrier Crosscorrelation with the correct PN sequence despreads the spread spectrum signal and restores the modulated message in the same narrow band as the original data, whereas crosscorrelating the signal from an undesired user results in a very small amount of wideband noise at the receiver output.
  • 44.
    Advantages  Its inherentinterference rejection capability. Since each user is assigned a unique PN code which is approximately orthogonal to the codes of other users, the receiver can separate each user based on their codes, even though they occupy the same spectrum at all times. This implies that, up to a certain number of users, interference between spread spectrum signals using the same frequency is negligible.  Not only can a particular spread spectrum signal be recovered from a number of other spread spectrum signals, it is also possible to completely recover a spread spectrum signal even when it is jammed by a narrowband interferer. Since narrowband interference effects only a small portion of the spread spectrum signal, it can easily be removed through notch filtering without much loss of information.  Since all users are able to share the same spectrum, spread spectrum may eliminate frequency planning, since all cells can use the same channels.  Resistance to multipath fading is another fundamental reason for considering spread spectrum systems for wireless communications. Since spread spectrum signals have uniform energy over a very large bandwidth, at any given time only a small portion of the spectrum will undergo fading.  Viewed in the time domain, the multipath resistance properties are due to the fact that the delayed versions of the transmitted PN signal will have poor correlation with the original PN sequence, and will thus appear as another uncorrelated user which is ignored by the receiver.  Spread spectrum systems are not only resistant to inultipath fading, but they can also exploit the multipath components to improve the performance of the system. This can be done using a RAKE receiver which combines the information obtained from several resolvable multipath components.
  • 45.
    Pseudo-noise (PN) Sequences A pseudo-noise (PN) or pseudorandom sequence is a binary sequence with an autocorrelation that resembles, over a period, the autocorrelation of a random binary sequence.  Its autocorrelation also roughly resembles the autocorrelation of band-limited white noise. Although it is deterministic, a pseudonoise sequence has many characteristics that are similar to those of random binary sequences, such as having a nearly equal number of 0s and is, very low correlation between shifted versions of the sequence, very low crosscorrelation between any two sequences, etc. The PN sequence is usually generated using sequential logic circuits. A feedback shift register, consists of consecutive stages of two state memory devices and feedback logic. Binary sequences are shifted through the shift registers in response to clock pulses, and the output of the various stages are logically combined and fed back as the input to the first stage. When the feedback logic consists of exclusive-OR gates, which is usually the case, the shift register is called a linear PN sequence generator.