The document defines key concepts in measurement systems including accuracy, precision, calibration, sensitivity, hysteresis, repeatability, linearity, and loading effect. It discusses measurement errors like gross errors, systematic errors from instruments and environment, and random errors. The significance of measurement and standardized units is explained. Transducers are defined as devices that convert one form of energy to another, and are classified as primary or secondary and by physical phenomena like electrical, mechanical, or electronic. Measurement systems have detecting elements, transducers, intermediate devices, and terminating devices like oscilloscopes.

1. MODULE -4
MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
AND BASIC CONCEPTS OF
MEASUREMENT METHODS

2. • MODULE -4
Measurement systems and basic concepts of
measurement methods:
Definition, significance of measurement, generalized
measurement system, definitions and concept of accuracy,
precision, calibration, threshold, sensitivity, hysteresis,
repeatability, linearity, loading effect, system response-time
delay. Errors in measurement, classification of errors.
Transducers, transfer efficiency, primary and secondary
transducers, electrical, mechanical, electronic transducers,
advantages of each type transducers.
• Intermediate modifying and terminating devices:
Mechanical systems, inherent problems,
• electrical intermediate modifying devices, input circuitry,
ballast circuit, electronic amplifiers. Terminating devices,
Cathode ray oscilloscope, Oscillographs

3. Definition of measurement
Measurement is defined as the process of obtaining a
quantitative comparison between a predefined standard
& an unknown magnitude. Example-consider the
measurement of length of bar.
Definition of Standard
Standard is a value of some quantity which is setup and
established by authority as a rule for measurement of a
quantity. The system of measurement must be related to
a known standard or else the standard has no meaning.

4. Significance in Measurement
• Measurements always involve a comparison.
– When you say that a table is 6 Meters long, you're
really saying that the table is six times longer than
an object that is 1 Meter long.
– The Meter is a unit; you measure the length of the
table by comparing it with an object like a Meter
stick or a tape measure that is a known number of
Meter long.

5. • The comparison always involves some uncertainty.
– If the tape measure has marks every Meter, and the table
falls between the sixth and seventh marks, you can be
certain that the table is longer than six Meter and less than
seven Meter.
– To get a better idea of how long the table actually is ,
though, you will have to read between the scale division
marks.
– This is done by estimating the measurement to the nearest
one tenth of the space between scale divisions.

6. • Which of the following best
describes the length of the
object in the picture to the
left?
a) Between 0 and 2 cm
b) Between 1 and 2 cm
c) Between 1.5 and 1.6 cm
d) Between 1.54 and 1.56 cm
e) Between 1.546 and 1.547 cm

7. The correct answer is . . .
(d), between 1.54 and 1.56 cm
• Measurements are often written as a single number
rather than a range.
– The Object length in the previous slide was between 1.54
and 1.56 cm long.
– The single number that best represents the measurement
is the center of the range, 1.55 cm.
– When you write the measurement as a single number, it's
understood that the last figure (the second of the two 5’s
in this case) had to be estimated. Consider measuring the
length of the same object with two different rulers.

8. • For each of the rulers,
give the correct length
measurement for the
steel pellet as a single
number rather than a
range
• For the ruler on the left you should have had . . .
1.4 cm
(The digit 4 is estimated hence Uncertain)
• For the ruler on the right, you should have had . . .
1.47 cm
(The digit 7 is estimated hence Uncertain)

9. • Numbers obtained from definitions have no
uncertainty unless they have been rounded off.
– For example, a foot is exactly 12 inches. The 12 is not
uncertain at all.
– A foot is also exactly 30.48 centimeters from the definition
of the centimeter. The 8 in 30.48 is not uncertain at all.
– But if you say 1 foot is 30.5 centimeters, you've rounded
off the definition and the rounded digit is uncertain.

10. Generalized measurement system,

12. Definitions
Accuracy
Precision
Calibration
Threshold
Sensitivity
Hysteresis
Repeatability
Linearity
Loading effect
System response-
Time delay.

13. ACCURACY AND PRECISION
Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measured
value to a standard or known value.
Accuracy Compares a measurement to the true
value.
Accuracy is expressed as a percentage based on
the actual scale reading / full scale reading.
Percentage accuracy based on reading =
(Vr(max or min) -Va)*100
Va
Ex: (10.1-10)*100/10 = 1% Accuracy

14. Precision refers to the degree of exactness of a
measurement that is repeatedly recorded.
Precision describes how closely measurements are
to each other and how carefully measurements
were made.
Precision data have small dispersion ( spread or
scatter ) but may be far from the true value.

16. Calibration in measurement technology and metrology, is
the comparison of measurement values delivered by
a device under test with those of a calibration standard of
known accuracy.
Calibration is the procedure employed for checking and
making adjustments of the system readings confirming to
Pre-defined standards.

17. Threshold

18. Sensitivity
This is the relationship between a change in the output reading
for a given change of the input. (This relationship may be linear
or non-linear.)
May be defined as the ratio of Change in output of the
instrument of the change in input value.
Sensitivity is often known as scale factor or instrument
magnification and an instrument with a large sensitivity (scale
factor) will indicate a large movement of the indicator for a
small input change.

19. Repeatability
It is defined as the ability of a measuring
system to reproduce output readings when the
same input is applied to it consecutively, under
the same conditions, and in the same direction.

20. Linearity
Linearity is an indicator of the consistency of
measurements over the entire range of
measurements. In simple terms, linearity tells
us how well the instrument measurement
corresponds to reality

21. Hysteresis
An instrument is said to exhibit hysteresis when
there is a difference in readings depending on
whether the value of the measured quantity is
approached from higher value or from a lower
value
Hysteresis arises because of mechanical
friction, magnetic effects, elastic deformation
or thermal effects.
Hysteresis is a phenomenon which gives
different output effects when loading and
unloading.

22. Example of Hysterisis

23. Loading Effect:
The presence of a measuring instrument in a medium
to be measured will always lead to extraction of some
energy from the medium, thus making perfect
measurements theoretically impossible.
This effect is known as “loading effect‟ which must be
kept as small as possible for better measurements. For
example, in electrical measuring systems, the detector
stage receives energy from the signal source, while
the intermediate modifying devices and output
indicators receive energy from auxiliary source. The
loading effects are due to impedances of various
elements connected in a system.

24. System Response:
Response of a system may be defined as the ability of
the system to transmit & present all the relevant
information contained in the input signal & to exclude
all others. If the output is faithful to input, i.e. the
output signals have the same phase relationships as
that of the input signal, the system is said to have
good System response.

25. Errors in Measurement:
Error may be defined as the difference between the
measured value and the true value.
No measurement can be made without errors at all
times i.e. 100% accurate measurements cannot be
made at all times.
Types of Errors:
Errors may arise from various sources and are classified as
1. Gross Error
2. Systematic Error
• Instrument Error
• Environmental Error
• Observational Errors
3. Random Error

26. Gross Error:
Gross errors are caused by experimenter carelessness or
equipment failure.
Example :
1. Operator due to oversight read the temperature as 31.5°C
while the actual reading is 21.5°C.
2. He may transpose the reading like 25.8 mm as 28.5 mm
Gross Errors may be avoided by adopting two methods
1. Great Care should be taken while reading and recording
the data.
2. Two or three readings should be taken for the quantity.

27. Systematic Error:
Systematic error is consistent, repeatable error associated
with faulty equipment. These errors are usually caused by
measuring instruments that are incorrectly calibrated.
These errors are called Zero Error
Systematic error including:
• Instrument Error
• Environmental Error
• Observational Errors

28. Instrument Error:
•Error due to Old and worn out instrument.
•Errors due to Hysteresis or friction or Backlash.
•Improper Calibration of the instrument.
•Transducers may loose its properties after long use.(Spring)
Environmental Error:
•Environmental errors occur due to external conditions.
•External conditions may be pressure, Temperature,
Humidity, or due to magnetic field

29. Observational Error:
•These errors occur due to wrong observation.
•Is also called Parallax Error.

30. Random Error:
Random errors are (like the name suggests) completely
random. They are unpredictable and can’t be replicated by
repeating the experiment again.
Examples of causes of random errors are:
•Electronic noise in the circuit of an electrical instrument
•Sudden change in the Environmental conditions.
•Power fluctuation.

31. Transducers
• The detecting or sensing element of a measuring system first makes contact with
the quantity to be measured.
• The sensed information is immediately transduced into an analogous form.
• The transducer, which may be electrical, mechanical, optical, magnetic,
piezoelectric, etc., converts the sensed information into a more convenient form.
• A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another
form.
Transfer efficiency
Depending on the information sensed and delivered by the sensor, transfer
efficiency is defined as follows:
Idel is the information delivered by the pickup device and Isen is the information
sensed by the pickup device. This ratio cannot be more than unity since the
sensor device cannot generate any information on its own. Hence, it is desirable
to have a sensor with very high transfer efficiency.

32. Classification of Transducers:
1. Based on the Physical Phenomena.
Primary transducer and Secondary transducer
2. Based on power type.
Active transducer and passive transducers
3. Based on the type of output.
Analog transducer and Digital transducer
4. Based on Electrical Phenomenon.
Resistive transducer, Capacitive transducer, Inductive
transducer etc

33. Primary and Secondary Transducer :
• Some Transducers consist of mechanical as well as
electrical device.
• Mechanical device converts pressure in to mechanical
signal is a Primary transducer.
• Electrical device LVDT converts mechanical signals in to
electrical signals is a secondary transducer.

34. Active & Passive Transducers:
Active transducers also known as self generating type
transducers develop their own voltage or current. Energy
required for production of output signal is obtained by
quantity being measured. Ex: Eddy Current transducers &
Piezo electric transducers.
Passive transducers also known as externally powered
transducer . Derive the power for energy conversion from an
external power source
Ex: Bonded electrical resistance strain gauges

35. Analog and Digital transducer
• In case of analog transducers, the input quantity is converted into an
analog output, which is a continuous function of time. LVDT, strain
gauge, thermocouple, and thermistor are some examples of analog
transducers.
• If a transducer converts the input quantity into an electrical signal
that is in the form of pulses, as output, it is called a digital
transducer. These pulses are not continuous functions of time but
are discrete in nature. In fact, it is easier to process and transmit
data as a function of two numbers 0 and 1. Examples are shaft
encoders, linear displacement transducers using conducting or non-
conducting contacts, and opaque or translucent segments.

36. Mechanical Transducers:
•Transducers that convert physical quantities into
mechanical signals are called mechanical transducers.

37. Electrical Transducers:
Transducers that convert mechanical displacement into
Electrical signals are called Electrical transducers.
Electrical transducers are classified as
1. Resistive Transducers
• Sliding contact and rotary contact Potentiometer
• Wire resistance strain gauge
• Resistance Thermometer
2. Inductive Transducers
• Single coil self inductance transducer
• LVDT
3. Piezo-electric transducer

38. Sliding contact and rotary contact Potentiometer

39. Single coil self inductance transducer

40. Piezoelectric Transducers
Certain materials can produce an electric potential
when subjected to mechanical strain, this effect is
called Piezoelectric effect. Ex; Piezoelectric crystal

41. Intermediate modifying devices
• In most cases, the mechanical quantity which is
detected will be transformed into an electrical form.
• The output of the first stage has to be modified
before it is fed to the third or terminating stage such
as indicators, recorders or control elements.
• So, the modifications are carried out in the
intermediate stage commonly called as the signal
conditioning stage.
• Signal conditioning equipment used may be of
mechanical, electrical or electronic.

42. Mechanical intermediate modifying devices
•An input signal is often converted to a mechanical
displacement by primary transducer.
•Generally, then it is fed to a secondary transducer
which converts in to electrical form, which can easily
deal with the intermediate stage devices.
•But in some cases mechanical intermediate devices are
used like linkages, gears, cams etc.
•Mechanical intermediate devices or elements pose
certain problems

43. Inherent Problems
•Kinetic Linearity
•Reflected frictional amplification
•Reflected inertial amplification
•Amplification of backlash and Elastic deformation
•Tolerance Problem
•Temperature problems

44. Kinetic Linearity
Mechanical amplification
(Gain)
Any linkage used in mechanical Amplifier must
provide same gain our its entire range of outputs
i.e it much be linear

45. Reflectedfrictional amplification
•Due to mechanical gain, a small frictional force in a
mechanism will reflect back as magnified load.
• As a result of this, the input to the mechanism or
mechanical system is reversed.
• This will be equal to the gain between the frictional
source and the point of input of energy to the
mechanism.

46. ReflectedInertial Amplification
•Inertia-weight-mechanical system-robust construction-hence
requires more input-output loss due to more weight.
• Inertia forces also cause problems similar to those caused by
frictional force.
• I.e. their effects may be considered as reflected back to the
input in proportion to the mechanical amplification existing
between the source and the input signal.
• This is referred to as reflected inertial amplification.
Fir=ΣA.Ffi
• Fir=total inertial force at the system input
• A=mechanical gain or amplification
• Ffi=frictional force

47. Amplification of backlash and of Elastic deformation
•Backlash results from temporary non-constraint in a
linkage caused by clearances required in mechanical
fits, where relative motion occurs.
• Backlash and elastic deformation cause a lost
motion at the output signal equal to the backlash
multiplied by the amplification between the source
and the output.
• Elastic deformation is brought about by loads and
forces, carried by links

48. • Tolerance results in lost motion.
• Keep tolerance range as minimum as possible.
• We can minimize the lost motion due to
tolerance but cannot be avoided completely.
Tolerance Problems

49. • Cause dimensional changes and changes in the
physical properties both elastic and electric
resulting in deviation referred to as “Zero shift and
scale error”
• Zero –shift: Results in change in the no-input
reading. This depends mainly on temperature and
also primarily a function of linear dimensional
changes caused by expansion or contraction with
changing temperatures.
Temperature problems

50. 1. Minimization through careful selection of materials
and operating temperatures(Select materials which
have low coefficient of expansion)
2. Compensation: May be made in different forms
depending on the basic characteristics of the system
like
• If a mechanical system is used-make use of
composite construction i.e. bimetals, composites
etc
• For electrical circuits-Strain gauges are used
3. By elimination-Efforts should be made to eliminate
the temperature effects altogether. This is the best
solution.
Methods to minimize temperature problems

51. Electrical Intermediate modifying devices
Following list of input circuits are used for the
intermediate modification.
•Simple Current sensitive circuit
•Ballast Circuit
•Voltage dividing circuit
•Voltage Balancing potentiometer circuit
•Bridge Circuit. etc

52. Simple Current sensitive circuit

53. •This circuit uses the flow of current through a passive
resistance transducer as an indication of value of the
resistance.
• The resistance of transducer changes when there is a
change in physical quantity being measured, thereby
causing a change in the current.
Let
Rt=maximum resistance of the transducer,
kRt= Resistance of the transducer when measuring a
particular value of physical quantity,
Rm= Resistance of the measuring circuit excluding the
transducer.
k represents a %age factor which may vary from 0 to 1.

54. Using ohm’s law, the current flowing through the
circuit io (the current indicated by the indicator) is,

55. The fig shows the variation
of (io/imax) ratio with k for
various values of (Rt/Rm), io
represents the output signal
and k depends on the input
signal and hence represents
the input.

56. Ballast circuit (Voltage Sensitive Circuit)

57. • By Ohm’s Law, the output current is

59. Electronic Amplifiers
•Electronic amplifiers are used to provide voltage gain,
current gain, and impedance transformation.
• In most transducers, electrical voltage is the output but
the voltage level available from the transducer is very
low, hence a voltage amplifier is required to increase the
level for subsequent processing.
• In such cases power must be increased by using current
or power amplifiers.

60. Vacuum tube Amplifiers

61. • Tele-distance and Metry-measurements
• Telemetry is the technique of measuring from a
distance.
• It may be defined as indicating, recording or
integrating of a quantity at a distance by electrical
means.
• It is a very important part of intermediate modifying
stage.
• Telemetry systems require radio links which permits
use of readout devices located on the ground.
• They are used in missile , aircraft flight testing,
industrial, medical & transportation applications.
Telemetry

62. Block diagram of general Telemetering System

63. Advantages:of telemetering over recording of data at source are;
(1) For the same capacity, weight of telemetering equipment is
less.
(2) Many channels may be individually and continuously
monitored without the direct attention of the operator.
(3) Exceeding of safe limits may be immediately recognized and
corrective measures can be taken.
(4) In case of destructive failure, telemetered data gives a
complete record up to the final moment. This is important in
missile testing when the test item may not be recoverable.
(5) Practical recording time is not limited.
Disadvantages:
(1) It is more complex & expensive.
(2) The required extra processing of data leads to greater chance
for error.
(3) Greater chances for the introduction of unwanted signals.
(4) It is not quite economical.

64. Terminating devices
Usefulness of any measuring system depends on its ability to
present the measured quantity in a form which can be
understood fully by the human operator or any controlling
device.
• The primary function of a terminating device is to accept the
analogous driving signal and to provide output for the
immediate reading or for recording.
• For direct human interpretation, a terminating device provides
information as;
(1) A relative displacement: For ex, a pointer moving over a
scale, light beam & scale, liquid column & scale, etc.
(2) A digital form: Examples: Odometer in an automobile
speedometer, a rotating drum mechanical counter.
(3) ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ limiting type: Ex, red oil pressure lights in
automobiles, Pilot lamps on equipments

65. Pointer & scale meters/indicators are useful for
static & steady state dynamic indications, but not
suitable for transient measurements. This is due
to relatively high inertia of the meter movement.
Meter indicators may be classified as:
(i) Simple D‟Arsonval type meter
(ii) Ohm meters & Volt-Ohm milli ammeters
(iii) Vacuum tube voltmeters.
Meter indicators

66. D’Arsonval type meter
• D’Arsonval type meter is widely employed as the final indicating
device.
• D’Arsonval type meter is the common type used for measuring
either current or voltage.

67. Mechanical Counter

68. CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)

69. Oscillographs
Oscillographs are basically writing instruments unlike CRO which is
a display device. These are current sensitive devices. Oscillographs
work on the principle of D‟Arsonval meter movement. They are
available in two types:
(1) Direct writing stylus type: This employs some form of stylus
which directly contacts a moving paper.
(2) Various forms of stylus may be used , depending on whether
the recording is accomplished through the use of ink, or by a
heated stylus on a treated paper, or by means of a stylus &
pressure sensitive paper.

70. Direct writing stylus type

71. Light beam or Mirror type: