This document discusses applying a gender studies perspective to analyze early Indian art. It proposes examining artworks using tools from women's studies to analyze aspects like dress, ornaments, posture, gaze and aesthetics. This can reveal how art reinforced gender differences and stereotypes. A multidisciplinary methodology is advocated, drawing from fields like art history, history, anthropology and psychology. Engaging both visual material and textual sources from the period can provide more nuanced readings that challenge dominant patriarchal interpretations. Certain representations of femininity and masculinity in early Indian art essentialized gender roles and ideologies of power. Applying gender studies methodologies can offer deeper insights into the cultural context and meanings behind early Indian art.

1. GENDER IN EARLY INDIAN ART:
TRADITION,
METHODOLOGY AND PROBLEMATICS

2. • Established ideological framework,
within which art history of the “early
period” is traditionally studied, in
discipline-based academics, has certain
fixed paradigms and methodologies:
These include
• formalistic studies
• iconographic studies
• identification of art objects.

3. This paper interrogates existing art
historical writing:
which appears to be overtly gender
neutral if not gender blind,
but is actually deeply engendered in their
language, ideology and import.

4. Any multi-disciplinary approach which critically
examines the existing methodologies and raises
new questions is often viewed with skepticism and
even hostility.
The application of Gender Studies to early Indian
Art, raises a spectrum of protest;
-ranging from questioning the existence of gender
in art itself;
-to suggestions that any such perspective is
necessarily Euro centric/ post modern
-thus not applicable to the art of a culturally
different spatio-temporal era.

5. • A study of gender in early Indian art peels away
not only the layers of meanings ascribed by
dominant textual interpretations of the time but
also by the discipline of art history.
• Based on three co-axial coordinates of
discourse: religion, text and images
• GENDER: Art, as produced and consumed
during the early period, if examined from a
gendered perspective reveals greater depth
and meaning

6. The methodology used to study “gender in early
Indian art” requires constant and consistent
engagement with the visual and textual material and
in praxis it emerges from the archives of the period.
By grounding gender in Indian art, not in Euro-centric
or post modernist paradigms but in available historical
and cultural sources located in the early historical
tradition
Methodologically, gendered readings when rooted in
contemporary traditions throw up multiple voices,
silences and fractures that have been suppressed in
the dominant patriarchal textual traditions.

7. • The methodology seeks to balance the
material and metaphysical aspects by viewing
men & women as socio-sexual beings and by
locating the representations within the
philosophic and spiritual domain.
• Examines how art and art-related literature
mirrors and reinforces gender differences
• Attempts to explore archetypes and
stereotypes related to religious iconography,
“body” and gender roles.

8. Terminology
• Sex/Gender: Sex- Biological Gender Socio-
Cultural construct encoded as notions
stereotypes and ideations of “essential” man
or woman
• Engendering: explain how models of
masculinity-femininity their idealized
behavior, societal ideological apparatus, can
be used to offer an alternate perspective into
various source material
• Gaze: where internal gaze of figure is
focused; external gazere-ifying how gaze
fixes viewed as categories; Ways of seeing
• Posture: solid, static,mobile; maternal sensual

9. METHODOLOGY
• Investigate and interpret representations – visual and
to a limited extent textual – to discover what they may
reveal concerning the specific art objects, and also the
gendered meanings therein.
• Images need to be studied with reference to relevant
contemporary textual sources; sources mainly
composed by dominant patriarchal tradition; text-image
divergence significant to engendering
• Gendered readings in conjunction with the art-
historical processing of style, chronology and
technique
• Multidisciplinary in scope: art-history, history, women’s
studies, anthropology, sociology and psychology
• Donative and patronage patterns can aid analysis

10. Gender issues as “embedded” or
inextricably entrenched in the sources in
the form of notions relating to the feminine,
femininity, masculinity, and gender
stereotypes as well as archetypes (arche-
type).
Tools from Women’s studies relating to
body, agency, sexuality; analyzing aspects
such as dress, ornaments, posture, gaze
and aesthetics

11. Except the divine feminine, femininity is
imaged in voluptuous figures displayed in
attractively flexed postures and gazing at
their own bodies;
The solidity and massive immobility
associated with the mother figures
strengthens their perceived engendered
roles.

12. Ûaûþhì, red sandstone, 2nd century, Mathura,
Musuem fuer Indische Kunst, Berlin. MIK I
5924
Ûaûþhì with two attendant, 2nd
century, red sandstone, UP, Mathura
District. GMM No. 00F.3
Postioning

13. The sex role of woman as child
producer was being socialized
into gender role of women as
child rearer and protector. A
male deity in a mothering role
indicates a certain resistance
patriarchal gender roles

14. Harinaigamesa, 3rd century, Mathura
sandstone, UP, Mathura, Yamuna
Bed, Mathura District GMM No.
15.115.
Female goat headed deity, Naigamesi,
2nd century, red sandstone, UP,
Mathura District. GMM No. E2

15. Female body is essential to
engendering; through prominently-
marked genitalia (explicitly / through
transparent drapery), prominent,
round, full breasts
Ideologically women as sexual-
reproductive beings are defined by
their reproductive body.

17. That nudity, especially of female
figures, is not universal in early art,
it is predicated on the sex/gender
representations, cultic figures may
be nude without social implications
ascribable.

18. Apparel and Intent
Women bearing offering of flowers, fully clothed, fragment
of an Ayàgapatta, Mathura. SML.

19. Nudity is used to construct
various female bodies: of
yakûì-úàlabhañjikàs,
mothers, prostitutes and
wives; the degree of nudity
is significant in constituting
each category

20. Woman fleeing, chatradhàrióì and two males,
obverse, depicting scenes from Måchhakaþika,
Kuûàóa, Red sandstone, Maholi, Mathura,
Kneeling woman supported by two male
companions and a diminutive attendant, reverse of
the same panel
Stance, Gaze, Movement and
Transgression

21. Aesthetically pleasing male
and female forms: masculinity
is projected through strong,
solid, straight-standing and
frontally-gazing figures taking
the forms of semi-divine beings
such as yakûas or mortal men
like Nanda

22. yakûa, inscribed, made by Gomitaka, the pupil of
Kunika, standing, 2nd century B.C., Parkham, Buff
Sandstone, GMM.
yakûì, 3rd century B.C.,
Chunar sandstone,
Didarganj, Patna
Museum 134.
Posture

23. A female wearing a necklace and a male figure assisting
her with her toilet, perhaps Sundarì and Nanda, red
sandstone, 2nd century A.D., Sankissa, Etah District, UP.
IM
A royal couple seated in a palace, scene
from Saundarànanda, 3rd century A.D.
Amàravati.
Ornamentation and perception of
feminine and masculine: strisvabhava

24. Rail post with
Rsyasrnga scene in
bottom panel, 2nd
century, red sandstone,
UP, Bhutewara
Mound, Mathura
District.
Alambusa
Jàtaka,
Mathura, SML

25. Asceticism, Movement, Composition
Nalagiri episode, rail pillar, 2nd century,
marble, Amàravati, Madras Museum

26. Màra’s Army, some with
animal faces, Gandhara,
schist.
GMAG 543.
Màra’s daughters,
Gandhara, schist.
GMAG 985.
Representing
male and female
characteristics

27. Traditions
• A fruitful study in engendering needs dialogue not just Vedic and
shastric texts, but also the ‘popular’ and non-shastric texts be these, the
Jatakas, drama or medical literature, among others. Some such being
úàstric : Nàþyaúàstra Kàmasutra, Arthaúàstra Manusmåti,
later s úilpaúàtras vastuúàstras—úilpprakàúa,
Visnudharamottarpuràna
• Buddhist Canonical/Non-Canonical: Therìgàthà Theragàthà
Avadànakathàs Vinaya Pitaka Jàtakas, Asvaghoûa’s
Kavyas- Buddhacarita, Saundarananda
• Jaina Sutras: Ràjapraseniyasùtra, Jìvajìvàbhigamasùtra
Kalpasùtra and Bhàgavatìsùtra
• Brahmanical texts: Åigveda, Atharvaveda, Úatapatha
Bràámaóa, Taittirìya Bràámaóa, Mànava gåhysùtra,
Kauúìtaki Gåhyasùtra other Úrauta- and Gåhyasùtras, the
Mahàbhàrata Ràmàyaóa
• Dramas: Úùdraka's Måcchhakatika Bhàsa's Daridra
Carudatta Kàlidasa's Màlàvikagnimitraý
• Medical Texts; Suúruta Samhita, Caraka Samhita and
Kaúyapa Samhita

28. CONTEXTUALISING
• New dynasties arose: Kharavela in Orissa, the Indo-Greeks, the Úakas
and the Kuûàóas in the Northwest and Rajasthan, ‘tribal’ monarchies and
gaóaràjyas in Punjab, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, the Sàtavàhanas
and Ikûvàkus in the Deccan, and the Saògaý chiefdoms
• The post-Mauryan period (185 B.C. to A.D. 320) has a systematic and
large body of art
• Period of great turmoil and flux in the socio-cultural, politico-economic
and religious spheres, giving rise to a number of contesting ideologies
and gender complexities
• In socio-legal juris-prudence and practice, patri-locality and patri-linearity
become increasingly established as the norm. These institutions
obviously lead to a progressive devolution in the economic status of
women
• It is marked by an expanding economy and socio-religious
transformations; influx of foreigners and tribal communities into the social
system. Evolution of Mahàyàna Buddhism; creation of sculptures of the
Buddha and Boddhisattvas. In Brahamanical religion the rise of the Úaiva
& Vaiûóava sects
• Rapid expansion of the agrarian economy, trade and commerce both
internal and external,that boost urbanization and monetisation.

29. CONTEXTUALISING
• City in Art and Art in the City first being art that was produced and
consumed within the city and second, art that reflected the city, its life,
symbols and motifs and an urban sensibility
• There is a growing influence of merchants and guilds in societal
spheres including patronage patterns;
• There is a progressive decline from the 3/4 women donors at Bharhut,
to 1/2 female donors at Sanchi, and even less at Mathura and Sarnath
• Folk narratives retained some autonomy from the homogenised
master-narrative.This was the contribution of the bhikkku who used
the folk tales to popularize the Buddhist doctrine, with its inherent
gendered misogynist ideology, and make it more accessible
• There is an increasing sensualisation of certain representational types
with an increase in patriarchal dominance (as can be gleaned from the
textual tradition) in society leading to a dilution in original cultic
functions

30. Certain cultic and artistic
representations, are found only in
certain specific periods and offer
insights into the creation of gender roles
in art and society.
The degree of patriarchal dominance is
neither uniform over time, nor evenly
spread over all religious ideologies
.

31. Leads to a review
-of certain “fixed categories– Fertility, Fecundity,
Maternal, Ogress;
-the transformations/discontinuations of
representations such as yakûì, Ûaûþhì and
Naigameûì in terms of form, symbol and
meanings over time & space.

32. This paper seeks to validate methodologies of
gender studies in early Indian art as offering
more nuanced readings of the material.
Certain stratifications, ideologies and strategies
of power/legitimization can thus be perceived
and understood