- Early humans discovered native metals like gold and copper and used them for ornamental purposes before learning to work them into tools.
- The Copper Age began around 4500 BC with the working of native copper into cold-worked tools and artifacts. Smelting of copper ores, beginning with malachite, allowed larger-scale production.
- The Bronze Age began around 3200 BC with the production of arsenic-bronze and tin-bronze alloys which were harder than copper and better for tools. Ironworking began around 1500 BC but did not become widespread until 1200 BC.
Copper was the first metal used to make ornaments like necklaces and bracelets. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was harder and used to make tools and weapons. Iron was the hardest metal and was used to make many tools for farming and improving living conditions. Metallurgy advanced from copper to bronze to iron over time, changing toolmaking and society.
The Metal Age began around 4,500 BC and marked the last period of Prehistory. It was divided into the Copper Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. During the Copper Age, copper and gold were the first metals used by humans and were hammered into tools and weapons. The Bronze Age followed, using an alloy of copper and tin to make stronger weapons, tools, and utensils for agriculture and domestic use. Finally, in the Iron Age, iron became popular as it was even stronger than bronze, and new techniques like casting in molds were developed. Trade expanded, agriculture continued, and social stratification increased during this time.
Iron is the 26th element on the periodic table. It is one of the most useful metals to humans, being a key component of steel and having a variety of industrial uses. Iron is rarely found in its pure form naturally and is usually extracted from iron ores like magnetite through high-temperature processes in blast furnaces. Throughout history, iron has played an important role in the development of civilizations both through its use in tools and weapons.
This document discusses types of metallurgy, including ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy. It focuses on describing the history and processes of ferrous metallurgy, which involves iron. Key points include that the earliest iron artifacts date back to 4000 BC in Egypt and were made from meteoritic iron-nickel. Iron smelting, which is more difficult than other metals, emerged in the Middle East around the 3rd millennium BC. The Iron Age began at different times in different places as the technology spread, starting around 500 BC in Central Europe and India/China between 1200-500 BC. Non-ferrous metals like copper are also recycled due to their extensive use.
The document provides an overview of the metal casting industry, including:
1. It defines metal casting as a process where liquid metal is poured into a mold and solidifies. It discusses the history of metal casting dating back 6000 years.
2. It describes different types of metals used in ancient Egypt like gold, silver, copper, tin, bronze, and iron. It also discusses the extraction process for iron.
3. It defines cast iron and describes common types like gray cast iron, white cast iron, malleable cast iron, and ductile cast iron.
4. It notes that castings are essential building blocks for modern industry, with over 90% of manufactured goods containing castings.
why Cu, Pb, and Sn were metals used in early civilizations Solu.pdfisenbergwarne4100
why Cu, Pb, and Sn were metals used in early civilizations ?
Solution
Copper(Cu), Lead(Pb) and Sn(Tin) are among the metals which were used by the pre-historic
men. Copper in its native pure form could be hammered to different shapes. Archaeological
evidence suggests that copper was first used between 8,000 and 5,000 B.C., most likely in the
regions known now as Turkey, Iran, Iraq and the Indian subcontinent. It is most likely that before
the invention of the metallurgical methods, the native copper in pure form was used.
They could use simple hammering and forging to harden the copper. Also these metals were
malleable so they could be molded into different shapes. Then annealing became the first step
towards metallurgy when they discovered that heating the copper makes it easy to work with.
Other superior alloys such as Bronze were only possible after further enhancements in
metallurgy, such as smelting process. So this is the reason that only these metals were used in
early times..
MS4SSAsssssssss-IntroductiontoMetals.pptSrikanth S
This document summarizes the history and applications of metals. It discusses the early use of metals like copper and bronze in ancient civilizations. The Iron Age introduced iron smelting around 2000 BC. Important developments included cast iron production in 800 AD, steelmaking in 500 AD, and Abraham Darby's coking process in 1709. Modern applications mentioned include uses of metals in cookware, medicine via gold nanoparticles, electronics, alloys for implants, and new catalysts for fuel cells.
Copper was the first metal used to make ornaments like necklaces and bracelets. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was harder and used to make tools and weapons. Iron was the hardest metal and was used to make many tools for farming and improving living conditions. Metallurgy advanced from copper to bronze to iron over time, changing toolmaking and society.
The Metal Age began around 4,500 BC and marked the last period of Prehistory. It was divided into the Copper Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. During the Copper Age, copper and gold were the first metals used by humans and were hammered into tools and weapons. The Bronze Age followed, using an alloy of copper and tin to make stronger weapons, tools, and utensils for agriculture and domestic use. Finally, in the Iron Age, iron became popular as it was even stronger than bronze, and new techniques like casting in molds were developed. Trade expanded, agriculture continued, and social stratification increased during this time.
Iron is the 26th element on the periodic table. It is one of the most useful metals to humans, being a key component of steel and having a variety of industrial uses. Iron is rarely found in its pure form naturally and is usually extracted from iron ores like magnetite through high-temperature processes in blast furnaces. Throughout history, iron has played an important role in the development of civilizations both through its use in tools and weapons.
This document discusses types of metallurgy, including ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy. It focuses on describing the history and processes of ferrous metallurgy, which involves iron. Key points include that the earliest iron artifacts date back to 4000 BC in Egypt and were made from meteoritic iron-nickel. Iron smelting, which is more difficult than other metals, emerged in the Middle East around the 3rd millennium BC. The Iron Age began at different times in different places as the technology spread, starting around 500 BC in Central Europe and India/China between 1200-500 BC. Non-ferrous metals like copper are also recycled due to their extensive use.
The document provides an overview of the metal casting industry, including:
1. It defines metal casting as a process where liquid metal is poured into a mold and solidifies. It discusses the history of metal casting dating back 6000 years.
2. It describes different types of metals used in ancient Egypt like gold, silver, copper, tin, bronze, and iron. It also discusses the extraction process for iron.
3. It defines cast iron and describes common types like gray cast iron, white cast iron, malleable cast iron, and ductile cast iron.
4. It notes that castings are essential building blocks for modern industry, with over 90% of manufactured goods containing castings.
why Cu, Pb, and Sn were metals used in early civilizations Solu.pdfisenbergwarne4100
why Cu, Pb, and Sn were metals used in early civilizations ?
Solution
Copper(Cu), Lead(Pb) and Sn(Tin) are among the metals which were used by the pre-historic
men. Copper in its native pure form could be hammered to different shapes. Archaeological
evidence suggests that copper was first used between 8,000 and 5,000 B.C., most likely in the
regions known now as Turkey, Iran, Iraq and the Indian subcontinent. It is most likely that before
the invention of the metallurgical methods, the native copper in pure form was used.
They could use simple hammering and forging to harden the copper. Also these metals were
malleable so they could be molded into different shapes. Then annealing became the first step
towards metallurgy when they discovered that heating the copper makes it easy to work with.
Other superior alloys such as Bronze were only possible after further enhancements in
metallurgy, such as smelting process. So this is the reason that only these metals were used in
early times..
MS4SSAsssssssss-IntroductiontoMetals.pptSrikanth S
This document summarizes the history and applications of metals. It discusses the early use of metals like copper and bronze in ancient civilizations. The Iron Age introduced iron smelting around 2000 BC. Important developments included cast iron production in 800 AD, steelmaking in 500 AD, and Abraham Darby's coking process in 1709. Modern applications mentioned include uses of metals in cookware, medicine via gold nanoparticles, electronics, alloys for implants, and new catalysts for fuel cells.
The document discusses early iron metallurgy in Ireland, beginning with the definition of the Iron Age as a period when iron-using societies developed between 700-500 BC. It describes how early Irish ironworking was influenced by Late Bronze Age metalworking traditions and likely utilized bog iron ores extracted from surface deposits. The bloomery process was used to smelt iron ores, producing blooms of impure iron without ever reaching the liquid stage, and slag pits have been excavated from furnace sites. Forged iron objects like axeheads were made by further working and hammering blooms to squeeze out impurities.
The earliest known metal castings date back to around 3000BC and were typically made of copper for weapons and religious idols. Casting originated in the Middle East and India using clay molds. During World War 2, investment casting became important for producing precision metal parts for military needs. It has since expanded into commercial applications. Around 1100AD, the lost wax method was documented and advanced casting techniques. Today, casting is used to create complex precision parts for applications like aerospace through advanced computer technologies.
Iron is the most common element on Earth and is refined into steel through combining it with other elements like carbon. The iron and steel industry has historically been important for economic development due to steel's role in infrastructure and construction. Iron is extracted from iron ore through smelting and can be alloyed with carbon and other elements to make steel for various applications like buildings, vehicles, and appliances. The Wealden iron industry of southeast England was historically significant and used charcoal produced from local woodlands to smelt iron from ironstone.
The document provides information on the Iron Age in multiple sections:
1) It discusses the lack of written historical evidence for Iron Age Britain and how archaeologists must rely on material remains to understand this period.
2) It outlines the chronology of iron production, noting evidence from Anatolia dating to around 1200 BC and India by 1800 BC, though iron was an expensive material until technological improvements.
3) Sections are also included on the health of Iron Age Britons based on skeletal remains, the physical characteristics and languages of Iron Age peoples, and typical building styles, which were usually timber and thatch rather than large stone structures.
The document discusses the relationship between the reactivity of metals and when they were discovered. It finds that generally, less reactive metals like gold and copper were discovered earliest as they exist naturally. More reactive metals exist in compound forms and required advanced technology like electrolysis and smelting to be extracted. So there is a direct relationship between a metal's reactivity and the timeline of its discovery, with less reactive metals found earlier.
The document summarizes the history of metal usage from around 11,000 years ago to modern times. It describes how copper was one of the earliest metals used starting around 4000 BC, followed by bronze which is an alloy of copper and tin. The Bronze Age began around 3000 BC. Iron smelting began in Egypt around 2000 BC and the use of iron revolutionized warfare and farming. Various other metals like gold, silver, lead, and iron from meteors were used even earlier. Over time, humans discovered new metal alloys and uses, including cast iron production in China around 800 AD, steel becoming prevalent in 1750, and aluminum being isolated in 1850.
Metallurgy is the study of physical and chemical behavior of metals and their alloys. The earliest evidence of metallurgy dates back 5000 years to ancient civilizations like ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Throughout history, metallurgy advanced with innovations like extracting copper and tin to make bronze around 3500 BC, and iron around 1200 BC. Metals are extracted from ores through processes like mining, crushing, concentration, and smelting, and shaped using techniques like casting, forging, rolling, and machining. The properties of metals can be modified through heat treatments and alloying with other elements.
1) The document discusses whether there is a connection between the reactivity of a metal and when it was discovered.
2) It notes that the less reactive metals like gold and copper were among the first metals discovered, around 6000 BC and 4200 BC respectively, while more reactive metals were typically discovered later as technology advanced.
3) The conclusion is that more reactive metals were generally discovered later than less reactive metals because they required more advanced techniques to isolate from their ores, given their higher reactivity.
Material science and Metallurgy Lecture 2.pptxsagar642508
This document provides an overview of the history of metals and metallurgy from early discoveries to modern applications. It discusses how the first metals like copper and gold were discovered and processed through techniques like annealing and casting. The development of alloys like bronze by mixing copper and tin is also covered. Major milestones like iron production, the blast furnace, Bessemer steel making, and aluminum extraction are summarized. The document concludes by briefly outlining some modern metallurgical advances and their applications in transportation, electronics, medicine, and materials science.
Metallurgy and its proospect BBA DU Financeneha0175120
This document provides an overview of metallurgy and its history. It discusses the extraction and processing of metals through techniques like mineral processing, pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, and physical metallurgy. The history of metallurgy is traced from early use of gold and copper thousands of years ago to modern developments in steel production and welding. Key events highlighted include the development of bronze and iron working and innovations in the 18th-19th centuries that enabled large-scale steel production.
Roman city dig: session 7, 2012: Roman metals, by Geoff Tindall Ecomuseum Cavalleria
The document discusses metals used in the ancient Roman world such as gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, and zinc. It describes how these metals were obtained from ores through processes like roasting and smelting. Important metal alloys of the time included bronze, brass, pewter, and steel. While iron could be extracted, the Romans lacked technology to cast or smelt it, so they used the "bloom" and forging process to produce wrought iron and steel. Bronze remained commonly used since it could be cast unlike iron. The document also notes the cupellation process used to separate silver from lead.
This document provides an overview of minerals and their properties. It discusses how minerals form through various geological processes and have been important to human civilization throughout history for tool-making and metalworking. Key points include:
- Minerals have distinct physical properties like luster, color, hardness that are used to identify them. They also have orderly crystalline structures and defined chemical compositions.
- The earliest minerals mined were flint and chert for tools. By 3700 BC Egyptians mined gold, silver and copper, and by 2200 BC humans discovered bronze alloy. Ironworking advanced by 800 BC.
- Geologists define minerals as naturally occurring inorganic solids with crystalline structures and chemical compositions. Major mineral groups
This document provides an overview of the metals used in firearms throughout history, beginning with the earliest days. It discusses the properties and production of wrought iron, steel, cast iron, copper alloys, pewter, tin, and silver. Specific types of steel production are explained in detail, including blister steel, shear steel, pattern welded steel, and layered steel. The document also notes how terminology and understanding of metals has evolved over time. Overall, the document serves as a comprehensive reference on the metals and metallurgy involved in firearms from ancient to more modern times.
A Brief History of Steel & The Mysterious EutecticKen Newell
The second agricultural revolution coincided with the Industrial Revolution; it was a revolution that would move agriculture beyond subsistence to generate the kinds of surpluses needed to feed thousands of people working in factories instead of in agricultural fields. Bessemer’s invention of cheap steel was the cornerstone of both revolutions.
Metals are an important class of elements that play an important part in our daily lives and the advancement of contemporary civilisation. Metals have been used by humans for millennia because of their extraordinary qualities like as strong electrical and thermal conductivity, malleability, ductility, and lustre. Metals have continually changed our environment and continue to be vital in numerous industries, from the earliest tools and weapons made during the Bronze Age to high-tech gadgets and towering skyscrapers of today. We will go deeper into the significance, types, qualities, applications, and future possibilities of metals in this presentation, as well as their long-term impact on our society and environment. Our adventure begins in the distant past, when early people discovered the transformational power of metals. Our forefathers discovered the secrets of metallurgy millennia ago, in the crucible of discovery. They recognised that heating certain rocks produced compounds with qualities unlike anything found in nature. The Bronze Age, typified by the fusing of copper and tin, was a watershed point in human history. It was the advent of metals as tools and weapons, ushering in an era of progress that would permanently alter the course of society.
These slides will guide you in an engaging, colorful and challenging study of portions of Scripture referencing the metals that people used in Biblical times. Learn what the elements symbolized for the Israelites and what uses we put them to today. This study is one of a series to help leaders of a Bible study or Sunday School class who are too busy to research and prepare as well as they would like for their task. Like each study in the series, it is ready to go even at the last moment. Search for others in this series using the keyword "lessonstogo".
A brief history of steel & the mysterious eutecticKen Newell
This document provides a history of steel production from ancient times to modern day. It describes how early humans controlled fire around 1 million years ago and used heated stones as weapons. By the Bronze Age around 3000 BC, people had discovered how to make bronze by mixing copper and tin at high temperatures. As tin supplies ran low around 2000 BC, iron production began using charcoal to smelt iron from iron-bearing rocks. The industrial revolution was enabled by advances like the blast furnace and Bessemer process that allowed mass production of steel, revolutionizing infrastructure like railroads. Heat treating techniques were also developed to harden steel for tools and weapons. Overall, steel production has been critical to supporting large populations not engaged in agriculture.
Tin is a post-transition metal that is obtained chiefly from the mineral cassiterite. It has many important uses including coating other metals to prevent corrosion in tin cans and in alloys like solder and bronze. Tin extraction dates back to the Bronze Age and played a key role in the development of civilization through its use in bronze tools and weapons. It has a silvery appearance and low melting point of 232°C.
हिंदी वर्णमाला पीपीटी, hindi alphabet PPT presentation, hindi varnamala PPT, Hindi Varnamala pdf, हिंदी स्वर, हिंदी व्यंजन, sikhiye hindi varnmala, dr. mulla adam ali, hindi language and literature, hindi alphabet with drawing, hindi alphabet pdf, hindi varnamala for childrens, hindi language, hindi varnamala practice for kids, https://www.drmullaadamali.com
The document discusses early iron metallurgy in Ireland, beginning with the definition of the Iron Age as a period when iron-using societies developed between 700-500 BC. It describes how early Irish ironworking was influenced by Late Bronze Age metalworking traditions and likely utilized bog iron ores extracted from surface deposits. The bloomery process was used to smelt iron ores, producing blooms of impure iron without ever reaching the liquid stage, and slag pits have been excavated from furnace sites. Forged iron objects like axeheads were made by further working and hammering blooms to squeeze out impurities.
The earliest known metal castings date back to around 3000BC and were typically made of copper for weapons and religious idols. Casting originated in the Middle East and India using clay molds. During World War 2, investment casting became important for producing precision metal parts for military needs. It has since expanded into commercial applications. Around 1100AD, the lost wax method was documented and advanced casting techniques. Today, casting is used to create complex precision parts for applications like aerospace through advanced computer technologies.
Iron is the most common element on Earth and is refined into steel through combining it with other elements like carbon. The iron and steel industry has historically been important for economic development due to steel's role in infrastructure and construction. Iron is extracted from iron ore through smelting and can be alloyed with carbon and other elements to make steel for various applications like buildings, vehicles, and appliances. The Wealden iron industry of southeast England was historically significant and used charcoal produced from local woodlands to smelt iron from ironstone.
The document provides information on the Iron Age in multiple sections:
1) It discusses the lack of written historical evidence for Iron Age Britain and how archaeologists must rely on material remains to understand this period.
2) It outlines the chronology of iron production, noting evidence from Anatolia dating to around 1200 BC and India by 1800 BC, though iron was an expensive material until technological improvements.
3) Sections are also included on the health of Iron Age Britons based on skeletal remains, the physical characteristics and languages of Iron Age peoples, and typical building styles, which were usually timber and thatch rather than large stone structures.
The document discusses the relationship between the reactivity of metals and when they were discovered. It finds that generally, less reactive metals like gold and copper were discovered earliest as they exist naturally. More reactive metals exist in compound forms and required advanced technology like electrolysis and smelting to be extracted. So there is a direct relationship between a metal's reactivity and the timeline of its discovery, with less reactive metals found earlier.
The document summarizes the history of metal usage from around 11,000 years ago to modern times. It describes how copper was one of the earliest metals used starting around 4000 BC, followed by bronze which is an alloy of copper and tin. The Bronze Age began around 3000 BC. Iron smelting began in Egypt around 2000 BC and the use of iron revolutionized warfare and farming. Various other metals like gold, silver, lead, and iron from meteors were used even earlier. Over time, humans discovered new metal alloys and uses, including cast iron production in China around 800 AD, steel becoming prevalent in 1750, and aluminum being isolated in 1850.
Metallurgy is the study of physical and chemical behavior of metals and their alloys. The earliest evidence of metallurgy dates back 5000 years to ancient civilizations like ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Throughout history, metallurgy advanced with innovations like extracting copper and tin to make bronze around 3500 BC, and iron around 1200 BC. Metals are extracted from ores through processes like mining, crushing, concentration, and smelting, and shaped using techniques like casting, forging, rolling, and machining. The properties of metals can be modified through heat treatments and alloying with other elements.
1) The document discusses whether there is a connection between the reactivity of a metal and when it was discovered.
2) It notes that the less reactive metals like gold and copper were among the first metals discovered, around 6000 BC and 4200 BC respectively, while more reactive metals were typically discovered later as technology advanced.
3) The conclusion is that more reactive metals were generally discovered later than less reactive metals because they required more advanced techniques to isolate from their ores, given their higher reactivity.
Material science and Metallurgy Lecture 2.pptxsagar642508
This document provides an overview of the history of metals and metallurgy from early discoveries to modern applications. It discusses how the first metals like copper and gold were discovered and processed through techniques like annealing and casting. The development of alloys like bronze by mixing copper and tin is also covered. Major milestones like iron production, the blast furnace, Bessemer steel making, and aluminum extraction are summarized. The document concludes by briefly outlining some modern metallurgical advances and their applications in transportation, electronics, medicine, and materials science.
Metallurgy and its proospect BBA DU Financeneha0175120
This document provides an overview of metallurgy and its history. It discusses the extraction and processing of metals through techniques like mineral processing, pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, and physical metallurgy. The history of metallurgy is traced from early use of gold and copper thousands of years ago to modern developments in steel production and welding. Key events highlighted include the development of bronze and iron working and innovations in the 18th-19th centuries that enabled large-scale steel production.
Roman city dig: session 7, 2012: Roman metals, by Geoff Tindall Ecomuseum Cavalleria
The document discusses metals used in the ancient Roman world such as gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, and zinc. It describes how these metals were obtained from ores through processes like roasting and smelting. Important metal alloys of the time included bronze, brass, pewter, and steel. While iron could be extracted, the Romans lacked technology to cast or smelt it, so they used the "bloom" and forging process to produce wrought iron and steel. Bronze remained commonly used since it could be cast unlike iron. The document also notes the cupellation process used to separate silver from lead.
This document provides an overview of minerals and their properties. It discusses how minerals form through various geological processes and have been important to human civilization throughout history for tool-making and metalworking. Key points include:
- Minerals have distinct physical properties like luster, color, hardness that are used to identify them. They also have orderly crystalline structures and defined chemical compositions.
- The earliest minerals mined were flint and chert for tools. By 3700 BC Egyptians mined gold, silver and copper, and by 2200 BC humans discovered bronze alloy. Ironworking advanced by 800 BC.
- Geologists define minerals as naturally occurring inorganic solids with crystalline structures and chemical compositions. Major mineral groups
This document provides an overview of the metals used in firearms throughout history, beginning with the earliest days. It discusses the properties and production of wrought iron, steel, cast iron, copper alloys, pewter, tin, and silver. Specific types of steel production are explained in detail, including blister steel, shear steel, pattern welded steel, and layered steel. The document also notes how terminology and understanding of metals has evolved over time. Overall, the document serves as a comprehensive reference on the metals and metallurgy involved in firearms from ancient to more modern times.
A Brief History of Steel & The Mysterious EutecticKen Newell
The second agricultural revolution coincided with the Industrial Revolution; it was a revolution that would move agriculture beyond subsistence to generate the kinds of surpluses needed to feed thousands of people working in factories instead of in agricultural fields. Bessemer’s invention of cheap steel was the cornerstone of both revolutions.
Metals are an important class of elements that play an important part in our daily lives and the advancement of contemporary civilisation. Metals have been used by humans for millennia because of their extraordinary qualities like as strong electrical and thermal conductivity, malleability, ductility, and lustre. Metals have continually changed our environment and continue to be vital in numerous industries, from the earliest tools and weapons made during the Bronze Age to high-tech gadgets and towering skyscrapers of today. We will go deeper into the significance, types, qualities, applications, and future possibilities of metals in this presentation, as well as their long-term impact on our society and environment. Our adventure begins in the distant past, when early people discovered the transformational power of metals. Our forefathers discovered the secrets of metallurgy millennia ago, in the crucible of discovery. They recognised that heating certain rocks produced compounds with qualities unlike anything found in nature. The Bronze Age, typified by the fusing of copper and tin, was a watershed point in human history. It was the advent of metals as tools and weapons, ushering in an era of progress that would permanently alter the course of society.
These slides will guide you in an engaging, colorful and challenging study of portions of Scripture referencing the metals that people used in Biblical times. Learn what the elements symbolized for the Israelites and what uses we put them to today. This study is one of a series to help leaders of a Bible study or Sunday School class who are too busy to research and prepare as well as they would like for their task. Like each study in the series, it is ready to go even at the last moment. Search for others in this series using the keyword "lessonstogo".
A brief history of steel & the mysterious eutecticKen Newell
This document provides a history of steel production from ancient times to modern day. It describes how early humans controlled fire around 1 million years ago and used heated stones as weapons. By the Bronze Age around 3000 BC, people had discovered how to make bronze by mixing copper and tin at high temperatures. As tin supplies ran low around 2000 BC, iron production began using charcoal to smelt iron from iron-bearing rocks. The industrial revolution was enabled by advances like the blast furnace and Bessemer process that allowed mass production of steel, revolutionizing infrastructure like railroads. Heat treating techniques were also developed to harden steel for tools and weapons. Overall, steel production has been critical to supporting large populations not engaged in agriculture.
Tin is a post-transition metal that is obtained chiefly from the mineral cassiterite. It has many important uses including coating other metals to prevent corrosion in tin cans and in alloys like solder and bronze. Tin extraction dates back to the Bronze Age and played a key role in the development of civilization through its use in bronze tools and weapons. It has a silvery appearance and low melting point of 232°C.
हिंदी वर्णमाला पीपीटी, hindi alphabet PPT presentation, hindi varnamala PPT, Hindi Varnamala pdf, हिंदी स्वर, हिंदी व्यंजन, sikhiye hindi varnmala, dr. mulla adam ali, hindi language and literature, hindi alphabet with drawing, hindi alphabet pdf, hindi varnamala for childrens, hindi language, hindi varnamala practice for kids, https://www.drmullaadamali.com
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
Iván Bornacelly, Policy Analyst at the OECD Centre for Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'Tackling job market gaps with a skills-first approach' on 12 June 2024
2. Major revolutions in human culture closely follow
developments in the use of geological materials (including
metals). This is reflected in the terms commonly used for
technological “ages” (e.g. Stone Age, Copper Age, Bronze
Age, Iron age).
Although many metals have found wonderful uses in
technology, many of them were originally used for
ornamental purposes (as artistic media).
This is true for both precious metals and base metals.
3. The Stone Age
Prior to the use of metals, humans relied on materials such as
obsidian, chert/flint and quartzite for the fashioning of tools.
Increased sophistication of tool making is apparent in tool
types found at archeological sites of different ages.
Simple tools with
a single (unifacial)
cutting edge
Tools with
more refined and
stereotyped
shape and two
cutting (bifacial)
edges
Bifacial tools with
maximized
cutting surface
Sophisticated
spear and
harpoon points
4. Late Stone Age:
Early Uses of Native Metals
At some point, Stone Age (Neolithic) humans
discovered that native gold was
sufficiently soft and malleable to be fashioned
into artistic objects of beauty.
It is likely that nuggets of placer gold were used
for this purpose.
Obviously, the rarity of native gold and silver
(also used) would have made such objects
extremely valuable.
The resistance of gold to corrosion and
oxidation would have made gold even more
valuable.
Right: Placer gold nuggets (top) and (below) 6000
year old gold “trinkets” from Bulgaria.
5. The Copper (Chalcolithic) Age (Began at about 4,500 BC)
At roughly the same time, native copper was
also discovered and used by humans
(earliest use dates back to about 6,000 BC,
but widespread use dates to about 4,500
BC).
There was considerable overlap during the
Neolithic in the use of lithics and relatively
novel copper tools. Consequently a
transitional interval between the Stone Age
and later ages of predominant metal use has
been identified, known as the Chalcolithic or
Copper Age.
Native copper, which occasionally occurs in
large masses was “cold-worked” to make
delicate objects such as hooks and needles,
which were otherwise difficult to make from
stone and bone.
Cold-worked copper needle
Greek: “Chalkos” = Copper
“Lithos” = Stone
6. As cutting implements or weapons,
early Copper tools left much to be
desired and were definitely not an
improvement over lithics (the latter
were much sharper and easier to
use).
Consequently, many of these were
used merely for demonstration or
status purposes.
Only members of the nobility of the
time could afford these luxury items
made from metal.
Actual use of cold-worked copper was
limited by the brittleness and softness
of the metal, which could not hold a
sharp edge for very long.
Cold-worked copper daggers
Rough-hewn early Copper tools
7. Other Metals Used by Copper Age Humans
Other metals that could have been
used more or less as-is included silver
(which occasionally occurs in native
form as veins)
AND
Iron/nickel alloy, occuring naturally in
iron-nickel meteorites (core material).
Earliest documented use of the latter
dates back to about 4,000 BC
Both sources, of course, were rare.
Native silver
Iron-nickel meteorite
8. Copper dagger, central Bulgaria, 4000-3500 BC
A major improvement in copper technology came when it was
discovered that copper could be annealed when heated. Annealing
involves reordering of the microstructure of the material through heating to
relatively high temperatures, followed by slow cooling. In this process,
metal atoms actually move within the solid material. Redistribution of
material reduces the areas of weakness within the metal and makes it
more pliable under cold-working conditions (more malleable).
This permitted stronger tools to be made, although such tools were still
“status items” of the rich (still not really useful for cutting as such).
Heat treating and Annealing Copper
9. The Copper Age: Discovery of Smelting Methods
The availability of copper was a major
limiting factor in the use of this metal
(deposits of native copper are quite
rare).
This was also true for other metals.
This situation changed with the
discovery that copper could be smelted
(separated) from mineral compounds
by heating.
The first copper mineral to be smelted
was probably malachite.
Why would this have been a good
material from which to extract copper?
Malachite
Cu 2(CO 3)(OH)2
10. Smelting
It has been suggested that the art of smelting began as
result of accidental “cooking” of metal ores in campfires.
This is unlikely, for two main reasons:
1. The heat generated in a campfire is unlikely to have
reached temperatures necessary to allow metals such as
copper to separate from the ore (the melting point of
copper is over 1000 degrees C – well above the
temperature of your average campfire).
2. The presence of large amounts of oxygen in a campfire
would have readily oxidized any metal that was
produced by melting (metal oxides are brittle and cannot
be worked).
11. The Beginnings of Smelting
For these reasons, it is more likely that the first smelted ore was
produced in a pottery kiln.
The production of pottery preceded the smelting of metals by
thousands of years (earliest pottery extends back to at least
10,000 years before present).
High temperatures could be achieved in a kiln (due to the
prevention of heat loss to the open air and the increased
temperature generated by forcing air into the kiln furnace to “fan
the flames”). Primitive pottery kilns could generate temperatures
exceeding 1,400 degrees C. Copper will melt at just over 1000
degrees C.
Special kilns were later developed for smelting (pieces of ore
were put in direct contact with charcoal to ensure the highest
temperatures possible and to prevent oxidation of ore).
12. The oxygen-starved conditions
within a kiln would prevent the
combination of pure metal with
oxygen, so metal could be
separated in pure form.
In addition, the presence of
fluxes (e.g. limestone, quartz
sand), used to lower the melting
point of minerals within the
pottery could have lowered the
melting point of the metals that
were inadvertently smelted.
The Beginnings of Smelting
13. How did ore minerals end up in a pottery kiln ?
This is obviously open to speculation.
However, one might picture a potter
attempting to beautify his/her pottery by
adding chunks of attractive coloured or
highly lustrous minerals to the clay.
For example, the potter might have
experimented with the green mineral
malachite (copper ore), or galena (lead
ore).
Beads of molten metal that were
produced upon baking would have
decreased the beauty of the article, but
an astute potter would have noted that
these beads could be collected and
further purified to produce larger bodies
of metal.
14. As supplies of easily smelted copper
minerals such as malachite (copper
carbonate) became scarce, it became
necessary for copper to be obtained
from sulphide minerals.
Copper sulphides (especially
chalcopyrite) generally occur with
sulphides of other metals such as
arsenic (actually a metalloid; e.g.
arsenopyrite).
Smelted copper with impurities of
arsenic formed the first produced
metal alloy used by humans. This is
known as arsenic-copper, or “arsenic-
bronze”.
Chalcopyrite
(CuFeS2)
Arsenopyrite
(FeAsS)
Metal sulphides and the earliest alloys
15. The Bronze Age (Began at about 3,200 BC)
It was later noted that the deliberate
addition of impurities (especially
arsenic) could change the properties
of smelted copper.
The arsenic was later replaced by tin
(a true metal), possibly as a result of
high incidence of death among early
arsenic-bronze workers.
As an added bonus, tin lowers the
melting point of copper (combined
before melting), which made it easier
for this metal to be smelted.
Bronze is quite attractive and is
relatively easy to work, making it
suitable for ornamental objects.
Bronze
statue
16. Perhaps more importantly,
bronze is harder than pure
copper, and is therefore
much more useful for tools.
Bronze containing 90 %
copper and 10 % tin is
twice as hard as pure
copper !
Cutting tools can, thus, will
be more effective and will
not require sharpening as
often as pure copper tools
would.
Bronze
axe
17. Iron bloom
The Iron Age
(began at about 1,200 BC)
The discovery of iron as a useful
medium for tool-making probably also
came about by accident.
However, it would have taken a keen eye
to figure out how to process iron.
In a primitive kiln, smelted iron would not
have formed liquid droplets as iron has a
higher melting point (~1500 degrees C)
than copper.
Instead, at the relatively low
temperatures used, the material formed
a spongy solid mass of elemental iron
and slag (impurites, metal oxides and
remnant sulphides) called a “bloom”
(also known as “sponge iron”).
18. Iron Age
Whereas copper metal naturally separated
as a heavy liquid from lighter, silicate-rich
slag, the solid iron bloom retained pockets
of impurities (slag).
At some point, it was discovered that the
slag bodies within iron bloom could be
removed by reheating and pounding the
bloom on an anvil.
When the hot bloom was pounded, the slag
(lower melting temperature) simply squirted
out from the mass. The elemental iron
would remain in the solid state.
Purification of the metal was accomplished
by repeated heating and pounding of the
bloom.
19. The Iron Age
Iron spear tips
Iron mask
from Africa
Humans are believed to have developed the earliest
methods of smelting and forging iron by about 1,500 BC
(in the region now known as Turkey), but these methods
did not become widespread until about 1,200 BC.
20. Working With Iron
Pure iron still has some undesirable qualities:
1. It is softer than bronze
2. It is too soft to hold a sharp edge
3. Iron tends to oxidize readily (rust)
The quality of iron implements increased via two main
advances in technology:
1. Steeling
2. Tempering
21. Steeling
It was found that the addition of carbon to iron increased
the hardness of iron metal – this iron-carbon alloy
(containing less than 1.7 % carbon) is what we call steel.
The carbon could have been first introduced to the iron
from carbon monoxide generated in the furnace or from
carbon (charcoal or coal/coke) in the furnace fuel.
4th century AD
Steel hole punch
(Netherlands)
22. Tempering
An effective method of altering the
properties of iron is tempering.
Tempering involves: the quenching
(sudden cooling) of hot metal in
water (to increase hardness) and
reheating (to reduce brittleness)
The development of tempering must
have involved lots of trial and error
to produce a strong (but slightly
elastic) metal!
The Japanese are famous for their
tempered steel swords.
23. Casting
Meanwhile, in China, artisans developed extremely
effective furnaces that were capable of melting iron.
The iron could then be poured into moulds.
The cast iron was then reheated to drive off the
excess carbon, making the product more elastic and
malleable for final use.
24. Of course, in the years to
follow, steelmaking continued
to develop, introducing many
varieties of steel (each with
different properties).
Steel, in combination with the
increased use of coal as fuel,
was the backbone of the
Industrial Revolution, and
remains one of the most
important metals in today’s
society.