This document discusses the evolution of the concept of Media and Information Literacy (MIL). It describes how MIL has developed over time through the contributions of various actors and institutions. MIL is now generally understood as an approach that combines elements of media literacy, information literacy, and digital literacy to help citizens engage critically with media and develop important lifelong learning skills. The document also examines ongoing efforts to establish common definitions, frameworks, and indicators to assess MIL competencies on an international level.

1. Media and Information Literacy (MIL), contextual approach to a
still young concept
Executive summary:
This article describes the attention given to Media Education (ME) by different
actors during different periods of time. It seeks to show the importance of
gathering up all close definitions in order to establish a convenient
understanding over a topic that is winning space and relevance /1/. The role that
the international agencies and institutions -such as the European Commission
and UNESCO- have played on the development of the Media and Information
Literacy (MIL) concept is described and analyzed taking into account the many
contributions academics have given to its current general understanding and
definition. The article also describes the efforts being realized in order to
produce MIL indicators and assessment schemes. Under the approach exposed,
MIL competencies are understood as lifelong learning enablers and facilitators,
and as an empowering tool. Finally, the article remarks the importance of
including Media and Information Literacy and Media Education in schools’
curricula and in general communication and social policies, as well as the
urgency of concentrating the works on its implementation rather than on its
theoretical discussion.
Key words:
Media and Information Literacy, Media Education, Assessment, Implementation,
Media Competencies
1. Brief history of Media Education: locating the precursors
1.1. First appearances
The studies conducted by Lasswell and McLuhan produced a strong impact over
Media Education (ME) in the whole world. In 1967, McLuhan’s “global village”
presented a world in risk of becoming a huge spectrum of media products,
worldwide available, nourished by a disproportionate distribution of different
kinds of information, ads, and opinions. But the efforts for describing the
possible effects of the media over the population started long before.
1.1.1. UK, France and Russia
The conceptual path Media Education (ME) has covered is at least one century
old. France, the United Kingdom, Russia and the United States have been

2. developing the concept since the beginnings of the 20th Century. The first bastion
of ME started growing at the same time the films were spreading throughout
France and England. In the 1920’s, Paris started experiencing the well-known
film clubs, from which, in 1922, the first international conference about film
education was propelled and held. By this moment, France founded the Offices
régionaux du cinéma éducateur and, in 1936, France launched the ‘Young-
Cinema’ movement all over the country/2/.
Almost at the same time, in 1933, the British Film Institute (BFI) was founded in
the UK. The BFI has promoted since a great number of campaigns and studies
concerning ME and Film Literacy. Originally, the UK had a very protective vision
over the different media supports and broadcasts, and conducted through
regulatory institutions researches concerning the possible side effects of media
in children and potentially vulnerable audiences. The BFI’s first campaigns
concentrated on consumer protection. Gradually, an aesthetical approach to film
education started spreading throughout the UK and France, where the
appreciation of images and artistic elements in movies, besides the contextual
studies over the characters and directors, were used to describe different
cultural and historical processes.
France maintained its position as the leader in terms of Media Literacy (ML) for
long. By 1952, for example, French teachers received, as part of their initial
training, courses on audiovisual education. In 1960, the media analysis was
included in the curriculum as an indispensable area of study. In a very similar
way, the UK started spreading the concept of screen education, but it was not
until the 1960’s when this concept was introduced into formal education.
The ME process followed in Russia is what was later known as the reception
studies. In the early 1920’s, the Russian government led experiments and studies
concerning the possible effects of mass media messages over the population.
Aiming the mechanization of opinions, they started sending huge amounts of
ideological-charged messages to the workers. Different kinds of approaches
were studied, passing through the more invasive ones to the refinement of subtle
techniques of political propaganda and mind programming /3/.
The principal contribution made by the Russians to the studies of media effects
was the introduction of distorted contents into the school curricula. The
Russians started spreading ideological charged materials on books, videos, radio
transmissions and posters, and thus permeated the educational system with an
invasive pro-communist historical approach. This type of propaganda proved
efficient and the regime saw its supporters grow at a good rate. Some detractors
of the communist regime argued that the bolshevists were using Pavlov’s
conditioned reflex theory as the people was involuntarily guided by external
stimulus such as the apparition of certain public figures or by the imaginaries
constructed around them, the result of a “conduct taming” technique /4/.
Similar studies were run by other authoritarian political regimes. Under the Nazi
Germany, for instance, Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels used to state

3. that excessive amounts of propaganda would not work as efficiently as well
addressed “non-invasive” propaganda strategies.
At this point, the world knew about the possible -and the proved- negative
effects of media, and the most democratic countries started working towards
limiting these potentially damaging side effects people could be victims of. These
kinds of approaches could then be classified as the citizens empowering ones.
1.2. The ‘second wave’
In the United States proper ME started to spread during the 1950’s. Canada had
similar circumstances, even though it is in this slightly developed scenario where
McLuhan founded the first Media Culture course in the country /5/.
It was in 1960 when the US developed in a more generalized way the Media
Education. The American studies adopted an aesthetical approach. This
theoretical framework visualized media as popular arts and tried to study the
languages of the messages being transmitted (artistic languages and types of
representation). This approach also developed a more protectionist branch. The
American universities started offering cinema studies and subjects such as visual
languages, film history and authors/directors studies (contexts and biographies).
During the 1970’s and 1990’s ME received a lot of important theoretical
additions. Lasswell and McLuhan’s studies certainly established a benchmark in
the way this discipline was understood. Giving importance to the distribution of
media contents in a transcontinental way waked up a series of reflections over
the effects of the passive reception of overseas and foreign cultural productions,
as well as over the advertisement strategies used in marketing. These
approaches had a strong influence over UNESCO, which initiated its campaign for
developing the subject of media literacy (ML) in the 1970’s.
UNESCO first defined the education in communication subjects as any way of
studying, learning and teaching the history, creation, utilization and assessment
of mass media as practical arts and techniques and as the establishment of the
role these media play in the society, their social repercussions, the consequences
of a mediatised communication, the participation and the transformations they
can produce in the way in which people receive messages and information /6/.
1.2.1. Educommunication: Freire and the banking education
Paulo Freire’s/7/ theoretical proposal helps to understand the Latin-American
approach. The comparison between what was being produced and Freire’s
contribution leads to a somewhat different discipline. Freire establishes the
educommunication as a rupture in the traditional education whilst European
approaches see it as a defensive and empowering tool that should be used by
citizens in order to face the possible effects of media as well as to benefit from
the multiple opportunities they create.

4. The process described by Freire aims to change the organization and the
practices of the educational processes, described as a “banking education”
model. This Brazilian researcher worked on a dialogical educational process
capable of transforming the unidirectional model that has traditionally ruled in
education.
Barbas-Coslado/8/ describes Kaplún/9/, Freire /10/ and Aparici’s /11/
statements as the main orientations to understand the meaning of
educommunication in the Latin American and Spanish tradition. Barbas-Coslado
establishes a differentiated definition of the concept, which goes far beyond the
instrumental approach derived from the Anglo-Saxon Information Literacy (IL).
IL considers the concept as the librarians’ information classification ability
rather than as a complex learning and information transmitting method.
Educommunication is then seen as a process and a discipline that has the
objective of collectively create and construct meanings by exchanging both
symbolical and well-established definitions and general data. What Barbas-
Coslado /12/ suggests is that educommunication should be seen as a
collaborative and participative area of study and as an enhancer of creative and
participative possibilities.
The author reflects about the role of media and different devices used in the
educommunicative process as well as the codes and languages in which the
knowledge creation should be done. Knowledge creation and critical thinking are
seen as outcomes of the interaction, dialogue and collaboration in the
educational processes where creativity is both a goal and a method.
1.3. Media Literacy: birth of a discipline
With the UNESCO declarations and the development of regulatory agencies,
multiple definitions were created in order to describe, understand and try to
foster the abilities to adapt the educative systems and the administrations to an
increasingly technological scenario, as well as to secure, protect and train
citizens with the purpose of developing a balanced use of the ICT. The first
theoretical approaches responded to specific issues like the need of acquiring
working skills related to the ICTs (digital/ICT literacy), the will of more
transparent and better managed information (IL/Librarian Literacy) and/or the
study of the effects, reach, influences and uses of the different media channels
on/by citizens (ML/MIL).
At a first stage, the works concentrated on protectionist studies and on
aesthetical understandings of the media and cultural productions. However,
today’s approaches are going far beyond these types of visions. Researchers are
working on the establishment of guidelines, criteria and competencies linked
with the nowadays’ school needs.

5. According to the UNESCO guidelines /13/ for the establishment of proper Media
and Information Literacy (mixing up the concepts of ML and IL), indicators must
result on a theoretical proposal capable of assessing the abilities that a media
and information literate person must have. In order to give a holistic view of the
MIL concept, different researchers and organizations have started identifying the
common elements between the most renamed literacy theories (digital/ICT,
media, information/librarian). Jesus Lau /14/ has written about the skills that
MIL should generate and the subsidiary ones that each principal derives. For Lau,
it is more important to know the global elements of MIL rather than to identify if
it is a matter of ML, IL or DL (Digital Literacy). Lau proposes the following
‘competencies/skills map’ /15/:
Table 1 - MIL Competencies (Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes
Core skills Subsidiary skills
Access  Identify need / Express / Search / Locate
Evaluation/ Understanding 
Analyze / Induction / Deduction (Understand)
/ Process
Use 
Apply / Learn / Ethics / Communicate /
Reproduce / Produce
Under this theoretical framework, tools coming from IL are seen as the ones
giving a contextual understanding as well as the ones that generate in citizens
critical understanding abilities and empowering scenarios related to the
management of information. On the other hand, ML is supposed to produce
individual abilities and knowledge that will help people analyze, assess and
produce media messages. The path Media Literacy has follow in Europe can be
schematized as follows /16/:

6. Media Literacy concept evolution in Europe
New skills to address the
context of new
technologies
DIGITAL
COMPETENCE
S
Acquisition
process
Cultural, social and contextual
elements aggregation
Development of critical
thinking and reading
Autonomous and efficient
use of information and
communication resources
MEDIA
LITERACY
INFORMATION
SOCIETY
Information
economy
New digital
context
Telecommunication
industry
Resources and
media availability
increasing: ICT
DIGITAL
LITERACY
Process of social
adaptation to new
technologies
Individuals
Institutions
Capacity to
accept change
Figure 1 - Media Literacy Concept Evolution

7. 1.3.1. Consolidation of a discipline
The most recent solution to the conceptual and theoretical encounters, with an
apparently consensus, is the MIL concept. UNESCO’s MIL understanding
pretends to smooth things over between the different definitions by creating a
common framework. It is then understood as the grouping of common and
distinctive elements of the three principal ICT-media related literacies.
The UN has supported the promotion of citizens’ education globally orientated
policies. As a result, ML first appeared as an educational paradigm that stated the
importance of promoting a responsible use of media and the acquiring of
selection, comprehension, and discrimination abilities towards information
coming from the different media channels. ML was then understood as a
discipline willing to promote critical understanding and thinking in citizens in
order to foster better information, well-structured opinions and a free and
transparent information/communication /17/.
The quest for the establishment of a univocal term and a universal use and
understanding of its components could not have been done without the help of
the international institutions. Still, the governmental aids and subventions to
research groups, as well as the policy-making guidelines, have enormously
contributed to the definition of the MIL concept. Aguaded-Gómez /18/ gives
special attention to the ML section of the United Nations Alliance of Civilizations
(UNAOC), in which, for instance, an open resources directory has been created in
order to facilitate the dissemination of the concept. Another principal initiative
he recognizes as a milestone on the evolution of ML is the UNESCO’s MIL
Curriculum for Teachers (2011).
The path UNESCO has been drawing for the generation of a common MIL concept
can easily be recognized since the Digital Competencies Indicators framework
created in 2008 and the proper MIL indicators framework /19/. According to
Marc Sheuer, UNAOC’s director, ME and ML must be seen as a part of the general
human right to education/20/. ML has to be thought as a set of tools, skills and
abilities that should guarantee the wellbeing of people consuming media
products, foster public debate and generate more engaged and participative
citizens.
2. Actual paradigm: Media and Information Literacy in an international
environment of implementation
As it has been developed in the previous pages, MIL gathers up several
definitions that have different contextual and historical periods of evolution and
that have been in conflict for the last decades. UNESCO’s efforts have guided the
path this discipline has walked. But the establishment of a common framework
has not been an easy task. The elaboration of a theoretical and practical guideline
for its application is at this moment a task that has not been completely
developed. The MIL Curriculum for Teachers, the UNESCO MIL indicators

8. framework, the EAVI’s conceptual pyramid /21/, as well as other measurement
surveys such as the ICT assessment done by European Schoolnet, the PISA
studies, the French B2i examination, Ferrés’ guidelines for ML indicators or the
Australian National Assessment Program (NAP) are some of the academic
approximations that have shaped-up the meaning of MIL.
2.1. Actual theories
In the process of establishing this common concept, different literacies were
taken into account. UNESCO picked up all alike-literacies (related) and
reorganized them into the three principal ones (see Figure 1). According to the
framework drawn on the teachers curriculum, MIL as a global concept should be
understood as the essential competencies (knowledge, abilities and attitudes)
that allow citizens to efficiently involve with media and other kind of information
providers as well as to generate critical thinking capacities, and abilities
concerning lifelong learning in order to assure a more participative and engaged
citizenship.
Table 2 – Notions of MIL (UNESCO)
Media and Information Literacy /22/
Media Literacy Information Literacy Digital Literacy
Cinema literacy
Internet literacy
Games literacy
Television literacy
News literacy
Advertising literacy
Freedom of expression
literacy
Library literacy
News literacy
Freedom of information
Literacy
Computer literacy
Internet literacy
Game literacy
The different literacies gathered up by UNESCO’s holistic approach are also
defined in the MIL Teachers curriculum. IL is set to be understood as the
abilities, skills and tools that allow citizens to comprehend and use the mass
media in a safe way, with an informed understanding -both critic to the theories
and techniques the media enterprises use to spread messages, ideologies and
understandings. ME is then globally seen as a tool to foster the capacities of
reading, analyzing, assessing and communicating information on the different
media channels and supports.
ML by itself is understood as a set of capacities and skills that allow people to
understand and use mass media in a safe way, including critical understanding
components related to the techniques media agents use as well as on its effects
(regarding the use of these techniques). The abilities of reading, analyzing,
assessing, and producing different media products are also taken into
consideration in this definition. DL, the third principal ICT-Media related literacy
conceptual approximation, is understood as the ability to use different digital
technologies, tools, networks and communication resources in order to identify,

9. access, build and transmit information and cultural productions. This approach
also concerns the use of different formats and applications and the basic skills
for the proper utilization of text processing and daily-use software and Internet
services (mail, browsers) /23/.
Carolyn Wilson /24/ asserts that MIL mostly makes reference to the processes of
understanding and using the media (IL and ML seen from UNESCO’s point of
view) and to the use of ICT (DL). This discipline seeks the development of critical
attitudes towards the comprehension of media products, the decision-making
processes (agenda setting and other media practices) and the overall utilization
of technologies and media channels. Thus, Wilson reflects on the necessity of
introducing study elements on the different education stages in order to assure
the rising of this kind of competencies among citizens. MIL should then give
special attention to the treatment of information in an ethical way, which should
be translated into the capacity of generating the ability of identifying when a
media actor is distorting a meaning or creating a different scenario with the
intention of manipulating the understanding of events. This approach highlights
the importance of delivering capacities and skills to citizens, giving increased
importance to the critical abilities rather than to the technical related ones.
Wilson, for whom the different risks are not only drawn by the arrival of the new
technologies, also emphasizes on this topic giving special attention to the
interconnection and the free flow of information today’s world is facing. This
approach, which reflects McLuhan’s global village theory, includes the awareness
over the right to access information and the ethical use of ICT when
communicating with others. Nowadays, users can participate in an “intercultural
dialogue” rising inside the “global village” they live in. This participation creates
a sort of “global citizenship” that must be exploited in a rational way: by using
the different media and technologies in a responsible, critical and supportive
way.
MIL covers different visions and theoretical frameworks. The components of
citizens’ empowerment and access to opportunities share importance with those
of users protection and ethical and rational use of media. Access to information
is therefore shaped by the continuous emphasis on the correct utilization of
searched and retrieved sources, its validation and the capacity of identifying
reliable contents. Empowerment must be understood as the principal
component of MIL as it gives the opportunity of accomplishing all other
theoretical contributions, as well as the real opportunity of enjoying the
resulting rights it fosters (i.e. access to information, tools, debate and media
channels).
2.1.1. Beyond the UNESCO
Several assessment schemes and evaluation attempts have been carried out
since the arising of the European Commission and the UN’s (among others)
preoccupation for the measurement of MIL levels. Different institutions have
developed methodologies including questionnaires and tests aiming to establish
a reliable indicator. However, universities and researchers have also started

10. testing their own assessment methods. Del Moral and Villalustre /25/, for
example, applied a series of questionnaires to a senior citizens congregation in
order to establish their levels of awareness and critical understanding:
persuasion, valuation of the transmitted information and active participation.
They used a simple methodology that included twelve observation items
(variables) aiming to determinate the critical competencies of the sample.
As established, empowerment, awareness, participation, engagement and other
elements concerning personal development and critical understanding derive
from Del Moral and Villalustre’s approach. Spanish researcher Joan Ferrés,
starting from precedent studies considering the “languages, the technologies, the
production and diffusion processes, the reception and interaction processes,
ideology and values as well as the aesthetic dimension” /26/, has begun working
on a methodology for the assessment of ML in Spain. Ferrés and Piscitelli /27/
have followed the recommendations made by 50 experts regarding ME and ML
in order to establish a series of indicators to assess people’s knowledge and
capacities facing media. They focus on the growing technological environment by
giving enormous attention to the fact that today’s citizens/users/students have
the opportunity of accessing and generating messages in several supports and
channels. On the other hand, they claim that the power of media has also
attained a level that exceeds any previously imagined scenario. The
concentration of mass media in a little series of entrepreneurial groups compels
the citizenship to act in a more active and engaged way. “The media’s power
benefits from the transparency that characterizes the new representation
systems, which generates confusion between reality and what is being
represented. The media competence should face these complexities by triggering
a participative culture and a critical capacity [on citizens]” /28/.
2.1.2. Other academic approaches
Several authors understand MIL as the ‘new literacies’, the ‘multiple literacies’ or
the ‘media literacy in a broad sense’. These similar definitions come from the
historical confrontation between ML, IL and DL and from the development of the
concept that different researchers have preferred. Manuel Area and Teresa
Pessoa /29/ stand on the concept of “new literacies” as a result of the changes
introduced by the new technologies.
On their research, they resume Bauman’s liquid and solid theory /30/ to
characterize the realities brought by the ICT. The new technologies are defined
by their capacity of change and adaptation and by the velocity with which these
changes take place in society. Area and Pessoa describe nowadays’ cultural
productions as an unstable and in continuous motion set of products that are
determined by the capacity to rapidly change or adapt. This “liquid cultural
production” contrasts with the XIX and XX centuries’ solid production that is
characterized as static and predictable. Under this approach, the web 2.0
establishes a benchmark in the cultural process by breaking, all at once, the rules
of production, consumption and elaboration of cultural products.

11. The scenario drawn by Area and Pessoa shows that in order to face the different
risks, as well as to take advantage of the different offered resources, people must
be aware of the flows, trends and possible distortions that media products offer.
The authors finally affirm that this new context constrains the citizenship
(human resources) to be trained (to become literate) on several aspects. Literacy
is then understood not only as the capacity to manage, produce, stock, validate or
consume informational products, but also as a client/user/consumer literacy,
capable of giving the necessary tools and skills to face online productions, to
understand the limits and regulations around information and data being
collected, to defend and respect other people’s rights and integrity and to
correctly (and safely) absorb the different digital products.
2.2. Measurement efforts
In 2008, UNESCO suggested a series of parameters for the creation of assessment
indicators on IL. In that moment MIL was not defined and its different concepts
were worked separately. Under this scenario, different observation units were
established in order to assess all its components. The communication skills
map/constellation was established taking into account IL, ICT skills (DL), ML,
general literacy, oral communication and reasoning. Every criterion was also
divided into several variables /31/:
Figure 2 - Communication skills Constellation

12. Despite the information literacy approach, the need of taking into account the
different literacies is already on its structure. This UNESCO’s proposal
constitutes a first approximation to the MIL levels assessment models being
studied today. On this document, UNESCO takes Catts’ /32/ understanding of
literacy as a lifelong process (Figure 4). On its proposal, UNESCO establishes the
difference between generic capacities and specific capacities, which are defined
by the profession and life path decided by every citizen /33/.
Figure 3 - Hierarchical Model of General Skills
According to this framework, the autonomous learner is placed on the top of the
hierarchical model. This means, the person being able to use the tools, abilities
and capacities acquired through continuing education. This understanding is
since then part of almost every theoretical framework proposing MIL assessment
methodologies.
On the Study on Assessment Criteria for Media Literacy Levels /34/ a first formal
MIL levels assessment is proposed. The report shows several aspects that should
be taken into consideration for the development of reliable measurement
strategies. The suggested criteria reflect the theoretical and practical
complexities surrounding the MIL concept.
The two principal proposed dimensions for MIL are “the individual
competencies” and the “environmental factors”. The individual competencies
must be understood as the set of abilities, skills and tools people must have –in
terms of MIL-, this is, the abilities to critically understand information, clearly
identify sources, critically approximate to texts and contents as well as the ability
to use and appropriate the new technologies. All this competencies must conduct
people to a continuous learning environment where information should be well
processed (as exposed above, in terms of empowerment). On the other hand, the
environmental factors refer to the given conditions to the development of the

13. individual capacities (like media education, access to technologies, well equipped
schools).
The report outlines five principal criteria inside the two principal components.
These are: for the personal competencies, “use” and “critical understanding”; for
the social ones, “communication abilities” and; for the environmental factors,
“media availability” and “media literacy context”. The scheme is illustrated as
follows /35/:
Figure 4 - Celot & Pérez-Tornero Pyramid
On the pyramidal representation of their model, Celot and Pérez-Tornero give a
specific order to the different components in order to show that the base (the
structural support of the pyramid) is composed by the triggering elements for a
well MIL-trained society. Several components have been derived from the
criteria proposed by these authors, with the intention of creating a theoretical
framework to a MIL levels assessment scheme.

14. The individual competencies, listed on the two upper levels, are described as
shown:
Figure 5 - Celot & Pérez-Tornero’s MIL criteria
Close to Celot and Pérez-Tornero’s framework, UNESCO /37/ established a
proper MIL (adopting the concept of MIL) indicators framework. This new
attempt to create a common understanding of what should be taken into
consideration when referring to MIL and its assessment proposes two main
categories. The first one is “Media and Information Enabling Factors”, which
could be understood as the bottom of the pyramid previously exposed, by giving
great importance to the context in which MIL is being introduced. The second
category includes three main components. The first one is “Creation and
Availability”. This variable, also related to the context, seeks to establish the
elements that create both media and information (Online newspapers, journals).
The second variable of this category is described as “Distribution and Supply”,
making reference to the infrastructure one country has. This is, the channels and
different technological elements to distribute (deliver) the media products
(radio and TV infrastructure, Internet wiring, PCs available). The third variable

15. goes a little bit further in relation to the enabling factors. It is described as
“Information Reception”, and has to do with the capability of citizens to receive,
decipher, understand and process media and information.
Nevertheless, these two categories are not described alone. UNESCO establishes
at the same time three “ability’s components”. The first one refers to “access”, to
the capacity of retrieving information in an efficient and effective way. The
second one marks a higher level as it observes the “evaluation” of the
information that is being retrieved. This component has to do with the critical
understanding of information and media in general. The third one is stated as
“use”. It observes the ability to communicate media and information and it is
composed by the other two components.
Conclusion
The importance MIL is receiving nowadays goes far beyond the discussion over
its definition and the historically confronted meanings different countries and
research groups used to defend /38/. The use of different terms has to do with
the haze that exists over the understanding of the MIL concept, but it has finally
arrived to a point where it has been recognized -despite its different
“nicknames”- on the top of the international agencies’ preoccupations, as well as
on those of the most developed countries (changes to the curriculum,
implementation of new courses, teachers training on ME).
MIL’s role on modern society is of great significance: not only the academic
circles are working on its development, but governments are somehow starting
to work on models to establish the levels of ME that citizens have. MIL is seen
(and must be understood) as an element that is present in society even without
knowing it: as strategies to defend consumers, viewers, students, disadvantaged
groups and every sector of the population from the effects and contestable
intensions of some media agents; as a tool to empower them, to show the
development enabling factors the ICTs constitute and the enormous
opportunities they have brought to today’s world (among others).
It is important to understand that MIL must find its place at all stages of
education and formation as a lifelong learning enabler. Multi-literacies, as some
authors understand MIL, must be inserted into the curricula and governments
should continue paying attention to it as it derives from the rights of access to
education, opportunities and information, as well as from the right to live in a
democratic and inclusive society.