Measles is a highly contagious viral disease that spreads through the air via coughs and sneezes or direct contact with infected nasal or throat secretions. It causes fever, red eyes, cough, runny nose and a red body rash. Before widespread vaccination, measles killed millions of people each year globally. The measles virus is diagnosed through clinical symptoms or laboratory tests detecting antibodies or viral RNA. Treatment focuses on relieving symptoms and preventing complications. Vaccination is the most effective prevention strategy through either passive immunization with immunoglobulin shortly after exposure or active immunization via the live attenuated measles vaccine, usually as part of the MMR vaccine administered between 6-15 months of age.
Measles is a highly infectious disease of childhood caused by Measles virus. It is characterized by fever, catarrhal symptoms of the upper respiratory tract infections followed by typical rash.
Measles is defined as an acute and highly contagious viral disease characterized by fever, runny nose, cough, red eyes and a spreading skin rash.
Causative agent: Rubeola virus, a RNA virus of paramyxoviridae family
Reservoir: Human
Source: Infected Human
Period of Communicability: Approximately 4 days prior and 4 days after the appearance of the rash
Mode of Transmission:
Airborne transmission(virus remains active and contagious in the air or on infected surfaces for up to 2 hours)
Droplet transmission i.e. it is spread by coughing and sneezing, close personal contact or direct contact with infected nasal or throat secretions
Portal of entry: Respiratory tract and Conjunctiva
Incubation Period: 10-15 days
Host:
Children between age of 1 and 5 years
Older children
Malnourished children
Environment: Winter and spring month ,Low socio-economic status .
Clinical manifestations of measles are in three stages:
STAGE 1: Prodromal/ Catarrhal Stage:
starts after 10 days of infection and lasts up to 3-5 days-
- Fever
- Malaise
- Coryza
- Sneezing
- Nasal Discharge
- Brassy Cough
- Redness of eye
- Lacrimation
- Photophobia
- Lymphadenopathy
- Vomiting
- Diarrhea
- Koplik spot – grayish or bluish white spots, fine tiny grain like papules on a faint red base, smaller than the head of pin.
- Spots appear before the appearance of rash
- Found on buccal mucosa opposite to first and second molar
- Usually disappear after the rash, appears a day
Stage 2: Eruptive Stage:
- Typical irregular dusky red macular or maculopapular rash found behind the ears and face first, usually 3-5 days after the onset of disease
- Then it spread to neck, trunk, limbs, palms and soles in the next 3-4 days.
- Anorexia
-Malaise
-Cervical lymphadenopathy
-Fever and rash usually disappear in 4-5 days in the same order of appearance
- Fine shedding of superficial skin of face, trunk and limbs leaving brownish discoloration that persists 2 months or more
Stage 3: Convalescent or Post- Measles Stage:
-Fever and rash disappear
-Child remains sick for number of days and lose weight
- Gradual deterioration into chronic illnesses due to bacterial or viral infections, nutritional and metabolic disturbances or other complications.
prevention- Active Immunization with live attenuated vaccines 0.5 ml subcutaneously in single dose at 9-12 months of age.
management,nursing management, nursing diagnosis
how does measles present, approach, signs and symptoms, treatment in the developing countries like nepal and vaccination program, its scenario after earthquake
Measles is a highly infectious disease of childhood caused by Measles virus. It is characterized by fever, catarrhal symptoms of the upper respiratory tract infections followed by typical rash.
Measles is defined as an acute and highly contagious viral disease characterized by fever, runny nose, cough, red eyes and a spreading skin rash.
Causative agent: Rubeola virus, a RNA virus of paramyxoviridae family
Reservoir: Human
Source: Infected Human
Period of Communicability: Approximately 4 days prior and 4 days after the appearance of the rash
Mode of Transmission:
Airborne transmission(virus remains active and contagious in the air or on infected surfaces for up to 2 hours)
Droplet transmission i.e. it is spread by coughing and sneezing, close personal contact or direct contact with infected nasal or throat secretions
Portal of entry: Respiratory tract and Conjunctiva
Incubation Period: 10-15 days
Host:
Children between age of 1 and 5 years
Older children
Malnourished children
Environment: Winter and spring month ,Low socio-economic status .
Clinical manifestations of measles are in three stages:
STAGE 1: Prodromal/ Catarrhal Stage:
starts after 10 days of infection and lasts up to 3-5 days-
- Fever
- Malaise
- Coryza
- Sneezing
- Nasal Discharge
- Brassy Cough
- Redness of eye
- Lacrimation
- Photophobia
- Lymphadenopathy
- Vomiting
- Diarrhea
- Koplik spot – grayish or bluish white spots, fine tiny grain like papules on a faint red base, smaller than the head of pin.
- Spots appear before the appearance of rash
- Found on buccal mucosa opposite to first and second molar
- Usually disappear after the rash, appears a day
Stage 2: Eruptive Stage:
- Typical irregular dusky red macular or maculopapular rash found behind the ears and face first, usually 3-5 days after the onset of disease
- Then it spread to neck, trunk, limbs, palms and soles in the next 3-4 days.
- Anorexia
-Malaise
-Cervical lymphadenopathy
-Fever and rash usually disappear in 4-5 days in the same order of appearance
- Fine shedding of superficial skin of face, trunk and limbs leaving brownish discoloration that persists 2 months or more
Stage 3: Convalescent or Post- Measles Stage:
-Fever and rash disappear
-Child remains sick for number of days and lose weight
- Gradual deterioration into chronic illnesses due to bacterial or viral infections, nutritional and metabolic disturbances or other complications.
prevention- Active Immunization with live attenuated vaccines 0.5 ml subcutaneously in single dose at 9-12 months of age.
management,nursing management, nursing diagnosis
how does measles present, approach, signs and symptoms, treatment in the developing countries like nepal and vaccination program, its scenario after earthquake
A brief discussion on different Viral ex anthems especially measles. In a simple and easy manner, the measles virus is explained with its clinical features, treatment, investigations, and vaccination. Helpful for clinicians, dermatologists and pediatricians. Helpful for exam preparation for FCPS, MCPS, MRCP and USMLE in the field of dermatology. Also helpful for med students and nurses.
Brief and easily understandable description on measles along with images for undergraduate students. this presentation would help in picturising what measles is.
Coronavirus is the largest known RNA virus responsible for a range of respiratory illnesses in man. 7 Known coronaviruses have been identified with 4 causing mild infections and 3 severe diseases. The severe diseases are SARS, MERS and COVID-19
There is presently an ongoing epidemic of the disease in China which has gradually spread across the continent.
human settlements/communities increased the possibility of a disease infecting many people at a time in a geographical area i.e known as an epidemic. And with time as communities mingled with each other either for trade, war, etc. they spread the diseases to new location fueling the pandemic.
Chickenpox -symptoms |tests |management ( medical information ) martinshaji
Chickenpox is a highly contagious viral infection that causes an acute fever and blistered rash, mainly in children.
The name may be derived from the French term for chick pea, chiche pois. Another theory is that the word 'chicken' was derived from a slang term for 'child'. Chickenpox is also known as varicella.
please comment
thank you ...
A brief discussion on different Viral ex anthems especially measles. In a simple and easy manner, the measles virus is explained with its clinical features, treatment, investigations, and vaccination. Helpful for clinicians, dermatologists and pediatricians. Helpful for exam preparation for FCPS, MCPS, MRCP and USMLE in the field of dermatology. Also helpful for med students and nurses.
Brief and easily understandable description on measles along with images for undergraduate students. this presentation would help in picturising what measles is.
Coronavirus is the largest known RNA virus responsible for a range of respiratory illnesses in man. 7 Known coronaviruses have been identified with 4 causing mild infections and 3 severe diseases. The severe diseases are SARS, MERS and COVID-19
There is presently an ongoing epidemic of the disease in China which has gradually spread across the continent.
human settlements/communities increased the possibility of a disease infecting many people at a time in a geographical area i.e known as an epidemic. And with time as communities mingled with each other either for trade, war, etc. they spread the diseases to new location fueling the pandemic.
Chickenpox -symptoms |tests |management ( medical information ) martinshaji
Chickenpox is a highly contagious viral infection that causes an acute fever and blistered rash, mainly in children.
The name may be derived from the French term for chick pea, chiche pois. Another theory is that the word 'chicken' was derived from a slang term for 'child'. Chickenpox is also known as varicella.
please comment
thank you ...
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
3. MEASLES (RUBEOLA)
Measles is a highly contagious viral infection.
It is exanthematous disease with fewer, cough,
coryza (rhinitis) and conjunctivitis.
Before the widespread use of measles vaccines, it
was estimated that measles caused between 5
million and 8 million deaths worldwide each year.
Definition
6. The first systematic description of measles, and its
distinction from other exanthematous diseases
(smallpox and chichenpox) is credited to
the Persian physician Rhazes (860–932),
who published
The Book of:
Smallpox and Measles
7. In 1529, a measles outbreak in Cuba killed two-
thirds of those natives who had previously survived
smallpox.
Two years later, measles was responsible for the
deaths of half the population of Honduras,
and it had ravaged (destroyed) Mexico, Central
America and Inca civilization
8. Measles killed 20 percent of Hawaii's
population in the 1850s. In 1875, measles killed
over 40,000 Fijians, approximately one-third of
the population
10. Measles is caused by Measles virus.
Measles virus is a spherical, single-stranded RNA
virus with diameters of 100-250 nm.
The family of Paramyxoviridae.
The genus of Morbillivirus
Etiology
11. Measles virus
The virus was first isolated in 1954 by Nobel Laureate John
F. Enders and Thomas Peebles
12. Measles virus
Although RNA viruses typically have high
mutation rates, measles virus is considered to
be an antigenically monotypic virus;
Measles virus is killed by ultraviolet light and
heat.
13. Measles virus
The measles virus has two envelope
glycoproteins on the viral surface—
hemagglutinin (H) and membrane fusion
protein (F).
These proteins are responsible for host cell
binding and invasion.
15. Measles virus is one of the most highly contagious
directly transmitted pathogens.
Outbreaks can occur in populations in which <10% of
persons are susceptible
Chains of transmission are common among household
contacts, school-age children, and health care workers.
There are no latent or persistent measles virus
infections that result in prolonged contagiousness, nor are
there animal reservoirs for the virus.
16. In temperate climates, annual measles
outbreaks typically occur in the late
winter and early spring.
17. Persons with measles are infectious (Measles Virus
is communicable) for several days before (3-5
days) the rash. It remains communicable up to 4
days after the appearance of rush, when levels of
measles virus in blood and body fluids are highest
Measles Virus is communicable ……..
18. Who are at risk?
• Unvaccinated young children are at highest risk of measles
• Unvaccinated pregnant women are also at risk
• Measles is still common in many developing countries –
particularly in parts of Africa and Asia
• Measles outbreaks can be particularly deadly in countries
experiencing or recovering from a natural disaster or
conflict.
• Damage to health infrastructure and health services, interrupts
routine immunization, and greatly increases the risk of infection.
20. The way of transmission
The Measles is an airborne disease.
The virus spreads easily through the coughs
and sneezes.
It may also be spread through contact with saliva
or nasal secretion.
21. • Infection is initiated when measles virus is deposited
on epithelial cells in the respiratory tract, oropharynx,
or conjunctivae.
• During the first 2–4 days after infection, measles virus
proliferates locally in the respiratory mucosa and
spreads to lymph nodes.
• Virus then enters to the bloodstream in infected
leukocytes (primarily monocytes), producing the
primary viremia that disseminates infection
throughout the reticuloendothelial system.
22. Further replication results in secondary
viremia that begins 5–7 days after infection and
disseminates measles virus throughout the body.
24. • Fever
• Dry cough
• Coriza
• Sore throat
• Inflamed eyes (conjunctivitis)
• Tiny white spots with bluish-white centers on a red
background called Koplik's spots
• A skin rash: maculopapular rush (flat blotches (spots)
that often flow into one another)
Main symptoms of measles
25. • Incubation period (Phase)
• Prodromal period (Phase)
• Exanthem period (Phase)
• Reconvalencence period (Phase)
The Disease has 4 Phases
27. Prodromal period (Phase):
lasts 2-4 days and is marked by fever (39-40 C),
malaise, cough, coryza, conjunctivitis and
pharyngitis
Disease has 4 Phases
Koplik’s spots develop on the buccal mucosa
during this phase, 2 days before the rash appears.
Koplik’s spots seen inside the mouth
are pathognomic (diagnostic) for measles, but are
temporary and therefore rarely seen
30. Koplik’s spots are pathognomonic of measles
and consist of bluish white dots ~1 mm in
diameter surrounded by erythema.
The lesions appear first on the buccal mucosa
opposite the lower molars but rapidly increase in
number to involve the entire buccal mucosa.
They fade with the onset of rash.
31. Exanthem period (Phase)
The Disease has 4 Phases
The erythematous maculopapular rash first appears behind
the ears and on the neck. The rash progresses to cover face,
trunk, arms, with involvement of the legs and feet within 72
h. The fever peaks on the 2nd
or 3rd
day of the rash.
The rash usually begins to clear in the same order of
progression as it appeared, usually beginning on the third or
fourth day after onset.
Exanthem period (Phase) begins after prodromal phase:
2 weeks after exposure
37. Reconvalencence period (Phase)
The Disease has 4 Phases
After 10-12 days Resolution of the rash may
be followed by desquamation leaving transient
hyperpigmented areas .
39. • The differential diagnosis of measles includes
other causes of fever, rash, and conjunctivitis,
including:
• rubella,
• Kawasaki disease,
• infectious mononucleosis,
• scarlet fever,
• Rocky Mountain spotted fever,
• enterovirus or adenovirus infection,
• drug sensitivity
41. Measles is easily diagnosed based on clinical
symptoms by clinicians familiar with the
disease, particularly during outbreaks
Koplik’s spots are especially helpful because
they appear early and are pathognomonic.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention case definition
for measles requires
(1) a generalized maculopapular rash of at
least 3 days’ duration;
(2) fever of at least 38.3 o C, and
(3) cough, coryza, or conjunctivitis.
42. Serology is the most common method of
laboratory diagnosis.
The detection of measles virus–specific IgM in a single specimen of
serum or oral fluid is considered diagnostic of acute infection.
Also, a fourfold or greater increase in measles virus–specific IgG
antibody levels between acute- and convalescent-phase serum
specimens.
Measles virus–specific IgM antibodies may not be detectable
until 4–5 days or more after rash onset and usually fall to
undetectable levels within 4–8 weeks of rash onset.
We should remember that
43. Measles also can be diagnosed by detection of
measles virus RNA
by reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction
(RT-PCR) from clinical specimens
45. There is no specific antiviral therapy for
measles
Treatment consists of general supportive measures,
such as:
• hydration
• Bed rest
• administration of antipyretic agents.
46. Secondary bacterial infections are a major cause of
morbidity and death following measles.
Prompted antibiotic treatment is necessary for patients who
have clinical evidence of bacterial infection, including
pneumonia and otitis media.
Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae
type b are common causes of bacterial pneumonia
following measles;
47. Vitamin A is effective for the treatment
of measles and can markedly reduce
rates of morbidity and mortality.
The World Health Organization recommends administration
of once-daily doses of 200,000 IU of vitamin A for 2
consecutive days to all children with measles who are > 12
months of age.
Lower doses are recommended for younger children: 100,000
IU per day for children 6–12 months of age and 50,000 IU
per day for children <6 months old.
51. • Passive Immunization by specific
Measles immunoglobulin
• Active Immunization by Vaccine
Prophylaxis
52. Prophylaxis
Passive Immunization by specific Measles immunoglobulin
immunoglobulin given shortly after exposure can attenuate (reduce)
the clinical course of measles. In immunocompetent persons,
administration of immunoglobulin within 72 h of exposure usually
prevents measles infection.
Administered up to 6 days after exposure, immunoglobulin
will still prevent or modify the disease.
Prophylaxis with immunoglobulin is recommended for
susceptible household and nosocomial contacts who are at risk of
developing severe measles, particularly children <1 year of age,
immunocompromised persons (including HIV-infected persons) and
pregnant women.
54. Licensed vaccines (by Merck) to prevent
the disease became available in 1963
American Microbiologist
Maurice Hilleman developed the first successful vaccine.
55. Measles vaccine is life attenuated vaccine
The Moraten (“more attenuated”) strain, was licensed in 1968 and is
used in the United States,
Measles vaccines are often combined with other live attenuated virus
vaccines, such as:
• for mumps and rubella (MMR)
• for mumps, rubella, and varicella (MMR-V).
56. Active Immunization by Vaccine
The recommended age of first vaccination varies from 6
to 15 months
Antibodies first appear 12–15 days after vaccination
and peak at 1–3 months.
The duration of vaccine-induced immunity is at least
several decades if not longer.
57. In developing countries where measles is
highly endemic, WHO doctors recommend two
doses of vaccine be given at six and nine months of
age
In developed countries, children are immunized
against measles at 12 months, generally as part of a
three-part MMR vaccine.
WHO recommendations: