Matter
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The document discusses fundamental concepts in physics including matter, particles, atoms, and the early universe. It defines key terms like quark, annihilate, and heat. It notes that quarks are the smallest known particles and that atoms are made of these particles. Larger atoms discussed include beryllium, carbon, oxygen, tungsten, and osmium. The early universe contained hydrogen and helium from supernovae explosions. Anti-matter is also mentioned but not defined.
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Scientists behind Electricity and Magnetism
Hans Christian Ørsted discovered electromagnetism in 1820 when he observed that electric currents create magnetic fields, establishing the first connection between electricity and magnetism. Georg Ohm determined quantitatively in 1827 that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance of the conductor, known as Ohm's Law. Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction in 1831 when he found that a changing magnetic field can induce an electric current in a nearby conductor, the basis for electric generators and transformers.
5.2 Notes
The periodic table arranges elements in order of increasing atomic number, with each row representing a period and each column a group or family. Periodic law states that physical and chemical properties repeat periodically when elements are arranged this way. Properties vary systematically across periods, with elements becoming less metallic and more nonmetallic from left to right, ranging from the most reactive metal to the most reactive nonmetal.
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The document discusses the concepts of atomic orbitals and electron configurations. It explains the three main rules for determining electron configurations: 1) the aufbau principle which states that electrons fill orbitals from lowest to highest energy, 2) the Pauli exclusion principle which limits each orbital to two electrons of opposite spin, and 3) Hund's rule which fills each orbital with one electron before pairing electrons. It provides examples of drawing atomic orbitals and filling orbital diagrams for phosphorus, boron, and silicon based on these rules.
8.2 thermal energy transfer
There are three main forms of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction involves the transfer of kinetic energy between particles in direct contact. Convection involves the transfer of heat by the movement of fluids like gases and liquids. Radiation involves the transfer of energy through electromagnetic waves and does not require a medium. Increased concentrations of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere have intensified the natural greenhouse effect, contributing to global warming by trapping more heat in the lower atmosphere. The impacts of climate change include rising temperatures, changes to climate and weather patterns, rising sea levels, and disruption of natural ecosystems.
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Atomic Structure
The document discusses the basic structure of atoms. It describes the three main parts of an atom as the proton, neutron, and electron. It provides details on the location and composition of each part, including that protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus, electrons surround the nucleus, and protons and neutrons are composed of quarks. The document also defines related atomic concepts such as isotopes, the nucleus, and the electron cloud model which depicts the probability of finding electrons in different regions around the nucleus.
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Scientists behind Electricity and Magnetism
Hans Christian Ørsted discovered electromagnetism in 1820 when he observed that electric currents create magnetic fields, establishing the first connection between electricity and magnetism. Georg Ohm determined quantitatively in 1827 that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance of the conductor, known as Ohm's Law. Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction in 1831 when he found that a changing magnetic field can induce an electric current in a nearby conductor, the basis for electric generators and transformers.
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The periodic table arranges elements in order of increasing atomic number, with each row representing a period and each column a group or family. Periodic law states that physical and chemical properties repeat periodically when elements are arranged this way. Properties vary systematically across periods, with elements becoming less metallic and more nonmetallic from left to right, ranging from the most reactive metal to the most reactive nonmetal.
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Electrons in atoms can exist at different energy levels. They can move between these levels by gaining or losing energy. Scientists have developed models like the electron cloud model to describe the possible locations of electrons around the atomic nucleus. Electrons are most likely to be found in certain orbital regions within the electron cloud. The arrangement of electrons in an atom's orbitals is referred to as its electron configuration, with the most stable configuration having electrons in the lowest possible energy orbitals.
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Cancer starts when cells in a part of the body start to grow out of control. Cancer cell growth is different from normal cell growth. Instead of dying, cancer cells continue to grow and form new, abnormal cells. Cancer cells can also invade (grow into) other tissues, something that normal cells can’t do. Growing out of control and invading other tissues are what makes a cell a cancer cell.
Cells become cancer cells because of DNA damage. DNA is in every cell and it directs all its actions. In a normal cell, when DNA is damaged the cell either repairs the damage or dies. In cancer cells, the damaged DNA is not repaired, but the cell doesn’t die like it should. Instead, the cell goes on making new cells that the body doesn’t need. These new cells all have the same damaged DNA as the first abnormal cell does.
People can inherit abnormal DNA (it’s passed on from their parents), but most often DNA damage is caused by mistakes that happen while the normal cell is reproducing or by something in the environment. Sometimes the cause of the DNA damage may be something obvious like cigarette smoking or sun exposure.
In most cases, the cancer cells form a tumor. Over time, the tumors can replace normal tissue, crowd it, or push it aside. Some cancers, like leukemia, rarely form tumors.
"Drivers" of Cancer
The genetic changes that contribute to cancer tend to affect three main types of genes…. proto-oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes and DNA repair genes. These changes are sometimes called “drivers” of cancer.
Proto-oncogenes are involved in normal cell growth and division. However, when these genes are altered in certain ways or are more active than normal, they may become cancer-causing genes (or oncogenes), allowing cells to grow and survive when they should not.
Tumor suppressor genes are also involved in controlling cell growth and division. Cells with certain alterations in tumor suppressor genes may divide in an uncontrolled manner.
DNA repair genes are involved in fixing damaged DNA. Cells with mutations in these genes tend to develop additional mutations in other genes. Together, these mutations may cause the cells to become cancerous.
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Cancer cells often travel to other parts of the body where they can grow and form new tumors. This happens when the cancer cells get into the body’s bloodstream or lymph vessels. The process of cancer spreading is called metastasis.
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The genetic changes that contribute to cancer tend to affect three main types of genes…. proto-oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes and DNA repair genes. These changes are sometimes called “drivers” of cancer.
Proto-oncogenes are involved in normal cell growth and division. However, when these genes are altered in certain ways or are more active than normal, they may become cancer-causing genes (or oncogenes), allowing cells to grow and survive when they should not.
Tumor suppressor genes are also involved in controlling cell growth and division. Cells with certain alterations in tumor suppressor genes may divide in an uncontrolled manner.
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1. Early atomic models proposed by philosophers like Democritus and Dalton proposed that atoms were the fundamental indivisible units of matter.
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The document discusses the history of atomic structure theories from ancient Greek philosophers to modern atomic models. It introduces the fundamental particles that make up atoms - electrons, protons, and neutrons. Key developments mentioned include Dalton's atomic theory stating atoms are indivisible particles that combine in simple ratios, Thomson's "plum pudding" model with electrons in a positive nucleus, Rutherford's discovery that the atom is mostly empty space with a dense positively charged nucleus, and Bohr's planetary model of electrons orbiting the nucleus.
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John Dalton proposed his atomic theory which stated that all matter is made up of small indivisible particles called atoms. J.J. Thompson discovered electrons through experiments with discharge tubes, finding particles with a negative charge that were much smaller than atoms. Rutherford discovered protons through experiments, finding particles with a positive charge equal to hydrogen atoms. Rutherford proposed an atomic model with a small, dense nucleus at the center containing protons and electrons orbiting around the nucleus.
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Matter
- 1. Matter
- 2. VOCABULARY QUARK: / kwôrk, kwärk /Any of a group of six elementary particles having electric charges of a magnitude one-third or two-thirds that of the electron, regarded as constituents of all hadrons.
- 3. Annihilate: /ə-nī'ə-lāt' / To destroy completely: The naval force was annihilated during the attack. Scarce :/skârs/ Insufficient to meet a demand or requirement; short in supply: Fresh vegetables were scarce during the drought
- 4. Heat: /hēt/A degree of warmth or hotness: The burner was on low heat.
- 5. Matter Something that occupies space and can be perceived by one or more senses.
- 6. What are particles? Particles are the tinyconcentrations of energy.
- 7. What is the smallest known particle? Quark
- 8. What is an atom? Atoms are small particles of matter.
- 9. LARGE ATOMS BIGGER ATOMS Berilium Carbon Oxygen tungsten osmium Supernovae
- 10. What was the first element?
- 11. Universe
- 12. What is universemade up? Hydrogen Helium
- 14. Thank you