This document provides an overview of materials science and engineering fundamentals, including atomic structure, interatomic bonding, and electron configuration. It discusses atomic number, mass number, isotopes, atomic mass units, and the mole. It also covers electron configuration, quantum numbers, and how electrons fill atomic orbitals according to various principles. Additionally, it introduces the periodic table and different types of chemical bonds.
These notes covers chemistry chapter 2nd of class 11th which are strictly according to CBSE & state board syllabus.The contents covered are Model of atom, electronic configuration & many more..
Introduction to the structure of atoms from the view of a chemist - what are neutrons protons and electrons and how are they organized ? How are electrons organized - in 3 quantum numbers. Experimental evidence from the Bohr model.
Hello! I've created this PowerPoint presentation as a requisite in General Chemistry 1 subject during SY 2019–2020.
Electronic Structure of Atoms
- Quantum Mechanical Description of Atom
- Schrödinger’s Model of Hydrogen Atom and Wave Functions
- Main Energy Levels, Sublevels, and Orbitals
- Quantum Numbers
- Electron Configuration
Should you need a .pptx file, kindly email me at rd.chrxlr@gmail.com.
These notes covers chemistry chapter 2nd of class 11th which are strictly according to CBSE & state board syllabus.The contents covered are Model of atom, electronic configuration & many more..
Introduction to the structure of atoms from the view of a chemist - what are neutrons protons and electrons and how are they organized ? How are electrons organized - in 3 quantum numbers. Experimental evidence from the Bohr model.
Hello! I've created this PowerPoint presentation as a requisite in General Chemistry 1 subject during SY 2019–2020.
Electronic Structure of Atoms
- Quantum Mechanical Description of Atom
- Schrödinger’s Model of Hydrogen Atom and Wave Functions
- Main Energy Levels, Sublevels, and Orbitals
- Quantum Numbers
- Electron Configuration
Should you need a .pptx file, kindly email me at rd.chrxlr@gmail.com.
a detailed description of the structure of atom including all the discoveries and inclusion of those rules in periodic classification from Dr. Raghav Samantaray phd in applied chemistry (KIIT school of Biotechnology)
A presentation on atomic structure and chemical bond. Here you can find the full details of atomic structure and 5 types of chemical bond. This is for the course of Inorganic Pharmacy, Course code is PHAR-1103. This can be also used for Biochemistry students and other.
Thank you. Like, Commen, Share
#be like boss
The atom is a basic unit of matter that consists of a dense central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons (except in the case of hydrogen-1, which is the only stable nuclide with no neutrons).
a detailed description of the structure of atom including all the discoveries and inclusion of those rules in periodic classification from Dr. Raghav Samantaray phd in applied chemistry (KIIT school of Biotechnology)
A presentation on atomic structure and chemical bond. Here you can find the full details of atomic structure and 5 types of chemical bond. This is for the course of Inorganic Pharmacy, Course code is PHAR-1103. This can be also used for Biochemistry students and other.
Thank you. Like, Commen, Share
#be like boss
The atom is a basic unit of matter that consists of a dense central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons (except in the case of hydrogen-1, which is the only stable nuclide with no neutrons).
Applied Chemistry, atomic and molecular structure, part 1, by Shiraz mahbob PhDMaqsoodAhmadKhan5
applied chemistry lecture and slide,
Applied Chemistry, atomic and molecular structure, part 1, by Shiraz mahbob PhD, lecturer in chemistry in pakistan institute of engineering and applied sciences
Contents
The Atom
Materials Used in Electronics
Current in Semiconductors
N-Type and P-Type Semiconductors
The PN Junctions
Diode Operation, Voltage-Current (V-I) Characteristics
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Structure, Operation, and Characteristics and Parameters
Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFETs) Structure, Characteristics and Parameters and Biasing
Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET) Structure, Characteristics and Parameters and Biasing
The ATOM: Learning Objectives
Describe the structure of an atom
Discuss the Bohr model of an atom
Define electron, proton, neutron, and nucleus
Define atomic number
Discuss electron shells and orbits
Explain energy levels
Define valence electron
Discuss ionization
Define free electron and ion
Discuss the basic concept of the quantum model of the atom
Discuss insulators, conductors, and semiconductors and how they differ
Define the core of an atom
Describe the carbon atom
Name two types each of semiconductors, conductors, and insulators
Explain the band gap
Define valence band and conduction band
Compare a semiconductor atom to a conductor atom
Discuss silicon and germanium atoms
Explain covalent bonds
Define crystal
Describe how current is produced in a semiconductor
Discuss conduction electrons and holes
Explain an electron-hole pair
Discuss recombination
Explain electron and hole current
Describe the properties of n-type and p-type semiconductors
Define doping
Explain how n-type semiconductors are formed
Describe a majority carrier and minority carrier in n-type material
Explain how p-type semiconductors are formed
Describe a majority carrier and minority carrier in p-type material
Describe how a pn junction is formed
Discuss diffusion across a pn junction
Explain the formation of the depletion region
Define barrier potential and discuss its significance
State the values of barrier potential in silicon and germanium
Discuss energy diagrams
Define energy hill
Polarity Is the separation of an electric charge which leads a molecule to have a p o s i t i v e an d negative end.
- The distribution of electrical charge over the atoms joined by the bond. Charge is evenly distributed in a nonpolar, but unevenly distributed in a polar molecule.
POLAR MOLECULE- Unequal distribution of charges, one is more positive and the other is more negative.
- Dissolves in water.
-Asymmetrical in shape
NONPOLAR MOLECULE- Equal distribution of charges, no dipole (+/-).
- Does not dissolve in water.
- Symmetrical in shape
Can be determined by two factors:
1. electronegativity difference
2. molecular geometry through the VSEPR ( Valence Shell E l e c tron Pair Repulsion) theory
FIRST STEP: Determine the total number of electrons of the given molecule.
SECOND STEP: Draw lines to bond the atoms (one line means two electrons).
THIRD STEP: Check if the OCTET RULE is followed. Eight electrons should should be around the element. Except for hydrogen which only needs two electrons.
FOURTH STEP: Rearrange the electrons of the bonded atom. You may create double or triple bond if necessary.
FIFTH STEP: Generic Check Formula and and compare Molecular to the shape.
SIXTH STEP: answer the following questions:
-Bonded elements are the same?
(If no, it's POLAR)
(If YES, answer the following question: With lone pairs?)
(If without lone pair, it's NONPOLAR);
(If with lone pairs, is it asymmetric or symmetric?--- Asymmetric= Polar; Symmetric= Nonpolar)
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
Toxic effects of heavy metals : Lead and Arsenicsanjana502982
Heavy metals are naturally occuring metallic chemical elements that have relatively high density, and are toxic at even low concentrations. All toxic metals are termed as heavy metals irrespective of their atomic mass and density, eg. arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, thallium, chromium, etc.
Travis Hills' Endeavors in Minnesota: Fostering Environmental and Economic Pr...Travis Hills MN
Travis Hills of Minnesota developed a method to convert waste into high-value dry fertilizer, significantly enriching soil quality. By providing farmers with a valuable resource derived from waste, Travis Hills helps enhance farm profitability while promoting environmental stewardship. Travis Hills' sustainable practices lead to cost savings and increased revenue for farmers by improving resource efficiency and reducing waste.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intellige...University of Maribor
Slides from talk:
Aleš Zamuda: Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intelligent Systems.
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Inter-Society Networking Panel GRSS/MTT-S/CIS Panel Session: Promoting Connection and Cooperation
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
ISI 2024: Application Form (Extended), Exam Date (Out), EligibilitySciAstra
The Indian Statistical Institute (ISI) has extended its application deadline for 2024 admissions to April 2. Known for its excellence in statistics and related fields, ISI offers a range of programs from Bachelor's to Junior Research Fellowships. The admission test is scheduled for May 12, 2024. Eligibility varies by program, generally requiring a background in Mathematics and English for undergraduate courses and specific degrees for postgraduate and research positions. Application fees are ₹1500 for male general category applicants and ₹1000 for females. Applications are open to Indian and OCI candidates.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
5. Fundamental Concepts
e = 1.602 x10-19 C
SHIFT 7 2 3
Atomic Number (Z)
the number of protons within
the nucleus.
equal to number of electrons in
complete atoms.
H
1
Hydrogen
U
92
Uranium
1
6. Fundamental Concepts
Mass Number (A)
is expressed as:
where N = number of neutrons
𝐴 = 𝑍 + 𝑁
Isotopes
atoms of the same element that
have different atomic masses.
𝑍
𝐴
𝐸 𝑛±
1
7. Sample Problem 1
An atom having a charge of +2e
has 54 electrons. How many
neutrons are there if the atom’s
mass number is 131?
75.00
1
8. Fundamental Concepts
Atomic Mass
is the mass of an atom.
𝐴 𝑚 = 𝑍𝑚 𝑝 + 𝑁𝑚 𝑛
(Am)
Atomic Mass Unit “amu”
is defined as 1
12
of the atomic
mass of Carbon-12.
1 𝑎𝑚𝑢
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
= 1 𝑔
𝑚𝑜𝑙
Atomic Weight
is the weighted average of the
atomic masses of an atom’s
naturally occurring isotopes.
𝐴 𝑤 = 𝐴 𝑚 % 𝑎𝑡
(Aw)
SHIFT 7 0 1
SHIFT 7 0 2
1
9. Sample Problem 2
Carbon occurs in nature as a
mixture of 12C and 13C. The
isotopic mass of 13C is 13.003
amu. The atomic weight of
carbon is 12.011 amu. What is
the atom percentage of 12C in
natural carbon?
98.90%
1
10. Fundamental Concepts
Mole
the quantity of substance
corresponding to 6.022 x1023
atoms or molecules.
“mol”
Avogadro’s Number
𝑁𝐴 = 6.022 × 1023
(NA)
SHIFT 7 2 4
1
11. Electrons in Atoms
Bohr Atomic Model
an early atomic model, in
which electrons are assumed to
revolve around the nucleus in
discrete orbitals.
1
12. Electrons in Atoms
Wave-Mechanical Model
atomic model in which
electrons are treated as being
wave-like.
Orbital
Electron
Electron
Cloud
1.0
1
13. Electrons in Atoms
Quantum Numbers
a set of four numbers, the
values of which are used to
label possible electron states.
n l m s
Principal
is related to the distance of an
electron from the nucleus, or
its position.
(n)
K L M N O P Q
1 2 3 4 5 6 7Electron State
one of a set of discrete,
quantized energies that are
allowed for electrons.
1
14. Electrons in Atoms
Quantum Numbers
a set of four numbers, the
values of which are used to
label possible electron states.
n l m s
Orbital
signifies the subshell and is
related to its shape.
(l)
s p d f
0 1 2 3
1
15. Electrons in Atoms
Quantum Numbers
a set of four numbers, the
values of which are used to
label possible electron states.
n l m s
Magnetic
is related to the orientation of
orbitals within each subshells
in the presence of a magnetic
field.
(m)
s
p
d
f
0
-
1
0 1
-
2
-
1
0 1 2
-
3
-
2
-
1
0 1 2 3
1
16. Electrons in Atoms
Quantum Numbers
a set of four numbers, the
values of which are used to
label possible electron states.
n l m s
Spin
is related to electron’s spin
moment.
(s)
−
𝟏
𝟐
𝟏
𝟐
𝑁𝑒 = 2𝑛2
1
17. Electrons in Atoms
Electron Configuration
the manner in which possible
electron states are filled with
electrons.
Aufbau Principle
states that electrons enter
orbitals of lowest energy first.
1s
2s
3s
4s
5s
6s
7s
2p
3p
4p
5p
6p
7p
3d
4d
5d
6d
4f
5f
Ground State
a normally filled electron
energy state from which an
electron excitation may occur.
Differentiating Electron
the last electron that enters an
orbital which makes an atom
configuration different from
other atoms.
Valence Electrons
the electrons in the outermost
occupied shell, which
participate in interatomic
bonding.
1
18. Electrons in Atoms
Electron Configuration
the manner in which possible
electron states are filled with
electrons.
Pauli Exclusion Principle
the postulate that for an
individual atom, at most two
electrons, which necessarily
have opposite spins, can
occupy the same state.
1
19. Electrons in Atoms
Electron Configuration
the manner in which possible
electron states are filled with
electrons.
Hund’s Rule
states that when orbitals are of
about the same energy, each
orbital is filled with parallel
spins before any of them is
filled with the opposite spin
electrons.
1
20. Sample Problem 3
Determine the set of quantum
numbers for the differentiating
electron of Oxygen.
2, 1, -1, -1/2
1
21. Electrons in Atoms
Electron Configuration
the manner in which possible
electron states are filled with
electrons.
Hund’s Rule
states that when orbitals are o
about the same energy, each
orbital is filled with parallel
spins before any of them is
filled with the opposite spin
electrons.
1
22. The Periodic Table
Periodic Table
the arrangement of chemical
elements with increasing
atomic number according to
the periodic variation in
electron structure.
1
24. f-blockTransition ElementsInner Transition Elements
**
*
118
Og
117
Ts
116
Lv
115
Mc
114
Fl
113
Nh
112
Cn
111
Rg
110
Ds
109
Mt
108
Hs
107
Bh
106
Sg
105
Db
104
Rf
103
Lr
102
No
101
Md
100
Fm
99
Es
98
Cf
97
Bk
96
Cm
95
Am
94
Pu
93
Np
92
U
91
Pa
90
Th
89
Ac
88
Ra
87
Fr
86
Rn
85
At
84
Po
83
Bi
82
Pb
81
Tl
80
Hg
79
Au
78
Pt
77
Ir
76
Os
75
Re
74
W
73
Ta
72
Hf
71
Lu
70
Yb
69
Tm
68
Er
67
Ho
66
Dy
65
Tb
64
Gd
63
Eu
62
Sm
61
Pm
60
Nd
59
Pr
58
Ce
57
La
56
Ba
55
Cs
54
Xe
53
I
52
Te
51
Sb
50
Sn
49
In
48
Cd
47
Ag
46
Pd
45
Rh
44
Ru
43
Tc
42
Mo
41
Nb
40
Zr
39
Y
38
Sr
37
Rb
36
Kr
35
Br
34
Se
33
As
32
Ge
31
Ga
30
Zn
29
Cu
28
Ni
27
Co
26
Fe
25
Mn
24
Cr
23
V
22
Ti
21
Sc
20
Ca
19
K
11
Na
12
Mg
4
Be
3
Li
1
H
18
Ar
10
Ne
2
He
17
Cl
9
F
16
S
15
P
14
Si
13
Al
5
B
6
C
7
N
8
O
*
**
Alkali
Alkaline Earth
Transition
Lanthanoid
Actinoid
Post-transition
Metalloid
Nonmetal
Halogen
Noble Gas
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Period
IIA
IA
IIIA VAIVA VIIAVIA
VIIIA
IIIB IB IIBIVB VB VIB VIIB
VIIIB
d-block 1
26. The Periodic Table
Periodic Table
the arrangement of chemical
elements with increasing
atomic number according to
the periodic variation in
electron structure.
Electropositive
the tendency of an atom to
release valence electrons.
Electronegative
the tendency of an atom to
accept valence electrons.
1
27. Bonding Forces and Energies
FA
FR
r
𝐹 𝑁 = 𝐹𝐴 + 𝐹𝑅
ro
ro corresponds to the
separation distance at the
minimum of the potential
energy curve.
1
28. Bonding Forces and Energies
ER
EA
r
ro corresponds to the
separation distance at the
minimum of the potential
energy curve.
Eo
Bonding Energy
the energy required to
separate two atoms to an
infinite separation.𝐸 𝑁 = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸 𝑅
(Eo)
𝐸 𝑁 = −
𝐴
𝑟
+
𝐵
𝑟 𝑛
1
29. Sample Problem 4
For a given ion pair the following
relations are given:
-5.32 eV
𝐸𝐴 = −
1.436
𝑟
𝐸 𝑅 = −
7.32 × 10−6
𝑟8
where EA and ER in eV and r in
nm.
Determine the magnitude of the
bonding energy between the
two ions
1
30. Bonding Forces and Energies
Primary Bonds
interatomic bonds that are
relatively strong and for which
bonding energies are relatively
large.
Secondary Bonds
interatomic and intermolecular
bonds that are relatively weak
and for which bonding
energies are relatively small.
Chemical Physical
1
31. Primary Atomic Bonds
Ionic Bonds
a coulombic interatomic bond
that exist between two
adjacent and oppositely
charged ions.
11
Na
17
Cl
18
Ar
10
Ne
Electrovalent
1
32. Primary Atomic Bonds
Ionic Bonds
a coulombic interatomic bond
that exist between two
adjacent and oppositely
charged ions.
11
Na
17
Cl
18
Ar
10
Ne
Coulombic Force
a force between charged
particles like ion; attractive if
opposite charged
NaCl (salt)
Non-directional
1
33. Primary Atomic Bonds
Ionic Bonds
a coulombic interatomic bond
that exist between two
adjacent and oppositely
charged ions.
11
Na
17
Cl
18
Ar
10
Ne
Attractive Energy
𝐸𝐴 = −
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑒2
4𝜋𝜖 𝑜
1
𝑟
SHIFT 7 2 3
IA VIIA
SHIFT 7 3 2
1
35. Sample Problem 5
Calculate the attractive energy
between a Ca+2 and an O-2 ion,
the centers of which are
separated by a distance of 12.5 Å
(units in eV)
13.83 eV
1 J = 1.602 x10-19 eV
1 nm = 10 Å
1
36. Primary Atomic Bonds
Ionic Bonds
ionic materials are
characteristically hard and
brittle, furthermore, electrically
and thermally insulative.
the predominant bonding in
ceramic materials is ionic.
1
37. Primary Atomic Bonds
Covalent Bonds
an interatomic bond that is
formed by the sharing of
electrons between neighboring
atoms.
6
C
1
H
10
Ne
Molecular
1
38. Primary Atomic Bonds
Covalent Bonds
an interatomic bond that is
formed by the sharing of
electrons between neighboring
atoms.
6
C
1
H
2
He
10
Ne
CH4 (methane)
Directional
Number of Covalent Bonds
8 − 𝑉
Percent Ionic Character
%𝑖𝑐 = 1 − 𝑒−
𝑋1−𝑋2
2
4 × 100%
1
40. Sample Problem 6
Determine the percent ionic
character of the ceramic Fe3O4
given that 1.8 and 3.5 are the
electronegativities of iron and
oxygen respectively.
51.45%
1
41. Primary Atomic Bonds
Covalent Bonds
covalent materials can be hard
as in diamond or may be very
weak as with bismuth.
the predominant bonding in
polymeric materials is covalent.
1
42. Primary Atomic Bonds
Metallic Bonds
an interatomic bond involving
the sharing of nonlocalized
valence electrons.
18
Ar
26
Fe
36
Kr
Ion Cores
Sea of
Electrons
Non-directional
1
43. Primary Atomic Bonds
Metallic Bonds
these bonds may be weak
(mercury) or strong (tungsten)
metallic materials are good
conductors of both electricity
and heat.
1
44. Secondary Atomic Bonds
Fluctuating Induced Dipole
Bonds
bonds that exist between
atoms having short-lived
distortions of its electrical
symmetry caused by constant
vibrational motion.
Van Der Waals Bonding
exists when there is some
separation of positive and
negative portions of an atom
or molecule.
18
Ar
1
45. Secondary Atomic Bonds
Fluctuating Induced Dipole
Bonds
bonds that exist between
atoms having short-lived
distortions of its electrical
symmetry caused by constant
vibrational motion.
London Forces
1
46. a molecule in which there exist
a permanent electric dipole
moment by virtue of the
asymmetrical distribution of
positively and negatively
charged regions.
Secondary Atomic Bonds
Polar Molecule – Induced Dipole
Bonds
bonds that exist between polar
molecules and the affected
nonpolar ones.
1
H
17
Cl
1
47. Secondary Atomic Bonds
Polar Molecule – Induced Dipole
Bonds
bonds that exist between polar
molecules and the affected
nonpolar ones.
1
48. Secondary Atomic Bonds
Permanent Dipole Bonds
bonds that exist between polar
molecules.
Dipole ForcesHydrogen Bonding
the strongest van der waals
bond.
1
H
9
F
7
N
8
O
1
51. Fundamental Concepts
Atomic Hard Sphere Model
a model in which spheres
representing nearest-neighbor
atoms touch one another.
Solid Materials:
Crystalline Solids
Amorphous Solids
2
52. Crystal StructureUnit Cell
Fundamental Concepts
Crystalline Solid
is one in which the atoms are
situated in a repeating or
periodic array over large
atomic distances.
Amorphous Solid
long-range atomic order is
absent.
the manner in which atoms,
ions, or molecules are spatially
arranged.
the basic structural unit of a
crystal structure.
2
53. means a three-dimensional
array of points coinciding with
atom positions
Unit Cell
the basic structural unit of a
crystal structure.
Fundamental Concepts
Crystalline Solid
is one in which the atoms are
situated in a repeating or
periodic array over large
atomic distances.
Lattice
2
54. Crystal Systems
Lattice Parameters
the combination of unit cell
edge lengths and interaxial
angles that defines the unit cell
geometry.
y
z
x
ac
b
α
β
γCrystal System
a scheme in which crystal
structures are classified by unit
cell geometry.
2
62. Metallic Crystal Structures
Pointers:
- the hard spheres represents
the ion cores of metals.
- cubic and hexagonal crystal
systems are the predominant
structures in common metals
Coordination Number
the number of atomic or ionic
nearest neighbors.
Atomic Packing Factor
the fraction of the unit cell
occupied by atoms.
(APF)(Nc)
2
63. the fraction of the unit cell
occupied by atoms.
Atomic Packing Factor
Metallic Crystal Structures
Pointers:
- the hard spheres represents
the ion cores of metals.
- cubic and hexagonal crystal
systems are the predominant
structures in common metals
𝐴𝑃𝐹 =
𝑁 4
3
𝜋𝑟3
𝑉𝑢
(APF)
2
64. Metallic Crystal Structures
Face-Centered Cubic
a crystal structure found in
some of the common
elemental metals; where within
the cubic unit cell, atoms are
located at all corner and face-
centered positions.
(FCC)
2
67. Metallic Crystal Structures
Face-Centered Cubic (FCC)
Parameter Value
Coordination Number
Atomic Packing Factor
Edge Length “f(r)”
12
0.74
4𝑟 2
FCC Metals at Room Temperature
Aluminum (Al) Nickel (Ni)
Copper (Cu) Platinum (Pt)
Gold (Au) Silver (Ag)
Lead (Pb)
2
68. Metallic Crystal Structures
Body-Centered Cubic
a common crystal structure
found in some elemental
metals; where within the cubic
unit cell, atoms are located at
corner and cell center
positions.
(BCC)
2
71. Metallic Crystal Structures
Body-Centered Cubic (BCC)
Parameter Value
Coordination Number
Atomic Packing Factor
Edge Length “f(r)”
8
0.68
4𝑟 3
BCC Metals at Room Temperature
Chromium (Cr) Tungsten (W)
Iron (Fe)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Tantalum (Ta)
2
72. Metallic Crystal Structures
Hexagonal Close-Packed
a crystal structure found for
some metals. It is of hexagonal
geometry and is generated by
the stacking of close-packed
planes of atoms.
(HCP)
2
73. Midplane Interior Atoms
Metallic Crystal Structures
Center Face AtomsCorner Atoms
Parameter Value
Coordination Number
Atomic Packing Factor
Height/Edge Length
12
Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP)
0.74
1.6330
HCP Metals at Room Temperature
Cadmium (Cd)
Cobalt (Co)
Titanium (Ti)
Zinc (Zn)
2
75. Metallic Crystal Structures
Simple Cubic
Parameter Value
Coordination Number
Atomic Packing Factor
Edge Length “f(r)”
8
0.52
4𝑟 4
Simple Cubic Metal
Polonium (Po)
2r
2
76. Density Computations
Theoretical Density
the density of a given unit cell
which intrinsically represents
the whole solid with no regard
to imperfections. 𝜌𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑎
𝑉𝑢
= 𝐴 𝑤 𝑛
𝑉𝑢 =
𝐴 𝑤
𝑁
𝑁 𝐴
𝑉𝑢
𝜌𝑡 = 𝑁𝐴 𝑤
𝑉𝑢 𝑁 𝐴
= 𝐴𝑃𝐹 𝐴 𝑤
4
3
𝜋𝑟3 𝑁 𝐴
(ρt)
2
77. Sample Problem 9
The unit cell for a uranium has
orthorhombic symmetry, with a,
b, and c lattice parameters of
0.286, 0.587, and 0.495 nm,
respectively. If its density, atomic
weight, and atomic radius are
19.05 g/cm3, 238.03 g/mol, and
0.1385 nm, respectively,
compute the atomic packing
factor.
0.54
2
78. Density Computations
Theoretical Density
the density of a given unit cell
which intrinsically represents
the whole solid with no regard
to imperfections. 𝜌𝑡 = 𝑁𝐴 𝑤
𝑉𝑢 𝑁 𝐴
= 𝐴𝑃𝐹 𝐴 𝑤
4
3
𝜋𝑟3 𝑁 𝐴
(ρt)
2
79. Polymorphism and Allotropy
Polymorphism
the ability of a solid material to
exist in more than one form or
crystal structure.
Allotropy
the term used for
polymorphism of elemental
solids.
Graphite Diamond
2
80. Crystallographic
Points, Directions, and Planes
Point Coordinate
set of 3 numbers that specifies
the location of a point inside a
unit cell as fractional multiples
of the edge lengths. y
z
x
ac
b
qa
rb
sc
q r s
2
81. Sample Problem 10
Locate the body-centered atom
of Niobium BCC having an
atomic radius of 0.143 nm.
𝟏
𝟐
𝟏
𝟐
𝟏
𝟐
2
82. qa
rb
sc
Crystallographic
Points, Directions, and Planes
Crystallographic Direction
is a vector defined by a set of 3
numbers that specifies its
direction as reduced lowest set
of integers.
y
z
x
[u v w]
y
z
x
ac
b
ua
vb
wc
2
84. Crystallographic
Points, Directions, and Planes
Crystallographic Direction
is a vector defined by a set of 3
numbers that specifies its
direction as reduced lowest set
of integers.
[u v w]
Antiparallel Direction
y
z
x
y
z
x
ac
b
ua
vb
wc
2
85. <u v
w>
Crystallographic
Points, Directions, and Planes
Crystallographic Direction
is a vector defined by a set of
3 numbers that specifies its
direction as reduced lowest set
of integers.
[u v w]
Family
x y
z
[0 1 0]
[0 0 1]
[-1 0 0]
<1 0 0>
2
86. [u’v’w’]
Crystallographic
Points, Directions, and Planes
Crystallographic Direction
is a vector defined by a set of
3 numbers that specifies its
direction as reduced lowest set
of integers.
Miller–Bravais Coordinate
System
z
a1
a2
a3
Basal Plane
[u v t w]
𝑢 = 1
3
2𝑢′−𝑣′
𝑣 = 1
3
2𝑣′−𝑢′
𝑡 = − 𝑢+𝑣
𝑤 = 𝑤′
2
88. Crystallographic
Points, Directions, and Planes
Crystallographic Plane
is a plane defined by a set of 3
numbers called Miller Indices
that specifies its position inside
the cell as reciprocals of its
intersections with the axes.
(h k l)
y
z
x
ac
b
ha
kb
lc
2
90. (h k l){h k l}
Crystallographic
Points, Directions, and Planes
Crystallographic Plane
is a plane defined by a set of 3
numbers called Miller Indices
that specifies its position inside
the cell as reciprocals of its
intersections with the axes.
Family
x y
z
(0 1 2)
(2 0 -1)
{0 1 2}
(1 -2 0)
2
91. (h’k’l’)
Crystallographic
Points, Directions, and Planes
Crystallographic Plane
is a plane defined by a set of 3
numbers called Miller Indices
that specifies its position inside
the cell as reciprocals of its
intersections with the axes.
Hexagonal Crystals
z
a1
a2
a3
(h k i l)
𝑖 = − ℎ+𝑘
𝑙 = 𝑙′
ℎ = ℎ′
𝑘 = 𝑘′
2
93. (h’k’l’)
Crystallographic
Points, Directions, and Planes
Crystallographic Plane
is a plane defined by a set of 3
numbers called Miller Indices
that specifies its position inside
the cell as reciprocals of its
intersections with the axes.
Hexagonal Crystals
z
a1
a2
a3
(h k i l)
𝑖 = − ℎ+𝑘
𝑙 = 𝑙′
ℎ = ℎ′
𝑘 = 𝑘′
2
94. Linear and Planar Densities
Linear Density
defined as the number of
atoms per unit length whose
centers lie on the direction
vector for a specific
crystallographic direction.
(LD)
𝐿𝐷 =
𝑁
𝐿
2
96. Linear and Planar Densities
Linear Density
defined as the number of
atoms per unit length whose
centers lie on the direction
vector for a specific
crystallographic direction.
(LD)
𝐿𝐷 =
𝑁
𝐿
Planar Density
defined as the number of
atoms per unit area that are
centered on a particular
crystallographic plane.
𝑃𝐷 =
𝑁
𝐴
2
99. Close-Packed Crystal Structures
Close-Packed
Planes of Atoms
planes having a maximum
atom or sphere packing
density.
0.74 is the most efficient
packing of equal-sized spheres
or atoms.
2
B
B B B B
B
B
B B B
BB B B
B B B B
C C C
C C C C
C
C
A A A A
A A A A A
A A A A A A
101. Crystalline Materials
Single Crystal
a crystalline solid for which the
periodic and repeated atomic
pattern extends throughout its
entirety without interruption.
2
Anisotropy
the directionality of properties.
102. Crystalline Materials
Polycrystalline
is a collection of multiple
crystals with different
orientations.
2
Isotropy
having identical properties in
all crystallographic directions.
Grain
Grain
Boundary
103. X-ray Diffraction
Diffraction
constructive interference of
waves that are scattered by
atoms of a crystal.
2
Constructive
Interference
Destructive
Interference
X-ray
a form EM radiation that have
high energy and short
wavelength (order of atomic
spacings)
104. X-ray Diffraction
Diffraction
constructive interference of
waves that are scattered by
atoms of a crystal.
2
X-ray
a form EM radiation that have
high energy and short
wavelength (order of atomic
spacings)
Bragg’s Law
a relationship that stipulates
the condition for diffraction by
a set of crystallographic planes.
𝑛𝜆 = 2 𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 sin 𝜃
105. X-ray Diffraction
2
Bragg’s Law
a relationship that stipulates
the condition for diffraction by
a set of crystallographic planes.
𝑛𝜆 = 2 𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 = 𝑎
ℎ2+𝑘2+𝑙2
(hkl)
(hkl)
θ θ
dhkl
λ
θθ
106. Sample Problem 17
For BCC iron, compute the lattice
parameter (a) in angstrom. It has
a diffraction angle of 124.26o for
the (220) set of planes. Also,
assume that monochromatic
radiation having λ = 0.179 nm is
used, and the order of reflection
is 1.
2.86 Å
2
108. 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0
Diffraction Angle
X-ray Diffraction
Diffractometer
is an apparatus used to
determine the angles at which
diffraction occurs for powdered
specimens
2
TS
θ
2θ
C
(111)
(200)
(220)
(311)
(222)
(400)
Intensity
109. Non Crystalline Solids
Non Crystalline Solid
their atomic structure
resembles that of a liquid.
2
rapidly cooling through the
freezing temperature favors its
formation.