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The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
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1. Glycolysis (the Embden-Meyerhoff pathway), glucose uptake, and lactate metabolism.
2. Glycogenesis (glycogen formation) and glycogenolysis (glycogen breakdown). Glycogenolysis includes regulation of glycogenolysis and glycogen use during exercise.
3. Functions of glycolysis including producing pyruvate/lactate, small amount of ATP, and H+. Shuttles for moving reducing equivalents from sarcoplasm into mitochondria are also discussed.
Citric acid cycle
The citric acid cycle (CAC) is a series of chemical reactions in the mitochondria that breaks down food for energy production. Key events include:
1. Pyruvate enters the mitochondria and is converted to acetyl-CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex before entering the CAC.
2. The CAC consists of 8 steps where acetyl-CoA reacts with oxaloacetate to form citrate and later releases CO2, generating high-energy electrons to produce ATP.
3. The cycle is highly regulated by substrate availability, product inhibition, and allosteric regulation by intermediates to balance energy production with biosynthesis.
Bioassay
This document discusses different types of bioassays used to estimate the concentration or potency of a substance by measuring its biological effects on living systems. It describes chemical and immunoassays as well as assays using microbiological or animal models. Specific types of bioassays are discussed including quantal assays that elicit an all-or-none response and graded response assays using tissue preparations. Methods for bioassays include interpolation from a standard dose-response curve, bracketing, and multiple point assays like 3-point and 4-point assays that combine features of interpolation and bracketing.
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Tuberculosis
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Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis occurs mainly in the liver to synthesize glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids. It utilizes the same enzymes as glycolysis but must bypass three irreversible steps. The bypass reactions include glucose-6-phosphatase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase hydrolyzing high-energy intermediates, and a two-step process involving pyruvate carboxylase and PEP carboxykinase to bypass pyruvate kinase. Gluconeogenesis and glycolysis are reciprocally regulated to prevent a wasteful futile cycle between the two pathways.
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