Myths from ancient civilizations commonly portrayed gods and goddesses with human traits like families and emotions who ruled over natural forces and human affairs mirroring the societies that created them. Many scholars believe prehistoric Europe and parts of Africa and the Middle East worshipped a single mother goddess representing the earth. Stories of gods and goddesses provide insight into societal gender roles of the time, like a Sumerian creation myth shifting worship from a goddess to male gods as kingship developed and women's roles decreased. Religions varied globally in their portrayal of divine figures from mostly male gods with supreme power in major religions to some like Japanese Shinto recognizing a primary female deity.

1. Many myths picture goddesses and gods much like human
beings with supernatural powers: They have families, love,
rage, and sometimes can kill or be killed. Their duties often
mirror the societies that produced them. In many myths, gods
rule like earthly kings and the heads of households,
commanding powerful natural forces, the course of war, and the
fate of nations. Goddesses, often seen as wives and daughters,
influence areas such as fertility, childbirth, domestic peace, and
creative skills like weaving and song writing. Such myths come
from ancient civilizations in Europe, Africa, and Asia and are
still commonly told in many parts of the world.
Many scholars believe that in prehistoric times, all of Europe
and parts of Syria and Libya worshiped one mother goddess who
had many names. She was all-powerful and eternal, representing
the nurturing earth, which was so vital to the hunting-gathering
peoples whose survival depended on natural abundance.
Stories of gods and goddesses provide a revealing look at the
societies that honored them and often shed light on the different
roles assigned to men and women. For example, the ancient
Sumerian Creation Epic tells how the mingling of fresh water
(personified as the god Apsu) and salt water (the goddess
Tiamat) brought forth all other gods and the earth. Apsu and
Tiamat ruled until younger (male) gods rebelled. When Tiamat
tried to crush the upstarts, she was defeated by the god Marduk.
This story may express the shift from worship of the creator
goddess to male-centered religions as the first city-states arose
and people began to cultivate the land. Kingship was linked to
the power of the gods, and women played lesser roles. Yet all
worshiped the fertility goddess Inanna (also known as Ishtar,
right).
Religion was an essential part of everyday life in ancient Egypt.
Among countless major and minor gods, the most powerful was
Ra, the sun god. Goddesses were creators and protectors of the
pharaoh; most had their own temples or shrines. Their

2. importante reflected the higher social status of women. Egypt
even had a few female rulers. Key deities included Osiris and
his wife, Isis (above), who embodied the fertility of the Nile
River, on which Egypt's existence depended, and Seth, who
represented the deadly heat and wind of the desert. Other
powerful gods and goddesses ruled the realm of the dead. The
Egyptians were obsessed with the afterlife, as evidenced by
monuments such as the famous pyramids at Giza and the tombs
at Luxor up the Nile River.
Eight of the twelve main Greek deities were male. They ruled
heaven, earth, the seas, and the underworld. They shaped human
destiny and controlled the natural forces of weather, tides,
volcanoes, fire, and the sun, as well as more human concerns
like war and wine. The four major goddesses had much less
collective power, mainly influencing childbirth, hunting,
justice, wisdom, love, and fertility. The Romans, who borrowed
the Greek gods and goddesses (merely changing their names),
kept this division of male and female power. At times, both
Greek and Roman societies accorded women less importance
than men.
The Jewish religious tradition, the Christian beliefs that arose
from it, and the islamic religion that developed later excluded
goddess worship. The Old Testament Yahweh, the New
Testament Godhead, and the Koran's Allah were defined in male
terms. Women might become saints, but they remained
handmaids of the supreme being, never "goddesses." Male
supremacy in heaven supported male dominance on earth,
making men religious leaders, civil authorities, and heads of
families. Women were expected to focus on household duties,
child rearing, and so on. Although much has changed, some of
these social concepts remain widespread.
Of all the religions currently practiced by large numbers of
people, the only one whose chief divinity is female is Japanese
Shinto. This belief system focuses on worship of the sun
goddess Amaterasu (Great Shining Heaven, left).
Although Hinduism in India has traditionally included

3. goddesses, the oldest writings, the Vedas, focus on the male
trinity of Brahma, Vishnu (opposite left), and Shiva (his
consort, Parvarti, at opposite right). These deities represent the
cosmic forces of creation, preservation, and destruction.
Generally, goddesses play a secondary role -- as do women in a
society that values men more highly. An exception is the
goddess Kali, who represents the power of creation that brings
even the gods into being.
Whereas the major religions of Europe and Asia focus on male
gods with supreme power, the important figures in Australian
Aboriginal mythology seem more like humans with magical
powers. Both men and women have myths that are kept secret
from the other gender. Many relate to puberty rites and help a
girl or boy understand the role he or she will play as an adult.
Both genders are valued, The Tiwi believe that the sun, Pukwi
(known as "The Old Woman"), made land and sea. All tribes
honor both male and female ancestors.
Among the Eskimo, where cooperation between men and women
is vital for survival, a powerful force is Sila (also known as
Ella), which has both male and female sides. It engenders life,
weather, and wisdom and punishes those who break taboos. The
goddess Sedna, or "Sea Woman," cares for the creatures of the
sea and must be asked to release them for hunters and
fishermen.
Four great gods are honored in Hawaii and eastern Polynesia.
Ku, Kane (left), and Kanaloa created the world; Lono is the god
of fertility. Among the most powerful goddesses are Pele
(opposite), goddess of the volcano and fire (especially
important to those living near active craters), and Hi'iaka, Pele's
sister, who gave humanity healing arts and the beautiful songs
celebrated in the hula.
Africa's countless societies present a patchwork of beliefs
involving many supernatural beings -- male and female -- who
embody the forces of nature and good and evil. The supreme
god is usually seen as the all-powerful creator, controlling the
world, humanity, and history -- like a potent chief. African

4. slaves brought their beliefs to the Americas, including those
relating to Yoruba deities such as Shango, god of thunder, and
his consort, Oya, goddess of waters and fertility. Reverence for
these deities survives in the religious practices of voudoun
(above) and santeria, carried out throughout the Caribbean and
in parts of the United States. These beliefs put human beings in
touch with elemental forces of destiny that are seen as male or
female energies.
For Native Americans, the most powerful and active mythic
figures are male -- the Great Spirit, Sun-Father, Glooscap,
Raven, Coyote --reflecting the dominance of male chiefs,
shamans, warriors, and hunters. Most tribes honor Earth Mother,
on whose bounty all depend. Other myths focus on females: The
Shawnees revered Our Grandmother as the supreme deity and
creator; many Pueblo people say Grandmother Spider (Spider
Woman) created everything by thinking, dreaming, naming, and
ritual singing.
Many myths picture goddesses and gods much like human
beings with supernatural powers: They have families, love,
rage, and sometimes can kill or be killed. Their duties often
mirror the societies that produced them. In many myths, gods
rule like earthly kings and the heads of households,
commanding powerful natural forces, the course of war, and the
fate of nations. Goddesses, often seen as wives and daughters,
influence areas such as fertility, childbirth, domestic peace, and
creative skills like weaving and song writing. Such myths come
from ancient civilizations in Europe, Africa, and Asia and are
still commonly told in many parts of the world.
Many scholars believe that in prehistoric times, all of Europe
and parts of Syria and Libya worshiped one mother goddess who
had many names. She was all-powerful and eternal, representing
the nurturing earth, which was so vital to the hunting-gathering
peoples whose survival depended on natural abundance.
Stories of gods and goddesses provide a revealing look at the
societies that honored them and often shed light on the different
roles assigned to men and women. For example, the ancient

5. Sumerian Creation Epic tells how the mingling of fresh water
(personified as the god Apsu) and salt water (the goddess
Tiamat) brought forth all other gods and the earth. Apsu and
Tiamat ruled until younger (male) gods rebelled. When Tiamat
tried to crush the upstarts, she was defeated by the god Marduk.
This story may express the shift from worship of the creator
goddess to male-centered religions as the first city-states arose
and people began to cultivate the land. Kingship was linked to
the power of the gods, and women played lesser roles. Yet all
worshiped the fertility goddess Inanna (also known as Ishtar,
right).
Religion was an essential part of everyday life in ancient Egypt.
Among countless major and minor gods, the most powerful was
Ra, the sun god. Goddesses were creators and protectors of the
pharaoh; most had their own temples or shrines. Their
importante reflected the higher social status of women. Egypt
even had a few female rulers. Key deities included Osiris and
his wife, Isis (above), who embodied the fertility of the Nile
River, on which Egypt's existence depended, and Seth, who
represented the deadly heat and wind of the desert. Other
powerful gods and goddesses ruled the realm of the dead. The
Egyptians were obsessed with the afterlife, as evidenced by
monuments such as the famous pyramids at Giza and the tombs
at Luxor up the Nile River.
Eight of the twelve main Greek deities were male. They ruled
heaven, earth, the seas, and the underworld. They shaped human
destiny and controlled the natural forces of weather, tides,
volcanoes, fire, and the sun, as well as more human concerns
like war and wine. The four major goddesses had much less
collective power, mainly influencing childbirth, hunting,
justice, wisdom, love, and fertility. The Romans, who borrowed
the Greek gods and goddesses (merely changing their names),
kept this division of male and female power. At times, both
Greek and Roman societies accorded women less importance
than men.
The Jewish religious tradition, the Christian beliefs that arose

6. from it, and the islamic religion that developed later excluded
goddess worship. The Old Testament Yahweh, the New
Testament Godhead, and the Koran's Allah were defined in male
terms. Women might become saints, but they remained
handmaids of the supreme being, never "goddesses." Male
supremacy in heaven supported male dominance on earth,
making men religious leaders, civil authorities, and heads of
families. Women were expected to focus on household duties,
child rearing, and so on. Although much has changed, some of
these social concepts remain widespread.
Of all the religions currently practiced by large numbers of
people, the only one whose chief divinity is female is Japanese
Shinto. This belief system focuses on worship of the sun
goddess Amaterasu (Great Shining Heaven, left).
Although Hinduism in India has traditionally included
goddesses, the oldest writings, the Vedas, focus on the male
trinity of Brahma, Vishnu (opposite left), and Shiva (his
consort, Parvarti, at opposite right). These deities represent the
cosmic forces of creation, preservation, and destruction.
Generally, goddesses play a secondary role -- as do women in a
society that values men more highly. An exception is the
goddess Kali, who represents the power of creation that brings
even the gods into being.
Whereas the major religions of Europe and Asia focus on male
gods with supreme power, the important figures in Australian
Aboriginal mythology seem more like humans with magical
powers. Both men and women have myths that are kept secret
from the other gender. Many relate to puberty rites and help a
girl or boy understand the role he or she will play as an adult.
Both genders are valued, The Tiwi believe that the sun, Pukwi
(known as "The Old Woman"), made land and sea. All tribes
honor both male and female ancestors.
Among the Eskimo, where cooperation between men and women
is vital for survival, a powerful force is Sila (also known as
Ella), which has both male and female sides. It engenders life,
weather, and wisdom and punishes those who break taboos. The

7. goddess Sedna, or "Sea Woman," cares for the creatures of the
sea and must be asked to release them for hunters and
fishermen.
Four great gods are honored in Hawaii and eastern Polynesia.
Ku, Kane (left), and Kanaloa created the world; Lono is the god
of fertility. Among the most powerful goddesses are Pele
(opposite), goddess of the volcano and fire (especially
important to those living near active craters), and Hi'iaka, Pele's
sister, who gave humanity healing arts and the beautiful songs
celebrated in the hula.
Africa's countless societies present a patchwork of beliefs
involving many supernatural beings -- male and female -- who
embody the forces of nature and good and evil. The supreme
god is usually seen as the all-powerful creator, controlling the
world, humanity, and history -- like a potent chief. African
slaves brought their beliefs to the Americas, including those
relating to Yoruba deities such as Shango, god of thunder, and
his consort, Oya, goddess of waters and fertility. Reverence for
these deities survives in the religious practices of voudoun
(above) and santeria, carried out throughout the Caribbean and
in parts of the United States. These beliefs put human beings in
touch with elemental forces of destiny that are seen as male or
female energies.
For Native Americans, the most powerful and active mythic
figures are male -- the Great Spirit, Sun-Father, Glooscap,
Raven, Coyote --reflecting the dominance of male chiefs,
shamans, warriors, and hunters. Most tribes honor Earth Mother,
on whose bounty all depend. Other myths focus on females: The
Shawnees revered Our Grandmother as the supreme deity and
creator; many Pueblo people say Grandmother Spider (Spider
Woman) created everything by thinking, dreaming, naming, and
ritual singing.