The Great Penance is an achievement in relief sculpturing. This along with the Govardhana composition would rank among the best in the world. Not only the Pallavas were the pioneer in this genre of art, it is only in Mamallapuram one can see open-are bas-rieifs, and there are five them. A presentation by Prof.Subramanian Swaminathan

1. Pallava Mallai Unfinished poetry in stone - 5 Open-air Bas-reliefs S. Swaminathan (sswami99@gmail.com)

2. Open-air Bas-reliefs It must be the bas-reliefs for which Mamallapuram will be etched in the honour role of art history of the world. Relief sculptures have been done even earlier, in Ajanta, in Amaravathi etc. But the ‘atyantakama’ Pallava clan is unique, for rocks, which rise perpendicularly of one side of wall, have been used as the canvas. This unusual and breath-taking enterprise has not been attempted anywhere ever since.

3. Also the tradition of depicting scenes from mythology is broken. The Great Penance panel and the Govardhana Panel nearby are just not simple story-telling, but portrayal of microcosm of life and belief. It is controlled artistry borne out of observation, and its effect is dramatic. Here we have a classic blend of literature and sculpture. It looks that aesthetic sensibility of the sculptors took precedence over texts. As usual the Pallava-s add their gravy: puzzles and puns.

4. There are two major panels, the unexcelled Great Penance and the Govardhana.

5. There is also an unfinished Great Penance, though not very important as an art piece, it helps us appreciating certain aspects of sculpting reliefs.

6. In the Mahishasuramardini in the Saluvakkuppam, a worthy sequel to the more famous scene in the Mahishasuramardini Mandapam.

7. The Minor Elephant panel, without a religious significance, is another masterly composition

8. The Great Penance This is the most unusual and impressive sight at Mamallapuram. The face of a rock is used for this grand composition, a huge open-air relief-carving with multitude of figures, animals, human and divine.

9. Just at a glance, we are struck by the acute naturalism and refinement of the carving. This exemplifies the highest point of artistic tradition of the Tamil country.

10. Though the chief characters are from our lore it is not a narrative, but is wider in its concept and design. The sculptors of this scene seem to have had sufficient freedom to give free run for their creativity.

11. The Penance panel, a great carving in relief, is the largest of its kind in India, and perhaps in the world. It is more than 30 meters long and 12 meters high. It covers the rock surface of a cliff on the eastern flank of the main hill at Mamallapuram. A vertical cleft in the centre of the carving divides the panel into two huge sections.

12. The main characters, namely, a tapasvin standing on one leg and a god granting him boon are portrayed on the left part.

13. On both sides, rows of gods and demigods are depicted flying, toward the cleft. In the scene are also depicted common people and animals of a wide variety.

14. Who is the tapasvin? This issue is alive and undecided, with advocates of Arjuna and of Bhagiratha being equally certain. Very recently there is one more argument thrown in; that the scene depicts both!

15. Arjuna or Bhagiratha? This is subject of discussion among scholar. Some of the main arguments of the two sides are given.

16. It is Bhagiratha The scene celebrate the coming down of Ganga, as all the characters are rushing towards the centre. Many have their backs to the god, which would have been unthinkable, if the God giving boon was the main scene. Also, that the Pallava-s had been claiming descent from the Ganga, would lead to the Bhagiratha story.

17. It is Arjuna The Pallava-s were great patrons of art and literature. Bharavi’s Kiratarjuniyam was very popular during this period, and inspired by it, the Pallava-s had immortalised it. This is a major argument in favour of Arjuna’s penance

18. The Bhagiratha episode Bhagiratha wished to bring the Ganga to the earth to sanctify his dead ancestors. After severe penance he could extract the boon from Lord Brahma, but came to realise that the earth cannot stand the power of the Ganga. He then continued his penance seeking the help of Lord Siva for receiving the torrential Ganga. This penance and the subsequent appearance of Siva is the scene depicted here.

19. The Arjuna episode During the exile Arjuna went to the Himalayas and did severe penance to seek Pasupata-astra from Lord Siva. In order to test Arjuna’s resolve and valour, Siva appeared in the form of a hunter chasing a wild boar, which charged at Arjuna, who in self-defense sent an arrow and at the same time the hunter’s arrow also struck the boar. A combat followed between the contestants as who owned the dead boar, in which Siva came victorious. It is then to the surprised Arjuna, Siva showed his divine form and presented him with Pasupata-astra. The scene portrays Arjuna doing penance and the moment of darshan by the lord.

20. Common to both are the two main characters, the tapasvin, Bhagiratha or Arjuna, the Lord, and, finally, the flowing Ganga.

21. The making of ‘the Great Penance’ Two boulders and a natural cleft accommodated the composition. Water falling through the cleft creates an illusion of Ganga falling from the heavens. Water is indicated by having three naga sculptures. Some believe that the Pallava-s built a cistern at the top of hill above the panel to collect water and release when required.

22. The lower part on the left has markings that may lead us to suspect that a three-celled shrine was begun and given up, perhaps, because of a natural crack. Then, followed sculpting the Great Penance composition, it may be taken.

23. While imagining how the Great Penance would have looked to the people during the heydays of Mamallapuram, we should bear in mind that, like all other sculptures of India, this one was also plastered and painted in bright colours.

24. Almost ten feet high, Siva, personification of beatitude and benediction, seems satisfied at the resolute bhakti of the ascetic, and is granting boon Pinaka, the trident characteristic to Siva, hand in varada mudra, hand holding tail of cobra, that loops down behind and reappears, moon on his head, makara and patra-kundalas on the ears and minimally dressed, Siva is a majestic figure.

25. The ascetic stands resolutely on one leg, head thrown back slightly, with well-set mouth, sharp nose and flared nostrils . The emaciated body, bearded face, sunken ribs, withered muscles adhering to protruding elbows and knees are results of years of self-denying austerities. Loin-cloth wet and limp, interlocking his fingers he is seen doing Surya-namaskaram

26. Carefully sculpted, dramatically individualised masterpieces. And what a contrast between the boon-seeker and the boon-giver!

27. Now we shall meet a few others in the memorable scene

28. Gana-s Siva is always shown surrounded by gana-s, and there are four of them, all in great animation. The gana standing between Siva and ascetic has a stomach formed into the fierce face of a lion-like creature. We see similar figures elsewhere too.

29. Kinnara-s The kinnara-s, the divine musicians, with bird legs and wings, float effortlessly. In the great panorama, a number of couples are carved in the panel on the left and on the right, males holding vina-s (lutes) and females playing cymbals.

30. Gandharva-s Many of the divine figures are flying with ease towards the centre, some gesticulating with upraised palms, perhaps at the success of Bhagitha’s effort, or at the outcome of the fight between kirata and Arjuna. These heavenly couples are excellent specimens of the Pallava ideals of masculine and feminine beauty, subtle and divine.

31. Siddha-s Also hurrying to witness the miracle of the descend of Ganga are two pairs of Siddha-s, another instance of excellent modelling.

32. Dwarfs There are a number of dwarf-couples. They are shown sitting, watching, with peculiar hoods, with flaps over the ears, covering their heads.

33. Shrine and devotees Below the ascetic is a temple with an idol of Vishnu inside. Meditating near this shrine are an ascetic and three yogis, now without head; their concentration and deep devotion are palpable. The shrine is single storied, considered to be a model of contemporary temple. We can see replicas, like this temple, in bas-relief in the Mamallapuram monuments.

34. Chandra and Surya Among the flying celestials are Chandra and Surya, symmetrically located on the other boulder, both identified by disc-like halos behind their heads.

35. The cleft – The Descending Ganga A naga-king and his queen, in solutation with a naga-subject, swim upwards by the powerful whipping action of their coils. Below them another serpent raises its hood majestically, from its lair. On either side of the naga-queen is a couple in human form, identified as naga-s by their hoods

36. Bathers Close to the edge of the river are two, one, with a suggestive smile, wringing out a wet cloth, and another with calm countenance with a pot of water on his shoulder. Two more have completed the ritual bath, with wet dress clinging to the body, one doing the surya-namaskaram, like the tapasvin and the other is at the salutation to the river itself. The depiction of all these characters is naturalistic in physiognomy.

37. Forest Scene Forest dwellers are shown in their normal chore and hunters are out on their work. The scene with all these men individualised in pose, demeanour, moustached and hair on the head tied on the top, dressed, perhaps, in leather, carrying weapons due to their profession: bow, hatchet etc and one carrying some items on a sling, another jackfruit on his shoulder etc, is an excellent coposition.

38. It is a lively forest, with trees, like jackfruit, and with birds and animals, like, a monitor lizard, a black monkey with hairy neck, lions, tigers, their cubs, deer, antelopes, mountain goats, monkeys, a hare, an iguana stalking an unsuspecting bird, a boar, a tortoise, jungle cocks and hens and geese; a fair representation of the animal world.

39. The animal kingdom includes a money in pecsive mood, A monkey couple ad a striding deer and a stylised lions.

40. A dynamic portraiture is a tiger suckling her two cubs, and similar liveliness can be seen in the boar looking furtively behind for enemies. Perhaps the best is the relaxed deer pair one of which scratching its mouth with the paw, a classic piece. The entire scene is the result of careful observation and skilful modelling.

41. Hypocritical cat Here is a humorous story of a cat imitating the ascetic-hero, pretending to practise austerities. Mice surround the vile cat, and don’t suspect its treachery; one mouse is even worshipping him with paws pressed together in salutation.

42. The elephant galore With a majestic 15-footer, another large one with eight little calves underfoot this composition would rank among the world’s best elephant compositions. These elephants are placed prominently, and, in fact, dwarfing even the tapasvin and the god.

43. An appreciation The entire composition is one of harmony, unity and balance. Divinities mingle harmoniously with denizens of earth. The divines are serene and magnanimous, semi-divines effortlessly and unobtrusively moving about in the air. The men going about the daily chores and the animals on the river bank and in the forest in their leisurely pace, monkeys doing what monkeys do, elephants in their majestic gambolling and deer caught scratching. Truly, the composition is a sculptural symphony! And there is humour too; the cunning cat with credible mice! The Indian artist has shown that he has a sense of humour. The panel could be a scene of social history.

44. We shall now see how the panel looked like in the 18th-19th centuries

45. Bas relief of the 'Descent of the Ganges', Mamallapuram. Squared drawing for the aquatint published 15 October 1799

46. Bas relief of the 'Descent of the Ganges', Mamallapuram. Aquatint published 15 October 1799

47. 'A view of the Sculptures representing the tapass or intense penance of Arjoona Mahabalipoorum from a Sketch by Mr J. Braddock. J. Gantz'.

48. "Mahabalipuram, bas-relief, India, 1820. [ Mahabalipuram, Arjuna's Penance bas relief, 7th century ], aquatint by G. Zancon, published in a work by Guilio Ferrario, about 1820."

49. Great Penance Wood engraving1890

50. Arjuna's Penance, Seven Pagodas [Mamallapuram] Photo by Nicholas (ca. 1880)

51. Great Penance by Anon (Pen & ink 1780-1820 'Ancient Sculptures on the Rocks at Mavelliporum'; on back in ink: 'No.' '7. Mavellepoorum.'

52. Detail from Arjuna’s Penance/ Descent of the Ganges sculpture showing seated ascetic next to a shrine. ‘Sculptured figure of Dron Achari at Mahabalipooram Anon; 1780-1820

53. Govardhana The Govardhana panel is another masterpiece. The effortless lifting of the mountain to save his people, the consequent relaxed mood of the people have been brought alive, the Pallava way. On his side is Nappinnai and Balarama, assuaging a friend.

54. Govardhana The theme has been effortlessly used to depict some secular scenes, found only in this panel. The pastoral life is effectively portrayed. Are the dancers doing Aychiyar koothu, mentioned in Silappadikaram?

55. Govardhana The pranks of the divine child, Krishna, is celebrated. The puranic stories also valourise the heroism of Krishna, one of which is how he handled the wrath of Indra. He lifted the Govardhana Mountain itself to provide shelter to his people.

56. The master Pallava craftsman has narrated this delightful story for immortality. In doing so he has also provided us a snap-shot of the contemporary pastoral life, ‘in its primordial simplicity’. In these thirteen centuries, we are surprised to find, that the life depicted on the stony wall can be witnessed in our villages even today!

57. There is one more aspect of great importance. The theme is a well-known story of Krishna. In the whole of Mamallapuram cornucopia, this is the only scene where the Pallava sculptor has not been teasing us.

58. The relief, like the more celebrated neighbour, the Great Penance, occupies the entire wall of the hill. It is now no more an open-air bas-relief, for in the later Vijayanagara period a front mandapam has been constructed.

59. The story Once Indra became frightened by the growing popularity of Krishna and let loose lightning, thunder and cyclone on Gokula, the abode of Krishna. Krishna faced this calmly by lifting Govardhana mountain effortlessly with the little finger of his left hand and thus, offering protection to the fleeting community. This fitting reply subdued Indra.

60. The composition The relief depicts Krishna lifting up, with his left arm, the hill, Govardhana, as an umbrella to protect his village friends and their herds of cattle from the stormy wrath of the god, Indra.

61. The main scene of the young God-incarnate lifting a mountain and the resultant the normal life of the people unaffected by the wrath of Indra is depicted with great effect: parents carrying their children pick-a-back, cows being milked, and village women in usual chores etc.

62. The main character Krishna, an imposing figure at the centre is seen lifting the Govardhana mountain. On his left hand he holds the immense mountain, Govardhana, effortlessly. Huddling near him is a distinguished lady, identifiable from the others by her dress, stance and attendant lady.

63. To his left is his brother, Balarma. He is seen with his left arm on the shoulder of an elderly person. The importance of Krishna and his brother is brought out by making them larger than the other characters in the scene.

64. Rest of the scene is only enacting the pastoral life, a life of peace and tranquillity. Unaffected by the threat of storm, reposing full faith in Krishna, the life in Gokulam continues. The theme has been effortlessly used to depict some secular scenes, found only in this panel.

65. A man is seen milking a cow while the cow is licks her calf. The sitting posture of the man milking, with pot held between his knees while crouching, is a scene that can be seen even to day in our villages.

66. A very graceful woman carrying a rolled mat on her head and a sling containing curd and other dairy merchandise. Behind him is another villager walking with an axe on his shoulders. We also have an ox on his majestic stride with calf trotting under the protective care of its father.

67. There is a flute player, mesmerized by his own music, and mesmerizing all the people and cattle around. Just below we see that even the child is distracted from its feeding, for the mother, holding her baby on her thighs.

68. On the left, a couple dances hand in hand, reminiscent of Aychiyar Koothu of Silappadikaram.

69. We have these described in our ancient literature like Silappadikaram, and was a familiar scene of our villages till a few decades ago. One feels sorry of this break in our mode life that has a history of almost two thousand years and has been portrayed here one thousand three hundred years ago!

70. The Pallava artist would not rest without tickling us. There is a strange mixture animals on the southern end. He has used skillfully the side of the sloping rock to create an impression of lair. Are they huddling together protecting themselves from the thunderstorm?

71. On the northern side, we have a fine sculpture of a bull, almost in the round, resting on a platform on the right watching the happening with nonchalant curiosity.

72. Appreciation The scene is rendered with the unique charm of the Pallava-s. In its dynamics this panel gives a totally different feeling, a puranic story narrated in a simple, natural way. This has prompted some experts to feel that this might have been created by an entirely different set of sculptors, may be even at a slightly later period. There is one more dimension to this composition: only here in Mamallapuram we witness secular scenes.

73. We shall now see how the panel looked like in the 18th-19th centuries

74. Govardhana (Krishna) by Gould (Pen & ink MacKenzie Collection 1816)

75. Goverdhana by Anon (Pen & Ink MacKenzie Collection 1816)

76. Govardhana by Gantz (Water colour 1825)

77. The unfinished Great Penance Close to the masterpiece is an apology; perhaps the sculptors took training, or work of ones who did not make the grade! The theme looks the same, of the Great Penance, but the work, in shallow relief, is not inspired, does not inspire.

78. The unfinished Great Penance There is another open-air bas-relief that depicts the Great Penance spectacle in Mamallapuram, not far from the celebrated one. The entire scene breathes of great movement and excitement.

79. There are similarities and variations between the two. Here too, two large boulders separated by a cleft are used for depicting the scene namely, the Great Penance. A number of characters are same in both. Most of the characters in this also look rushing towards the cleft.

80. But here it is low relief, and looks more unfinished than the other.

81. The main scene of the boon-granting is somewhat different here. The tapasvin’s posture is the same; the emaciated ascetic stands on one leg and looks intently at the sun through his knitted hands.

82. The four-armed God, without trisula, is on his left side. His lower right hand is in the act of benediction, lower left hand on his hip, a rosary in his upper right hand and an axe, in his upper left. A snake undulates out from under the wrist of this hand.

83. There is a lone gana, who carries some indefinable thing on his head and only one gandharva in salutation.

84. The other characters in the scene are the other composition, gandharva-s, kinanra-s, siddha-s a forest-dwellers. The celestials are shrouded in clouds below hip. Among the animals, deer and elephants; but the elephants are not oversized and distracting as in the other panel. Circling above are hamsa-s.

85. The entire scene, in spite of its incompleteness, breathes of great movement and excitement.

86. Minor Elephant Panel The Pallava sculptor seems to be obsessed with elephants, and has created a panel totally dedicated to the pachyderm. The bull-elephant stands majestically, with the cow shown above and the child frolicking under watchful eyes. The peacock on its perch while the monkey is watching you furtively.

87. Elephant bas-relief – a drawing by J Dumbleton (1816)

88. Mahishasuramardini In front of the Atiranachanda Cave, on a small out crop is sculpted a relief of one the final scenes of the Devi vanquishing Mahisha. The defeat can be surmised from the loss of demon’s umbrella and his running away from the scene. Durga is getting down, perhaps to give the final, fatal blow. An extraordinary, dainty composition, may be taken as the sequel to the more famous one in the main hill.

89. Mamallai is a never ending exhilaration. These monuments stood the test of time, but most of the time left neglected mostly under sand and debris, by the descendents of those who created these marvels , perhaps, ashamed of the insensitivity of the human folk to art and piety.

90. Thank you Swaminathan