This document summarizes a journal article that examines how firms' marketing spending before initial public offerings (IPOs) can impact investor responses to the IPO. The summary is:
[1] The article analyzes how pre-IPO marketing spending may help reduce IPO underpricing and increase trading volume by providing information to investors and reducing uncertainty about firm value.
[2] Results from analyzing a large dataset of IPOs from 1996-2005 found that higher pre-IPO marketing spending is associated with lower underpricing and higher trading, though the effects vary depending on firm efficiency and market conditions.
[3] The findings suggest prudent investors could better identify promising IPOs by considering both pre
This document summarizes a research paper that examines the relationship between product market strategies (innovator vs imitator), financing strategies (venture capital vs other), and product market outcomes. The authors find that innovator firms are more likely to obtain venture capital financing than imitator firms. They also find that venture capital is associated with a significantly faster time to market, especially for innovator firms. This suggests venture capital plays an important role in supporting innovative companies.
This document provides an overview of various strategic management tools and frameworks including the BCG matrix, GE nine cell matrix, Porter's five forces, strategic groups, SWOT analysis, and value chain analysis. It explains how each tool is used, key aspects to analyze, and how insights can be gained to inform strategic decision making. The BCG matrix classifies products/businesses into four categories based on market growth rate and relative market share. Porter's five forces analyzes competitive rivalry and industry attractiveness. SWOT evaluates internal strengths and weaknesses and external opportunities and threats. Value chain analysis examines activities to create and deliver value.
The document discusses the relationship between antitrust analysis and strategic management. It argues that strategic management can provide insights that are often overlooked by traditional antitrust analysis which focuses mainly on economics and law. Specifically, strategic management considers a firm's pursuit of sustained competitive advantage rather than just profit maximization. The document reviews literature on how concepts from strategic management could complement antitrust analysis, noting Michael Porter's "productivity-based approach" as an example. However, it also notes that strategic management ideas have had little influence on antitrust so far. The document proposes exploring how a resource-based view of strategy could further shed light on new aspects for antitrust analysis.
This document provides an overview of the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) Matrix, which was developed in the 1970s to help companies analyze their business units. The BCG Matrix classifies business units into four categories - Stars, Cash Cows, Question Marks, and Dogs - based on their relative market share and the market growth rate. Stars have high market share in a high-growth market, while Cash Cows have high share in a low-growth market. Question Marks have low share but are in a high-growth market, while Dogs have low share and are in a low-growth market. The matrix is used to assess cash flows, resource allocation, and determine whether to invest in or divest from different business units
The BCG Matrix is a portfolio analysis tool developed by the Boston Consulting Group in the 1970s to help corporations analyze their business units and allocate resources. It divides business units into four categories based on their market growth rate and relative market share: stars, cash cows, question marks, and dogs. Stars are high growth, high share units that require investment; cash cows are low growth, high share units that generate cash; question marks are high growth, low share units that require investment to achieve their potential; and dogs are low growth, low share units that should be divested. The BCG Matrix provides a simple framework to assess business units and allocate capital but has limitations as it only considers two factors and does not account for synerg
The document presents an overview of the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) Matrix. It describes how the BCG Matrix classifies businesses based on their relative market share and market growth rate into four categories: stars, question marks, cash cows, and dogs. It then outlines the characteristics of each category and discusses how companies can use the BCG Matrix to assess their product portfolios, allocate resources, and make investment and divestment decisions. The document also notes some benefits and limitations of the BCG Matrix methodology.
The document summarizes the emergence and purpose of portfolio matrices and the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) Growth-Share Matrix. Some key points:
- In the 1970s-1980s, consulting firms developed portfolio matrices to better understand the competitive positions of businesses within a portfolio and identify priorities for allocating resources.
- The BCG Matrix classifies businesses into "Stars", "Cash Cows", "Question Marks", and "Dogs" based on their relative market share and industry growth rate. It aims to help companies achieve a balanced portfolio.
- The BCG Matrix views companies as a portfolio of businesses and is intended to help managers identify cash flow requirements and make resource allocation decisions between different businesses.
The BCG matrix is a chart developed by the Boston Consulting Group in 1968 to analyze a company's business units and allocate resources. It categorizes products as cash cows, dogs, question marks or stars based on their relative market share and market growth rate. Cash cows are profitable but mature, dogs have low market share in a mature industry, question marks consume cash but could grow, and stars have high share in a fast-growing market. The matrix aims to help companies decide which units to fund or sell off. It has been criticized for oversimplifying and potentially misguiding resource allocation decisions.
This document summarizes a research paper that examines the relationship between product market strategies (innovator vs imitator), financing strategies (venture capital vs other), and product market outcomes. The authors find that innovator firms are more likely to obtain venture capital financing than imitator firms. They also find that venture capital is associated with a significantly faster time to market, especially for innovator firms. This suggests venture capital plays an important role in supporting innovative companies.
This document provides an overview of various strategic management tools and frameworks including the BCG matrix, GE nine cell matrix, Porter's five forces, strategic groups, SWOT analysis, and value chain analysis. It explains how each tool is used, key aspects to analyze, and how insights can be gained to inform strategic decision making. The BCG matrix classifies products/businesses into four categories based on market growth rate and relative market share. Porter's five forces analyzes competitive rivalry and industry attractiveness. SWOT evaluates internal strengths and weaknesses and external opportunities and threats. Value chain analysis examines activities to create and deliver value.
The document discusses the relationship between antitrust analysis and strategic management. It argues that strategic management can provide insights that are often overlooked by traditional antitrust analysis which focuses mainly on economics and law. Specifically, strategic management considers a firm's pursuit of sustained competitive advantage rather than just profit maximization. The document reviews literature on how concepts from strategic management could complement antitrust analysis, noting Michael Porter's "productivity-based approach" as an example. However, it also notes that strategic management ideas have had little influence on antitrust so far. The document proposes exploring how a resource-based view of strategy could further shed light on new aspects for antitrust analysis.
This document provides an overview of the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) Matrix, which was developed in the 1970s to help companies analyze their business units. The BCG Matrix classifies business units into four categories - Stars, Cash Cows, Question Marks, and Dogs - based on their relative market share and the market growth rate. Stars have high market share in a high-growth market, while Cash Cows have high share in a low-growth market. Question Marks have low share but are in a high-growth market, while Dogs have low share and are in a low-growth market. The matrix is used to assess cash flows, resource allocation, and determine whether to invest in or divest from different business units
The BCG Matrix is a portfolio analysis tool developed by the Boston Consulting Group in the 1970s to help corporations analyze their business units and allocate resources. It divides business units into four categories based on their market growth rate and relative market share: stars, cash cows, question marks, and dogs. Stars are high growth, high share units that require investment; cash cows are low growth, high share units that generate cash; question marks are high growth, low share units that require investment to achieve their potential; and dogs are low growth, low share units that should be divested. The BCG Matrix provides a simple framework to assess business units and allocate capital but has limitations as it only considers two factors and does not account for synerg
The document presents an overview of the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) Matrix. It describes how the BCG Matrix classifies businesses based on their relative market share and market growth rate into four categories: stars, question marks, cash cows, and dogs. It then outlines the characteristics of each category and discusses how companies can use the BCG Matrix to assess their product portfolios, allocate resources, and make investment and divestment decisions. The document also notes some benefits and limitations of the BCG Matrix methodology.
The document summarizes the emergence and purpose of portfolio matrices and the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) Growth-Share Matrix. Some key points:
- In the 1970s-1980s, consulting firms developed portfolio matrices to better understand the competitive positions of businesses within a portfolio and identify priorities for allocating resources.
- The BCG Matrix classifies businesses into "Stars", "Cash Cows", "Question Marks", and "Dogs" based on their relative market share and industry growth rate. It aims to help companies achieve a balanced portfolio.
- The BCG Matrix views companies as a portfolio of businesses and is intended to help managers identify cash flow requirements and make resource allocation decisions between different businesses.
The BCG matrix is a chart developed by the Boston Consulting Group in 1968 to analyze a company's business units and allocate resources. It categorizes products as cash cows, dogs, question marks or stars based on their relative market share and market growth rate. Cash cows are profitable but mature, dogs have low market share in a mature industry, question marks consume cash but could grow, and stars have high share in a fast-growing market. The matrix aims to help companies decide which units to fund or sell off. It has been criticized for oversimplifying and potentially misguiding resource allocation decisions.
A marketing strategy is a process that concentrates resources on opportunities to increase sales and achieve a competitive advantage. It should have customer satisfaction as its main goal and be integrated with corporate strategy. Tools like the BCG matrix, GE matrix, Ansoff matrix, and gap analysis can help analyze markets, products, competitive positioning, and identify areas for improvement.
The BCG growth-share matrix is a portfolio planning model developed in the 1970s. It classifies businesses based on their market growth rate and relative market share. There are four categories: stars (high growth, high share), cash cows (low growth, high share), question marks (high growth, low share), and dogs (low growth, low share). The matrix is used to analyze how much cash each category generates and determines how to allocate resources for maximum return. It helps identify businesses that need investment or can generate profits but has limitations in only using two dimensions and definitions of market.
The document discusses the BCG matrix, which was created by Bruce Henderson in 1970 to help companies analyze their business units. The BCG matrix uses market growth rate and market share to classify business units into four categories: stars, cash cows, question marks, and dogs. It then provides descriptions of each category and how they affect resource allocation and cash flow. The document also provides an overview of Hindustan Unilever Limited (HUL), India's largest consumer goods company, and analyzes HUL's product portfolio using the BCG matrix framework.
The Boston Consulting Group (BCG) matrix is a portfolio analysis tool that classifies business units based on their relative market share and market growth rate. It sorts units into four categories: Stars (high share, high growth), Cash Cows (high share, low growth), Question Marks (low share, high growth), and Dogs (low share, low growth). The matrix is used to assess unit profiles, cash demands, development cycles, and resource allocation to maximize future growth and profits. It provides a simple framework but only considers two dimensions and may misclassify units.
The document discusses the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) Matrix, which classifies business units into four categories based on their relative market share and market growth rate: Question Marks, Stars, Cash Cows, and Dogs. Question Marks have high growth but low market share, requiring high investment. Stars have high growth and market share but also require heavy investment. Cash Cows have low growth but high market share, generating cash with little investment. Dogs have low growth and market share and are cash traps. The BCG Matrix helps assess a product portfolio, cash demands, resource allocation, and divestment decisions.
The BCG matrix is a chart created by Bruce Henderson at Boston Consulting Group in 1970 to analyze business units and allocate resources. It categorizes products as Cash Cows, Dogs, Question Marks, or Stars based on their relative market share and the market growth rate. Cash Cows have high market share in a slow-growing market and generate cash. Dogs have low market share in a mature market and barely break even. Question Marks have low market share in a fast-growing market. Stars have high market share in a fast-growing market but require investment to maintain growth. The matrix is used to determine which products to invest in versus divest.
The document summarizes the BCG matrix, which was developed by The Boston Consulting Group. The matrix evaluates business units based on their relative market share and industry growth rate. It sorts business units into four categories: Stars, which have high market share and industry growth; Question Marks or Problem Children, which have high growth but low share; Cash Cows, which have low growth but high share; and Dogs, which have low growth and share. The document focuses on Stars and Question Marks. Stars generate cash and can fund growth. Question Marks require large investments to maintain growth and market share, and companies must decide whether to continue investing or divest weaker Question Mark businesses.
The document discusses the BCG matrix, a tool used to evaluate a company's portfolio of business units. It describes the emergence of portfolio matrices in the 1970s and the key components of the BCG matrix: market growth rate and relative market share. Business units are classified into four categories - Stars, Cash Cows, Question Marks, and Dogs - based on their placement in the matrix. The summary applies the BCG matrix to analyze ITC's revenues across different business segments.
The document discusses the BCG Growth Share Matrix, which is a tool used to evaluate a company's portfolio of business units or product lines. It positions products across two dimensions: market growth rate and relative market share. Products fall into four categories - Stars, Cash Cows, Dogs, and Question Marks. The summary provides guidance on how to manage products in each category, such as investing in Stars to maintain leadership or milking Cash Cows in mature markets.
The document provides an overview of an entrepreneurial group presentation on market research. It discusses quick group presentations on current projects, how to estimate the market, different types of market research including primary and secondary methods, customer segmentation and positioning, and working on projects with group supervision. Key topics covered include market estimation, different market research tools, how to segment customers, target specific segments, and position products and services. The document aims to educate entrepreneurs on conducting effective market research.
The document discusses strategic marketing forecasting and its relationship to market segment selection and firm performance. It presents four hypotheses:
1) Firms select market segments that have high market attractiveness and where the firm has strong business strengths.
2) A firm's forecasts are more accurate for targeted market segments than non-targeted segments.
3) A firm's forecast accuracy increases as the level of competition in a targeted market segment increases.
4) Superior long-term strategic forecasting accuracy is positively associated with better firm performance.
The document proposes testing these hypotheses using strategic forecasts from a marketing simulation to investigate the relationships between strategic forecasting, market segment selection, and firm performance.
The BCG Matrix is a tool used to evaluate a company's product portfolio. It categorizes products as stars, cash cows, question marks, or dogs based on their market share and market growth. Stars have a high market share and require significant cash investment. Cash cows have a large market share in a stable market and generate cash. Question marks have high growth but low market share, consuming cash. Dogs have low market share and growth, neither generating nor consuming much cash but tying up resources.
The document discusses Management by Objectives (MBO). It describes MBO as having three steps: 1) set individual objectives and plans, 2) give feedback and evaluate performance, 3) reward according to performance. It also lists two common sources of MBO failure: lack of top management commitment and employees' negative beliefs about management's sincerity in including them in decision making. The document provides information on various strategic management frameworks including the GE 9-cell matrix, life-cycle portfolio matrix, and differences between strategy formulation and implementation.
This document presents a business policy to Mr. Husnain Manzoor on the BCG matrix analysis of Alokozay company's products. It explains the purpose of the BCG matrix is to assess a company's product portfolio. It then analyzes each of Alokozay's products in terms of industry growth rate and market share to categorize them as stars, cash cows, question marks or dogs. It finds that beverages and tea are stars, property and development and tissues are cash cows, and cooking oil and biscuits are dogs. The summary provides recommendations for Alokozay's strategies for each category.
The document summarizes the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) Matrix, a portfolio planning model developed in the 1970s. The BCG Matrix classifies a company's business units into four categories - Stars, Cash Cows, Question Marks, and Dogs - based on their relative market share and the market growth rate. Stars have high market share in a high growth market and require heavy investment. Cash Cows have high market share in a low growth market and generate cash. Question Marks have low market share but are in a high growth market, requiring investment. Dogs have low market share and are in a low growth market, acting as cash traps. The matrix is used to assess products/businesses and allocate resources effectively.
This document summarizes a presentation about the BCG matrix, a tool for portfolio analysis and business strategy. It describes the components of the BCG matrix, including cash cows, stars, question marks, and dogs. It also discusses how to measure relative market share and market growth rate to analyze products on the matrix. Finally, it provides examples of products mapped to the BCG matrix and strategies for different portfolio positions, such as building question marks into stars or harvesting cash from dogs.
The document presents information on the BCG matrix, which categorizes a company's products based on their relative market share and market growth rate. It divides products into four categories: question marks, stars, cash cows, and dogs. Question marks have high growth but low share, stars have high growth and share, cash cows have low growth but high share, and dogs have low growth and low share. The matrix is used to analyze how much cash each category generates or consumes and determine the appropriate investment strategy. However, it only considers two factors and getting market data can be challenging.
Mexican supermarket industry is mainly characterized by a variety of types of consumers, mainly
marked by differences in purchasing power. Mexican industry self serves the needs of different consumers
through: (i) modern formats such as supermarkets, warehouses, hypermarkets and membership clubs; (ii)
traditional formats such as small independent sundries; and (iii) informal, such as farmers' markets and local street
vendors. This paper analyzes retrospectively the acquisition of the Gigante stores by Soriana from the theory of
industry, resources and capabilities, reviewing the situation of both companies in the diamond industry by Porter,
SWOT analysis themselves that theory.
This document analyzes five strategic business units (SBUs) of a company using the BCG growth-share matrix. It provides sales and market share data to plot each SBU on the matrix. Based on their placement, it recommends strategies of divesting the dog (SBU E), investing in problem children (SBUs A and B), holding the star (SBU B), and harvesting the cash cow (SBU D). It notes limitations of solely using the BCG matrix for decision making, including its simplicity and qualitative nature. Additional data on factors like cooperation among SBUs is needed for healthy recommendations.
This document discusses initial public offerings (IPOs) and analyzes Facebook's 2012 IPO as a case study. It begins with an executive summary stating that IPOs allow firms to raise funds, expand globally, and attract customers and talent. The document then provides a brief introduction to IPOs, describes the objectives of researching IPOs, analyzes Facebook's record-breaking IPO, and recommends that firms pursue IPOs after establishing growth and potential customers.
This document provides an overview of economic principles that are relevant to business strategy analysis. It discusses the theory of the firm and why firms exist to lower transaction costs. The main goal of firms is traditionally to maximize profits, though noneconomic goals like corporate social responsibility are also discussed. Key concepts that will be analyzed include demand, revenue, costs, and Dr. Michael Porter's five forces industry analysis framework. The document aims to demonstrate how economics can provide an analytical foundation for understanding strategic decision making.
A marketing strategy is a process that concentrates resources on opportunities to increase sales and achieve a competitive advantage. It should have customer satisfaction as its main goal and be integrated with corporate strategy. Tools like the BCG matrix, GE matrix, Ansoff matrix, and gap analysis can help analyze markets, products, competitive positioning, and identify areas for improvement.
The BCG growth-share matrix is a portfolio planning model developed in the 1970s. It classifies businesses based on their market growth rate and relative market share. There are four categories: stars (high growth, high share), cash cows (low growth, high share), question marks (high growth, low share), and dogs (low growth, low share). The matrix is used to analyze how much cash each category generates and determines how to allocate resources for maximum return. It helps identify businesses that need investment or can generate profits but has limitations in only using two dimensions and definitions of market.
The document discusses the BCG matrix, which was created by Bruce Henderson in 1970 to help companies analyze their business units. The BCG matrix uses market growth rate and market share to classify business units into four categories: stars, cash cows, question marks, and dogs. It then provides descriptions of each category and how they affect resource allocation and cash flow. The document also provides an overview of Hindustan Unilever Limited (HUL), India's largest consumer goods company, and analyzes HUL's product portfolio using the BCG matrix framework.
The Boston Consulting Group (BCG) matrix is a portfolio analysis tool that classifies business units based on their relative market share and market growth rate. It sorts units into four categories: Stars (high share, high growth), Cash Cows (high share, low growth), Question Marks (low share, high growth), and Dogs (low share, low growth). The matrix is used to assess unit profiles, cash demands, development cycles, and resource allocation to maximize future growth and profits. It provides a simple framework but only considers two dimensions and may misclassify units.
The document discusses the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) Matrix, which classifies business units into four categories based on their relative market share and market growth rate: Question Marks, Stars, Cash Cows, and Dogs. Question Marks have high growth but low market share, requiring high investment. Stars have high growth and market share but also require heavy investment. Cash Cows have low growth but high market share, generating cash with little investment. Dogs have low growth and market share and are cash traps. The BCG Matrix helps assess a product portfolio, cash demands, resource allocation, and divestment decisions.
The BCG matrix is a chart created by Bruce Henderson at Boston Consulting Group in 1970 to analyze business units and allocate resources. It categorizes products as Cash Cows, Dogs, Question Marks, or Stars based on their relative market share and the market growth rate. Cash Cows have high market share in a slow-growing market and generate cash. Dogs have low market share in a mature market and barely break even. Question Marks have low market share in a fast-growing market. Stars have high market share in a fast-growing market but require investment to maintain growth. The matrix is used to determine which products to invest in versus divest.
The document summarizes the BCG matrix, which was developed by The Boston Consulting Group. The matrix evaluates business units based on their relative market share and industry growth rate. It sorts business units into four categories: Stars, which have high market share and industry growth; Question Marks or Problem Children, which have high growth but low share; Cash Cows, which have low growth but high share; and Dogs, which have low growth and share. The document focuses on Stars and Question Marks. Stars generate cash and can fund growth. Question Marks require large investments to maintain growth and market share, and companies must decide whether to continue investing or divest weaker Question Mark businesses.
The document discusses the BCG matrix, a tool used to evaluate a company's portfolio of business units. It describes the emergence of portfolio matrices in the 1970s and the key components of the BCG matrix: market growth rate and relative market share. Business units are classified into four categories - Stars, Cash Cows, Question Marks, and Dogs - based on their placement in the matrix. The summary applies the BCG matrix to analyze ITC's revenues across different business segments.
The document discusses the BCG Growth Share Matrix, which is a tool used to evaluate a company's portfolio of business units or product lines. It positions products across two dimensions: market growth rate and relative market share. Products fall into four categories - Stars, Cash Cows, Dogs, and Question Marks. The summary provides guidance on how to manage products in each category, such as investing in Stars to maintain leadership or milking Cash Cows in mature markets.
The document provides an overview of an entrepreneurial group presentation on market research. It discusses quick group presentations on current projects, how to estimate the market, different types of market research including primary and secondary methods, customer segmentation and positioning, and working on projects with group supervision. Key topics covered include market estimation, different market research tools, how to segment customers, target specific segments, and position products and services. The document aims to educate entrepreneurs on conducting effective market research.
The document discusses strategic marketing forecasting and its relationship to market segment selection and firm performance. It presents four hypotheses:
1) Firms select market segments that have high market attractiveness and where the firm has strong business strengths.
2) A firm's forecasts are more accurate for targeted market segments than non-targeted segments.
3) A firm's forecast accuracy increases as the level of competition in a targeted market segment increases.
4) Superior long-term strategic forecasting accuracy is positively associated with better firm performance.
The document proposes testing these hypotheses using strategic forecasts from a marketing simulation to investigate the relationships between strategic forecasting, market segment selection, and firm performance.
The BCG Matrix is a tool used to evaluate a company's product portfolio. It categorizes products as stars, cash cows, question marks, or dogs based on their market share and market growth. Stars have a high market share and require significant cash investment. Cash cows have a large market share in a stable market and generate cash. Question marks have high growth but low market share, consuming cash. Dogs have low market share and growth, neither generating nor consuming much cash but tying up resources.
The document discusses Management by Objectives (MBO). It describes MBO as having three steps: 1) set individual objectives and plans, 2) give feedback and evaluate performance, 3) reward according to performance. It also lists two common sources of MBO failure: lack of top management commitment and employees' negative beliefs about management's sincerity in including them in decision making. The document provides information on various strategic management frameworks including the GE 9-cell matrix, life-cycle portfolio matrix, and differences between strategy formulation and implementation.
This document presents a business policy to Mr. Husnain Manzoor on the BCG matrix analysis of Alokozay company's products. It explains the purpose of the BCG matrix is to assess a company's product portfolio. It then analyzes each of Alokozay's products in terms of industry growth rate and market share to categorize them as stars, cash cows, question marks or dogs. It finds that beverages and tea are stars, property and development and tissues are cash cows, and cooking oil and biscuits are dogs. The summary provides recommendations for Alokozay's strategies for each category.
The document summarizes the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) Matrix, a portfolio planning model developed in the 1970s. The BCG Matrix classifies a company's business units into four categories - Stars, Cash Cows, Question Marks, and Dogs - based on their relative market share and the market growth rate. Stars have high market share in a high growth market and require heavy investment. Cash Cows have high market share in a low growth market and generate cash. Question Marks have low market share but are in a high growth market, requiring investment. Dogs have low market share and are in a low growth market, acting as cash traps. The matrix is used to assess products/businesses and allocate resources effectively.
This document summarizes a presentation about the BCG matrix, a tool for portfolio analysis and business strategy. It describes the components of the BCG matrix, including cash cows, stars, question marks, and dogs. It also discusses how to measure relative market share and market growth rate to analyze products on the matrix. Finally, it provides examples of products mapped to the BCG matrix and strategies for different portfolio positions, such as building question marks into stars or harvesting cash from dogs.
The document presents information on the BCG matrix, which categorizes a company's products based on their relative market share and market growth rate. It divides products into four categories: question marks, stars, cash cows, and dogs. Question marks have high growth but low share, stars have high growth and share, cash cows have low growth but high share, and dogs have low growth and low share. The matrix is used to analyze how much cash each category generates or consumes and determine the appropriate investment strategy. However, it only considers two factors and getting market data can be challenging.
Mexican supermarket industry is mainly characterized by a variety of types of consumers, mainly
marked by differences in purchasing power. Mexican industry self serves the needs of different consumers
through: (i) modern formats such as supermarkets, warehouses, hypermarkets and membership clubs; (ii)
traditional formats such as small independent sundries; and (iii) informal, such as farmers' markets and local street
vendors. This paper analyzes retrospectively the acquisition of the Gigante stores by Soriana from the theory of
industry, resources and capabilities, reviewing the situation of both companies in the diamond industry by Porter,
SWOT analysis themselves that theory.
This document analyzes five strategic business units (SBUs) of a company using the BCG growth-share matrix. It provides sales and market share data to plot each SBU on the matrix. Based on their placement, it recommends strategies of divesting the dog (SBU E), investing in problem children (SBUs A and B), holding the star (SBU B), and harvesting the cash cow (SBU D). It notes limitations of solely using the BCG matrix for decision making, including its simplicity and qualitative nature. Additional data on factors like cooperation among SBUs is needed for healthy recommendations.
This document discusses initial public offerings (IPOs) and analyzes Facebook's 2012 IPO as a case study. It begins with an executive summary stating that IPOs allow firms to raise funds, expand globally, and attract customers and talent. The document then provides a brief introduction to IPOs, describes the objectives of researching IPOs, analyzes Facebook's record-breaking IPO, and recommends that firms pursue IPOs after establishing growth and potential customers.
This document provides an overview of economic principles that are relevant to business strategy analysis. It discusses the theory of the firm and why firms exist to lower transaction costs. The main goal of firms is traditionally to maximize profits, though noneconomic goals like corporate social responsibility are also discussed. Key concepts that will be analyzed include demand, revenue, costs, and Dr. Michael Porter's five forces industry analysis framework. The document aims to demonstrate how economics can provide an analytical foundation for understanding strategic decision making.
The decision to go public from an emerging market the ghanaian caseAlexander Decker
This document discusses research on the factors that influence a firm's decision to undertake an initial public offering (IPO) on the Ghana Stock Exchange. It first provides background on private sector financing challenges in Ghana and the role of the stock exchange. A literature review covers theoretical factors that could motivate an IPO, such as the need to raise capital, enhance firm value, and signal private information. The document then outlines some costs and benefits of going public. The research aims to identify which factors most influence IPO decisions for Ghanaian firms and how firm performance is impacted post-IPO. The methodology section indicates the study obtains data on both firms that conducted IPOs and non-IPO firms.
This document provides an overview of a research project on IPO pricing and growth rates implied in offer prices. It contains an introduction that discusses challenges in valuing IPO firms and approaches used. It also includes a literature review, research methodology with objectives and data sources, and a summary of key findings. The research derives implied cash flow growth rates from 184 European IPOs priced using discounted cash flow models. It finds the average IPO firm is expected to grow cash flows by 33% annually, though actual post-IPO growth rates are slightly positive. Forecast errors are associated with factors like market-to-book ratio and leverage, and negatively impact long-term stock returns.
The Boston Consulting Group growth-share matrix is a management tool used to evaluate a company's portfolio of business units. It classifies products based on their relative market share and the market growth they operate in. This assigns them to categories of stars, cash cows, question marks, and dogs. Stars have high share in growing markets, while cash cows have high share in stagnant markets. Question marks have low share in growing markets, and dogs have low share in stagnant markets. The matrix is used to determine resource allocation and strategy for different products.
What is a business and how do firms set prices. mario samuel camacho compressedMario Samuel Camacho
This document explores the definition of firms and how firms set prices. It begins by defining a firm as a business organization that allows for management of resources to reduce costs and maximize profits. It then discusses factors that motivate firms to adjust prices, including rational choice theory of profit maximization by weighing costs and benefits. The document outlines several key factors that influence how businesses set prices, such as costs, competitive pressures, industry-specific factors, and seasonality. It also examines economic concepts like monopoly power, product differentiation, and elasticity of demand that impact pricing decisions. The report provides an overview of the functionality of firms and price-setting mechanisms from an economic perspective.
Assignment 3 Case StudyE-Business Strategy and Models in B.docxbraycarissa250
Assignment 3: Case Study
E-Business Strategy and Models in Banks: Case of Citibank
Bank is an institution that deals with money as well as credit. It accepts deposits from the public, makes funds available to those who need then and helps in remittance of money from one place to another (Macesich, George, 2000, p-42). Modern banks today perform a wide range of functions that makes it difficult to give an apt and precise definition of it. One of the famous economists, Crowther had said, a bank “collects money from those who have it to spare or who are saving it out of their incomes, and lends this money to those who require it”. In short, the term bank in modern times refers to an institution that deals with money i.e. accepts deposits and advances loans; has the ability to create credit which basically implies expanding its liabilities as a multiple of its reserves; creates demand deposits and it is a commercial institution that aims at securing profits.
Citibank is a subsidiary of Citigroup. Citibank was founded as City Bank of New York in the year 1918. According to the latest statistics, it is now the third largest bank holding company in the United States by the total assets after Bank of America and JP Morgan Chase. The bank has its retail banking operations spread over more than 100 countries and territories around the world (Harold, Cleveland & Huertas, 1985). Apart from the standard banking transactions, Citibank offers credit cards, insurance and other investment products. Their online services have earned them appreciation from every nook and corner, making them the most successful in the field. The 15 million online users bear testimony to the stated fact. The key people involved in the management of the bank are: Vikram Pandit (CEO), John Gerspach (CFO), Douglas Peterson (COO) and Willliam R. Rhodes, the Chairman.
Strategy literally means the way an action is planned to achieve the desired results. Every company has certain aims that it hopes to conquer. It has a vivid description of what it desires to achieve. The vision statement that company has is an idealized picture which inspires it, energizes its efforts towards directing its actions towards the expected goals (Hambrick and Chen, 2007, p 935-955). Strategic Decision Making, in context of a firm or an organization, is the framing of long term plan of action that aims at resulting in success and profits for the products and services marketed by the company, for instance (Triantaphyllou, 2000, p 320). Strategic decision making is important to outperform the various other competitors in the market. The process of determining appropriate courses of action for achieving organizational objectives and thereby accomplishing organizational purpose is known as Strategy formulation. In today’s era of cut-throat competition in the business environment budget-oriented planning or forecast-based planning methods are insufficient for a large corporation to survive and prosper. The firm ...
Smart beta is a marketing term used to describe investment strategies that overweight companies based on certain fundamental characteristics. It represents a shift from traditional capital asset pricing models (CAPM) that rely solely on beta. While factor-based strategies predate smart beta, the term has fueled significant interest. However, not all factors are proven in the real world, and combining too many factors may not actually improve returns given trading costs and behavior. Investors should evaluate whether a strategy reflects realistic investing and can withstand rigorous testing over time.
Decision making process of venture capitalists (v cs)yhtiyar
Venture capitalists use a multi-step decision process to evaluate potential investments. They screen hundreds of opportunities to select a few to evaluate more thoroughly. Key factors in selection include the founding team, business model, product, industry, and market potential. Venture capitalists analyze market size, growth, competition, profitability, and target consumers to assess opportunities. They build decision trees to quantify risks and probabilities at different stages from early to mass market. This helps visualize outcomes and estimate chances of success, failure, or achieving different levels in the market.
The reason why should undergo into the arbitrage trading is very simple and its because its risk free investment option. Though it contains certain risk if one fails to follow the protocol define for Arbitrage Trading. Usually Arbitrage is risk free until and unless there is no financial crises.
The document discusses five principal environmental factors that affect corporate strategy: competitors, creditors, customers, labor market, and suppliers. It explains how each factor influences business and strategy. Additionally, it discusses two key aspects - cost leadership and differentiation - that contribute to the overall environmental factors of a strategy. The document analyzes how external economic, political, social, and technological forces shape opportunities and threats for businesses.
A. What is the main goal of the paper What motivates the author.docxdaniahendric
A. What is the main goal of the paper? What motivates the author(s) to take up this issue?
B. How does the author’s measure of market timing differ from that of Baker and Wurgler (2002)?
C. What argument do the author use for using the alternative measure?
C. Briefly describe the methodology used in the paper.
D. What results do the author(s) report?
E. What is the long-term implication of the author’s finding on the target capital structure?
MY MAJOR IS COMPUTER SCIENCE Career Documents: Phase One: Job Advertisement AnalysisOverview
For this assignment you will be creating Career Documents for a specific position you can currently apply for or will be qualified to apply for in the near future (such as one to two years out). This assignment will ask you to seek out advertisements for available positions and to write to the qualifications for one, current plausible position.
You will be using the database, Ohio Means Jobs (Links to an external site.), a site that consolidates career-path advice, information, jobs, and job fairs. It is also a site that you can recommend to others, such as a high school relative who may be interested in studying for certifications or applying for internships.
Note: Although this site is Ohio-based, the jobs are not bounded in only Ohio.
The following video is a tutorial on how to navigate the site: Getting Started (Links to an external site.).
Background:
On average, Americans change job positions 14 times within their life span. It may be infeasible to retrain each time you apply for a new job, so what does this mean for you? Knowing how to translate your skills and experiences from one context to the next is one of the most important thing you might learn from this course.
By the end of this project you should have a working template that you can revise to submit to future job positions. More importantly, you will understand the concepts and approaches that you can use for future job/work contexts.
Parameters/Process:
Phase One
Once you have explored and created an account with Ohio Means Jobs. Choose one job advertisement that you believe that you may be competitive in acquiring, given your current credentials or the credentials you will have in one to two years out. That is, you want to be realistic enough about your credentials so that you are able to create effective career documents.
I encourage you to use advertisements for positions you may want to attain immediately, such as internships, graduate school, and grants so that you can use your documents for acquiring a "real" experience. If you are at sophomore status or below, I highly suggest internships since you may not have enough experience to include in your career documents.
Assignment:
Write no more than a one page, single-spaced memo that analyzes the specific job advertisement. The memo should be technical, professionally formatted, and clearly written. If you need additional help with writing a memo, please visit t ...
This document summarizes a research paper that studied the effects of initial public offerings (IPOs) on the long-run performance of stocks listed on the Nairobi Stock Exchange in Kenya. The study found that 51.5% of the variation in long-run stock performance was explained by factors like the difference between the offer price and closing day one price, firm age, size, number of shares issued, and subscription percentage. The regression model showed that these independent variables significantly predicted long-run performance. Specifically, differences in offer price vs. closing price, firm size, and number of shares issued positively impacted long-run performance, while firm age and subscription percentage had a negative effect. The paper concluded that firms should implement
Analyzing the Fundamental and Behavioral Aspects of IPO Valuations by Compari...ijtsrd
Initial Public Offer IPO is one of the most preferred strategies for companies to go public and now a days we can see a lot of people just applying for the listing gains sometimes without even knowing the name of the company. So, the purpose of this study was to critically analyze whether the valuations given by merchant bankers or the price band set by them is justified or there is a significant difference between price set by them and that perceived by market forces. Descriptive research with secondary data and primary was carried out, correlational, multiple regression and hypothesis testing was used on data for the last 3 year IPO’s in the Indian stock market. IPO price band is compared with the listing price and price after few months to judge the fairness of valuations given by merchant bankers and analyze whether there was an overreaction, under reaction or an optimal reaction on the price given by the merchant bankers. Further analysis has been done to know whether there is a difference in the way the market reacts to companies doing traditional business and technology or new age companies. Lavan Jain | Richa Phirke | Jigar Bhajiawala | Khushi Aslam | Shloka Tibrewala "Analyzing the Fundamental and Behavioral Aspects of IPO Valuations by Comparing Merchant Bankers’ and Market Valuations" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-5 , August 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd50578.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/management/accounting-and-finance/50578/analyzing-the-fundamental-and-behavioral-aspects-of-ipo-valuations-by-comparing-merchant-bankers’-and-market-valuations/lavan-jain
Impact of corporate diversification on the market value of firmsAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that investigates the impact of diversification on the market value of banks in Nigeria. The study hypothesized that diversification does not significantly impact market value. Using regression analysis, the results rejected this null hypothesis and found that diversification does significantly impact market value of banks in Nigeria. Prior literature on the impact of diversification has shown mixed and inconclusive results. Some studies found diversification reduced firm value while others found no relationship or that diversification increased value. The document reviews these mixed findings from prior studies.
InstructionsWrite a paper about the International Monetary Syste.docxvanesaburnand
Instructions
Write a paper about the International Monetary System that addresses each of the following issues:
· Define the International Monetary System and outline the history of the system.
· Describe and provide examples of what is meant by “currency regimes,” and define selected types of regimes and form an argument for selecting fixed exchange rate and arguments for selecting flexible exchange rates.
· Describe and define the creation of the Euro and discuss the benefits as well as the problems associated with the creation of this currency.
Support your paper with at least five (5) resources. In addition to these specified resources, other appropriate scholarly resources, including older articles, may be included. Your paper should demonstrate thoughtful consideration of the ideas and concepts that are presented in the course and provide new thoughts and insights relating directly to this topic. Your response should reflect scholarly writing and current APA standards.
Length: 5-7 pages (not including title and reference pages).
Eiteman, D., Stonehill, M., & Moffett, M. (2016). Multinational business finance. Boston, MA: Prentice-Hall.
Read Chapters 1, 2
This is a major resource, however, I think the assignment can be accomplished without it. I can’t seem to be able to download the book.
The global company's challenge.
Authors:
Dewhurst, Martin1
Harris, Jonathan2
Heywood, Suzanne
Aquila, Kate
Source:
McKinsey Quarterly. 2012, Issue 3, p76-80. 5p.
Document Type:
Article
Subject Terms:
*International business enterprises
*Emerging markets
*Economies of scale
*Contracting out
*Risk management in business
*Business models
*Executives
*Financial leverage
*Globalization
*Research & development
Developing countries
Company/Entity:
International Monetary Fund DUNS Number: 069275188
Aditya Birla Management Corp. Pvt. Ltd.
International Business Machines Corp. DUNS Number: 001368083 Ticker: IBM
NAICS/Industry Codes:
919110 International and other extra-territorial public administration
928120 International Affairs
541712 Research and Development in the Physical, Engineering, and Life Sciences (except Biotechnology)
541711 Research and Development in Biotechnology
Abstract:
The article focuses on the management of risks, costs, and strategies by international businesses in emerging markets. It states that the International Monetary Fund reported that the ten fastest-growing economies after 2012 will all be in developing countries. It mentions that technology company International Business Machines expects by 2015 to earn 30 percent of revenues in emerging markets compared to 17 percent in 2009, while Indian multinational conglomerate Aditya Birla Group earns over half of its revenue outside India and has operations in 40 nations. It talks about the benefit of economies of scale in shared services enjoyed by large global companies and comments that the ability to outsource business services and manufacturing is benefiting local busine.
Fundamental analysis is a technique used to evaluate securities based on underlying factors that affect a company's business and future prospects. It involves analyzing both quantitative factors like financial statements, as well as qualitative factors like management quality. The goal is to estimate a security's intrinsic value and find opportunities where it is underpriced. However, fundamental analysis makes assumptions that are criticized, such as whether one can truly estimate intrinsic value better than the overall market. Technical analysis, on the other hand, evaluates securities solely based on historical price and volume data to identify trends and make predictions, without considering underlying company fundamentals. While the two approaches have differences, combining them can provide benefits to investors.
DRIVING PRODUCT SALES PERFORMANCE BY ANALYSING PRODUCT PRELAUNCH IN A LINGUIS...kevig
This document summarizes a research paper that analyzes product prelaunch events using natural language processing to investigate how they can drive product sales. Specifically, it looks at how conveying different customer values and inducing an optimism bias called "Nextopia" during prelaunch events impacts sales. The paper reviews literature on customer values frameworks and the effectiveness of prerelease advertising. It proposes using linguistics analysis of Apple's prelaunch event scripts to determine which expressed customer values (functional, experiential, cost/sacrifices) and affective messages most influence sales. The research aims to provide guidelines for crafting prelaunch speeches to maximize new product sales.
Factors Influencing the Growth of Venture CapitalIntroduct.docxmecklenburgstrelitzh
Factors Influencing the Growth of Venture Capital
Introduction
Many people dream of starting their businesses. There are several reasons why entrepreneurs would be willing to start their businesses. However, many of them get stuck because of a lack of capital since many financial institutions don't lend in the absence of collateral security. Some get lucky enough to get financial support from their savings or families and friends. But for others, there is only one alternative to obtain funds and start their businesses, and that is through venture capital. This is a part of private equity capital that is normally given for new start-ups that promise potential growth in the aim of getting a return on investment. In other words, venture capital investment is generally refers to cash in exchange for a share in the invested business.
Structure of Venture Capital
Venture capitalists (VC) refer to an investment firm or a person making venture investments. Apart from the issuance of capital, venture capitalists (VCs) also play a role in managing the business at an early stage, thus adding expertise skills. Kwak (2019) tells us that because there is a high risk of losing all investment in a given start-up company, most venture capital investments are done a pool format, where investors combine their portfolios into one large fund that invests in different start-ups. By doing this, they spread out risks hence improve their return on investments
According to Wallmeroth, Wirtz & Groh (2018), venture capital is generally used as a tool for economic development in underdeveloped countries. For the past few decades, venture capital has attained substantial growth especially in the developing economies where a considerable increase in economic activities has been observed of late. The main reason for this could be the search for different profitable markets that have gone through economic maturity, given that the developed markets have shown a slight decrease in profitability levels due to trade wars currently at play. Despite venture capital being widely disseminated worldwide, but the activity is mostly concentrated in America. In this paper, I will aim to understand the factors that drive the growth of venture capital.
Motives that drive Venture Capital
The venture capital market contains three elements namely management organization, capitalists, and invested corporations. In simplifying the dynamic market, capitalists invest their investments which are controlled by management organizations, which in turn, buy a stake in investment firms for a specified period (Maula, Autio & Murray, 2010).
· Organization Innovativeness
To clearly illustrate motives for venture capital, it’s essential to analyze the level of growth and development as a result of the effectiveness of measures at the organizational level. Generally, the organizations’ interest in creating venture funds has been largely influenced by the venture capital climate. Most companies gene.
Factors Influencing the Growth of Venture CapitalIntroduct.docxlmelaine
Factors Influencing the Growth of Venture Capital
Introduction
Many people dream of starting their businesses. There are several reasons why entrepreneurs would be willing to start their businesses. However, many of them get stuck because of a lack of capital since many financial institutions don't lend in the absence of collateral security. Some get lucky enough to get financial support from their savings or families and friends. But for others, there is only one alternative to obtain funds and start their businesses, and that is through venture capital. This is a part of private equity capital that is normally given for new start-ups that promise potential growth in the aim of getting a return on investment. In other words, venture capital investment is generally refers to cash in exchange for a share in the invested business.
Structure of Venture Capital
Venture capitalists (VC) refer to an investment firm or a person making venture investments. Apart from the issuance of capital, venture capitalists (VCs) also play a role in managing the business at an early stage, thus adding expertise skills. Kwak (2019) tells us that because there is a high risk of losing all investment in a given start-up company, most venture capital investments are done a pool format, where investors combine their portfolios into one large fund that invests in different start-ups. By doing this, they spread out risks hence improve their return on investments
According to Wallmeroth, Wirtz & Groh (2018), venture capital is generally used as a tool for economic development in underdeveloped countries. For the past few decades, venture capital has attained substantial growth especially in the developing economies where a considerable increase in economic activities has been observed of late. The main reason for this could be the search for different profitable markets that have gone through economic maturity, given that the developed markets have shown a slight decrease in profitability levels due to trade wars currently at play. Despite venture capital being widely disseminated worldwide, but the activity is mostly concentrated in America. In this paper, I will aim to understand the factors that drive the growth of venture capital.
Motives that drive Venture Capital
The venture capital market contains three elements namely management organization, capitalists, and invested corporations. In simplifying the dynamic market, capitalists invest their investments which are controlled by management organizations, which in turn, buy a stake in investment firms for a specified period (Maula, Autio & Murray, 2010).
· Organization Innovativeness
To clearly illustrate motives for venture capital, it’s essential to analyze the level of growth and development as a result of the effectiveness of measures at the organizational level. Generally, the organizations’ interest in creating venture funds has been largely influenced by the venture capital climate. Most companies gene ...
2. When Marketing Strategy First Meets Wall Street / 99
2004), successful marketing actions may help generate
valuable assets (e.g., strong brands, loyal customers and
channel partners, attractive price premiums, useful defense
against new entrants), leading to superior future cash flows
with a healthier financial outlook. If so, pre-IPO marketing
spendings may help provide information about the true
value of the firm and reduce the information asymmetry in
IPOs, thus likely influencing investor responses to IPOs.
This study finds some support for these ideas with a unique
data set of IPOs over the 1996–2005 period. The data analy-
sis results based on robust econometric models suggest that
pre-IPO marketing spendings indeed help reduce IPO
underpricing and boost IPO trading. In addition, these
effects are neither simple nor unconditional. Rather, they
tend to change, depending on the micro, firm-level variable
of cost reduction efficiency and the macro, industry-level
factor of the number of historical IPOs.
These findings are important and refreshing. First, theo-
retically, given the current hot-button research themes that
have focused solely on the value of marketing after IPOs, it
is useful to understand whether pre-IPO marketing affects
investor reactions to newly minted stocks (a neglected issue
in the extant literature). In so doing, research on the
marketing–finance interface can build more powerful
theories of market-based assets and customer equity in
terms of the value relevance of marketing both before and
after IPOs. For example, fostering market-based assets
through pre-IPO marketing spendings can help reduce the
uncertainty and volatility of IPOs insofar as company fun-
damentals are boosted. Second, methodologically, the
econometric models realistically acknowledge that not all
firms are equal with respect to the IPO implications of mar-
keting. The modeled heterogeneous effects suggest that,
coupled with better cost reduction efficiency, firms’ pre-IPO
marketing spendings tend to have a more salient impact on
investor responses to IPOs (firms get “more bang for their
buck” from their marketing expenses). Thus, prudent
investors may be better able to pick “star” IPOs if they can
track pre-IPO marketing spendings and model firm cost
reduction efficiency simultaneously. Third, practically, this
article builds the case for top executives not to cut market-
ing before an IPO. Without a serious commitment in mar-
keting instruments before IPOs, the chance is high for
investors to downgrade the financial potential of the firm. In
contrast, firms building market-based assets with a track
record of pre-IPO marketing instruments may attract the
eye of investors and cultivate more successful IPOs. Over-
all, this work enables academics and practitioners to appre-
ciate the brand-new, IPO-based reasons that marketing can
help create shareholder value.
Theory and Hypotheses
This section develops the theoretical framework. Because
IPOs seem new to the marketing literature, the IPO metrics
of interest to this study are defined. Then, market-based
asset and customer equity theories are drawn on to posit
that pre-IPO marketing spendings influence IPO underpric-
ing and trading.
IPOs
Although to date there has been no prior marketing research
focusing on IPOs, great effort has been made to understand
the nature and advantages of IPOs in the finance literature
(Brau and Fawcett 2006, p. 399; Ritter and Welch 2002, p.
1796). Table 1 reports a glossary of IPO-related concepts
and definitions.
Essentially, the finance literature suggests that IPOs
involve a strategic movement from private to public owner-
ship. The IPO can offer many advantages to the firm. For
example, at the time of the IPO, a firm typically obtains a
large amount of cash. This enables the firm to have access
to investment capital from a large pool of institutional and
individual public investors (e.g., Fama and French 2004;
Concepts Definitions Sample Prior Finance Work
IPOs The first day a firm’s stocks are publicly traded in AMEX, NASDAQ,
and NYSE.
Brau and Fawcett 2006;
Lowry and Murphy 2007
IPO underpricing The extent to which stocks close at a price higher than their IPO
price on the first trading day in financial markets; the larger the
closing prices compared with the initial offering prices, the more the
stock is underpriced and the more money is left on the table.
Loughran and Ritter 2004;
Lowry and Murphy 2007
IPO trading The number of shares traded compared with the total number of
shares available on the first day when the stock is newly listed in
financial markets; higher IPO trading indicates stimulated interest in
and pent-up demand for the stock at the time of the IPO, resulting in
a liquid market for a firm’s stock.
Bradley, Jordon, and Ritter
2003; Lowry and Murphy
2007
A prestigious
underwriter of the
IPO
Whether the quality underwriter is top-tier and prestigious; there is
less uncertainty if IPO values are certified by a prestigious
underwriter.
Carter and Manaster 1990;
Lowry and Murphy 2007
Venture-capital
backing of the IPO
Whether the firm uses venture-capital financing before IPOs; venture
capitalist can help certify the value of an IPO.
Lowry and Murphy 2007;
Megginson and Weiss 1991
TABLE 1
A Glossary of IPO-Related Concepts and Definitions
3. 100 / Journal of Marketing, September 2008
2The amount of money left on the table in IPO underpricing can
be economically large. For example, in 2004, Google left $300
million on the table in its IPO (http://bear.cba.ufl.edu/ritter). The
recent debut of the Chinese IPO Baidu also left a huge amount of
money on the table ($400 million), with an underpricing of 350%.
Although it may be deliberate given the uncertain value of IPOs,
IPO underpricing is risky because the stock could plummet in
coming weeks and months (Ritter and Welch 2002).
Welch 1989). In addition, the IPO can increase the firm’s
public recognition, visibility, and reputation among the
financial community on Wall Street, all of which are non-
trivial for the firm’s long-term success (Cook, Kieschnick,
and Van Ness 2006; Lowry and Murphy 2007). Further-
more, the IPO can help the firm establish a more rigorous
corporate governance structure based on guidelines from
the Securities and Exchange Commission. Indeed, a suc-
cessful IPO creates public shares for merger and acquisi-
tions, reduces firms’ cost of capital in equity markets, and
generates financial analyst following (Loughran and Ritter
2002, 2004). (For a comprehensive review of more than 126
IPO studies, see Ritter and Welch [2002]; for a recent sur-
vey of 336 financial experts’ views of IPOs, see Brau and
Fawcett [2006].)
IPO Underpricing and Trading
This study examines two metrics that measure investor
responses to IPOs: underpricing and trading. First, IPO
underpricing is the extent to which stocks close at a price
higher than their initial offering price on the first trading
day in financial markets (Lowry and Murphy 2007; Ritter
and Welch 2002). The larger the gap between closing prices
and the IPO prices, the more the stock is underpriced. When
a stock is underpriced in the IPO, management has essen-
tially “left money on the table.”2 That is, additional gains
have been lost that would have been received had the initial
offer price more accurately reflected the true value of the
firm. In this sense, IPO underpricing is a risk premium in
the form of a discounted price to compensate for the uncer-
tainty of the true firm value in the minds of investors (Brau
and Fawcett 2006; Loughran and Ritter 2002).
Second, IPO trading is the number of shares traded rela-
tive to the total number of shares available on the first day
when stocks are newly listed in financial markets (Bradley,
Jordon, and Ritter 2003; Cook, Kieschnick, and Van Ness
2006). Lower IPO trading means that there is little interest
for a stock at the time of its IPO. In contrast, higher IPO
trading indicates stimulated interest in and pent-up demand
for the stock, resulting in a more liquid market for the firm’s
stock at the time of its IPO. Thus, higher IPO trading vol-
ume suggests boosted comfort for institutional and individ-
ual investors to buy and hold equity of the firm’s stocks on
the first trading day (Demers and Joos 2007; Welch 1989).
Prior finance literature has paid a great deal of attention
to explaining IPO underpricing and trading. Although there
are many different views that account for investor responses
to IPOs (Loughran and Ritter 2002, 2004), an enduring one
is Rock’s (1986) information asymmetry theory. According
to this theory, there is an information asymmetry between
the issuing firms and the investors. Unlike the issuing firms,
which have more complete information, investors often lack
full knowledge about the true value of the firms when par-
ticipating in IPO markets. Thus, given the information
asymmetry and uncertainty of the true value of the newly
listed stocks, firms and underwriters provide a premium in
the form of a discounted price (or underpriced IPOs) to
attract investors and compensate them for the uncertainty/
risk of investing in IPOs. In general, the higher the informa-
tional asymmetry related to assessing the true value of the
firms going public, the higher is IPO underpricing, and the
lower is IPO trading (i.e., less interest in the stock at the
IPO).
An important implication of Rock’s (1986) theory is
that an increase in the information available about the true
value of the firm before an IPO leads to a decrease in infor-
mation asymmetry, thus resulting in a drop in IPO under-
pricing and a rise in IPO trading. Indeed, since Rock’s
seminal work, financial economists have examined a battery
of the predictors of IPO underpricing and trading (Bradley,
Jordon, and Ritter 2003; Carter and Manaster 1990; Cook,
Kieschnick, and Van Ness 2006). As Lowry and Murphy
(2007) summarize in their recent model of IPOs, these pre-
dictors include underwriter prestige, venture-capital back-
ing, pre-IPO asset size, market returns, and the like. The
subsequent econometric analyses use this recent model as
the benchmark model and extend it by proposing pre-IPO
marketing spendings as an additional predictor of investor
responses to IPOs, beyond those established in finance. Just
as the finance literature suggests that venture-capital back-
ing and a prestigious underwriter can certify the value of an
IPO (Loughran and Ritter 2002, 2004; Megginson and
Weiss 1991), it is expected that intangible assets induced by
marketing spendings can also attest to the true value of
IPOs and thus affect investor responses to IPOs. Next, addi-
tional theory-based justification linking pre-IPO marketing
spendings to IPO underpricing and trading is offered.
The Impact of Pre-IPO Marketing Spendings on
IPO Underpricing and Trading
Why should pre-IPO marketing spendings affect IPO
underpricing and trading? Two lines of reasoning are
offered to justify this impact. First, according to the market-
based asset theory (Srivastava, Shervani, and Fahey 1998),
long-term asset building requires committed marketing
spendings on a variety of activities, including communica-
tions, market research, advertising, and other marketing
efforts in today’s highly competitive marketplace (e.g.,
Joshi and Hanssens 2008; Pauwels et al. 2004). The intangi-
ble assets fostered by these marketing instruments may help
provide information about the firm’s true value (i.e., a more
accurate prospect of the level, timing, and volatility of the
firm’s future cash flows). For example, prior research has
shown that firm advertising and communication spendings
can “promote product differentiation, distributor loyalty,
repurchases intention, and price insensitivities that directly
affect firm sales and profit” (Joshi and Hanssens 2008, p. 9;
Luo and Donthu 2006), thus increasing and accelerating
cash flows. Second, marketing spendings may build brand
equity (Keller and Lehmann 2006) that can “function as
financial hedging contracts when entering new markets, act
as a barrier to competition, and serve as a high-quality
4. When Marketing Strategy First Meets Wall Street / 101
information channel that leads to higher liquidity and
increased breadth of investor ownership” (McAlister, Srini-
vasan, and Kim 2007, p. 38), thus reducing the volatility/
risk of cash flows for the firm. Without considering these
financial implications of pre-IPO marketing spendings, the
value of IPOs would be largely discounted, along with less
enthusiastic demand for the IPOs. If so, this would increase
IPO underpricing and decrease IPO trading. Conversely,
accounting for these financial implications of marketing
spendings would help more accurately reflect the value of
the newly listed stocks and generate more enthusiastic
demand for the IPOs, thus decreasing IPO underpricing and
increasing IPO trading.
Indeed, compelling support for the impact of pre-IPO
marketing spendings on investor responses to IPOs can also
be gleaned from customer equity theory (Rust et al. 2004;
see also Gupta, Lehmann, and Stuart 2004). This theory
holds that satisfied customers with positive word of mouth
directly affect the level and volatility of firm cash flows
(Anderson, Fornell, and Mazvancheryl 2004; Gruca and
Rego 2005; Luo 2008), thus providing information about
the values of IPOs. To improve customer relationships and
lifetime value, firms must invest in many marketing areas
(Mizik and Jacobson 2008; Venkatesan, Kumar, and
Bohling 2007). Perhaps the negative side is more obvious.
That is, without successful marketing programs (i.e., due to
relentless cuts in pre-IPO marketing spendings in develop-
ing new products and/or supporting current ones), there are
likely to be more dissatisfied and frustrated customers with
negative word of mouth, which can lead to diminished cus-
tomer loyalty, decreased customer lifetime value, lower
retention rate, and higher ratio of switching to competition
(Luo 2007). This would provide a lackluster prospect
regarding the value of and demand for the stocks at IPOs.
As such, according to the logic of the stock price impli-
cations of customer equity and market-based assets (Rust et
al. 2004; Srivastava, Shervani, and Fahey 1998), pre-IPO
marketing spendings may help provide information about
the true value of the IPO with reduced information asym-
metry, leading to a drop of IPO underpricing and a rise in
IPO trading in equity markets, all else being equal. Thus:
H1: Ceteris paribus, the higher the firms’ pre-IPO marketing
expenditures, (a) the lower is IPO underpricing in equity
markets, and (b) the higher is IPO trading in equity
markets.
In addition to the hypothesized main effects of pre-IPO
marketing spendings, some moderating effects should be
considered because not all firms are equal with respect to
the IPO implications of marketing. It seems naive to assume
that pre-IPO marketing spendings have unvarying, uncondi-
tional effects on IPOs. Thus, the impact of pre-IPO market-
ing spendings on IPO underpricing and trading might be
more or less salient, depending on some contingencies. Two
such contingent variables addressed here are (1) micro,
firm-level cost reduction efficiency and (2) macro, industry-
level number of historical IPOs.
Firm cost reduction efficiency refers to an optimally
weighted ratio of firms’ multiple operating costs to multiple
sales outputs (Mittal et al. 2005, p. 549). Neoclassical pro-
duction theory and the resource-based view in economics
3Why is cost reduction efficiency necessary in the moderating
hypothesis (H2) (pre-IPO marketing spendings × cost reduction
efficiency)? H1 pertains to the effectiveness (doing the right things
with pre-IPO marketing spendings to obtain good performance in
terms of investor responses to IPOs), and H2 pertains to the effec-
tiveness and efficiency simultaneously (doing the right things with
pre-IPO marketing spendings and doing things right simultane-
ously to obtain better performance). Another way to understand
this more clearly is to think about the marketing budget issues in
reality. That is, most marketers often do not have an unlimited
budget. In the boardroom, they are pressured to save costs and cut
corners. Thus, the marketing budget is lean and shrinking. Firms
may need to achieve the same goals with less resources. That cues
H2; the more efficient operations would help firms get more bang
for their buck from their marketing expenses. If supported, H2
implies that prudent investors may be better able to pick star IPOs
insofar as they can track pre-IPO marketing spendings and model
firm cost reduction efficiency simultaneously.
suggest that firms can enhance shareholder wealth in
competitive markets by operating in the most efficient man-
ner; that is, they can either maximize the desirable outputs
given the costs or minimize the required costs given the out-
puts, when compared with rival firms’ best practices (Caves,
Christensen, and Diewert 1982; Luo 2004).
It is expected that firm cost reduction efficiency changes
the strength of the association between pre-IPO marketing
spendings and IPO underpricing and trading. In particular,
efficiently operating companies with lean expenses may get
more bang for their buck from their marketing expenses
because these firms may not have reached diminishing
returns (Anderson, Fornell, and Rust 1997) and because
superior internal operating capabilities can empower the
firms to leverage more effectively external market-based
assets (stronger brand differentiation and less brand switch-
ing and customer churn) fostered by marketing expendi-
tures (Joshi and Hanssens 2008; Mizik and Jacobson 2008;
Srivastava, Shervani, and Fahey 1998). Indeed, firms with
higher cost reduction efficiency may also benefit more from
pre-IPO marketing spendings because of the mutual facili-
tation effects between operating efficiency (reducing costs)
and marketing expenditures (enhancing revenues), as
theorized in the “dual emphasis” of a firm toward superior
financial performance (Mittal et al. 2005; Rust, Moorman,
Dickson 2002). Therefore, for firms with higher (versus
lower) cost reduction efficiency, pre-IPO marketing spend-
ings may better reflect the true value of the IPO stock and
reduce information asymmetry, having a stronger impact on
IPO underpricing and trading.3
The number of historical IPOs may also change the
strength of the association between pre-IPO marketing
spendings and IPO underpricing and trading. In the finance
literature, it is noted that the number of IPOs is not constant
across industries but rather fluctuates with both stronger or
more exuberant and weaker or less exuberant market condi-
tions (Derrien 2005; Loughran and Ritter 2002). The larger
(smaller) the number of historical IPOs in an industry, the
stronger (weaker) are the macro market conditions for IPOs
in the industry (Derrien and Womack 2003; Khanna, Noe,
and Sonti 2008).
It is expected that the number of historical IPOs intro-
duces industry-level heterogeneity in the impact of pre-IPO
5. 102 / Journal of Marketing, September 2008
marketing spendings on IPO underpricing and trading.
Specifically, this impact may be expanded in weaker mar-
kets with a smaller (versus larger) number of historical
IPOs. This is because in weaker and less exuberant markets,
in which investors are not very hungry, it is more important
to rely on the intangible market-based assets, such as strong
brands and customer loyalty fostered by marketing expendi-
tures, to price IPOs more accurately and attract investor
attention (Derrien and Womack 2003; Loughran and Ritter
2002; Pollock and Rindova 2003). Indeed, in weaker or
more “sleepy” markets with a smaller number of IPOs, pre-
IPO marketing spendings may more clearly “light up the
gloom” and boost the prospect of fundamentals of IPOs
(i.e., raised level and lower volatility of cash flows due to
customer and brand equity; see Luo 2008; Rust et al. 2004;
Srivastava, Shervani, and Fahey 1998), having a stronger
impact on IPO underpricing and trading. Thus:
H2: Pre-IPO marketing spendings have a stronger impact on
(a) IPO underpricing and (b) IPO trading for firms with
higher (versus lower) cost reduction efficiency.
H3: Pre-IPO marketing spendings have a stronger impact on
(a) IPO underpricing and (b) IPO trading in markets with
a smaller (versus larger) number of historical IPOs.
Models
This section presents the econometric models employed to
test the hypotheses. The base model is at the aggregated
level. To uncover more nuanced effects of pre-IPO market-
ing spendings across firms and industries, a disaggregated
model is introduced. This advanced, disaggregated model
accounts for both observed and unobserved heterogeneity in
the IPO implications of marketing spendings.
This approach directly builds on Lowry and Murphy’s
(2007) model from the finance literature, which controls for
established finance predictors, such as pre-IPO assets or
firm size, a prestigious underwriter, venture-capital back-
ing, and lagged market returns (details are discussed subse-
quently). Along with these controls, the model put forth
here adds firm age, cost reduction efficiency, year dummies,
and the number of historical IPOs.
Baseline Aggregated Model
The baseline aggregated-level model is specified as follows:
(1) IPOij = ξ0 + ξ1Marketing spendingsij
+ ξ2Marketing spendingsij × Cost reduction efficiencyij
+ ξ3Marketing spendingsij × Number of historical IPOsij
+ ξcontrolsControlsij + ε1ij,
where i = firm, j = industry, and IPO = IPO underpricing or
trading.
Disaggregated Model
At the disaggregated level, a hierarchical linear regression
model (HLM) is used. More specifically, at Level 1 of this
HLM approach, the within-industry model is as follows
(Raudenbush and Bryk 2002):
(2) IPOij = ψ0j + ψ1jMarketing spendingsij
+ ψ2jMarketing spendingsij × Cost reduction efficiencyij
+ ψcontrolsFControlsij + ε2ij,
where FControls include firm-level controls, such as pre-
IPO assets, a prestigious underwriter, venture-capital back-
ing, and firm age. Year dummies are also entered to accom-
modate the fixed effects of different periods over the 1996–
2005 span. The Level 1 within-industry model captures the
heterogeneous effects of pre-IPO marketing spendings with
the moderating role of firm cost reduction efficiency.
At Level 2, the between-industry model allows the
intercept and coefficients of Level 1 to vary across industry-
level factors, such as the number of historical IPOs, and
other controls (OControls), such as lagged market returns.
In this way, the Level 2 between-industry model accommo-
dates unobserved heterogeneity in the effects of pre-IPO
marketing spendings on investor responses to IPOs:
(3) ψ0j = π00 + π01Number of historical IPOsj
+ πcontrolsOControlsj + τ00j,
ψ1j = π10 + π11Number of historical IPOsj
+ πcontrolsOControlsj + τ10j,
ψ2j = π20 + π21Number of historical IPOsj
+ πcontrolsOControlsj + τ20j.
Data
To estimate the proposed models, a data set based on multi-
ple sources was assembled. Data on IPOs were collected
from the Securities Data Corporation (SDC) Platinum New
Issues database. Data were collected on approximately
3840 new IPOs in the period between January 1, 1996, and
December 31, 2005, from the SDC source. In line with
appropriate guidelines from the finance literature (Lowry
and Murphy 2007; Ritter and Welch 2002), IPO data that
were related to closed-end funds, spin-offs, reverse lever-
aged buyouts, real estate investment trust, unit offerings,
American Depositary Receipts, demutualizations of insur-
ance companies and savings banks, firms with an IPO offer
price below $5, and IPOs with total proceeds less than $5
million were eliminated. Then, IPO data were matched with
COMPUSTAT and the Center for Research in Security
Prices (CRSP) sources, and IPOs with missing data on mar-
keting spendings and cost reduction efficiency were deleted
(Mittal et al. 2005; Mizik and Jacobson 2007; Rao, Agar-
wal, and Dahlhoff 2004). This merging process led to a final
sample of 1981 IPOs in the data analyses. Figure 1 presents
a plot of the studied IPOs across the sample years.
Investor Responses to IPOs
Underpricing of IPOs (IPOU) is calculated as the difference
(in percentage) between the IPO closing price and the initial
offering price on the first trading day:
6. When Marketing Strategy First Meets Wall Street / 103
FIGURE 1
Plot of IPOs Across the Sample Years (January 1, 1996–December 31, 2005)
where Pend is the closing price at the end of the first trading
day and Pinitial is the IPO initial offering price.
Trading of IPOs (IPOT) is calculated as the ratio (in
percentage) of the trading volume to the total number of
shares available on the first day when stocks are newly
listed in financial markets:
where Straded is the shares traded in stock exchanges during
the first day of trading and Soffered is the shares offered in
the IPO. Both IPOU and IPOT are derived from the SDC
and CRSP databases. Table 2 reports summary statistics for
the variables.
(5) IPOT = 100 ×
⎛
⎝
⎜
⎞
⎠
⎟
S
S
traded
offered
,
(4) IPOU = 100 ×
−⎛
⎝
⎜
⎞
⎠
⎟
P P
P
end initial
initial
,,
Marketing Spendings
Data for pre-IPO marketing spendings were collected from
COMPUSTAT. Whenever possible, data were also filled in
with company annual reports and Compact Disclosure.
In line with Mizik and Jacobson’s (2007, p. 367)
approach, marketing spendings were calculated one year
before the IPOs for each firm as follows:
where SG&A Expense is selling and general administrative
expenses one year before the IPO and R&D Expense is the
research-and-development expenses one year before the
IPO.
There are several reasons for using SG&A – R&D
expenses one year before IPOs scaled by total assets as a
(6) Pre-IPO marketing spendings =
SG&A
100
×
_Exxpense Expense
Total Assets
−⎛
⎝⎜
⎞
⎠⎟
R&D
,
_
_
TABLE 2
Summary Statistics of Variables
Variables Data Source M SD
IPO underpricing (IPOU) SDC Platinum, CRSP 20.981 23.376
IPO trading (IPOT) SDC Platinum, CRSP 63.052 38.683
Pre-IPO marketing spendings COMPUSTAT .235 .127
Firm cost reduction efficiency COMPUSTAT .495 .361
The number of historical IPOs SDC Platinum 23.487 11.132
Firm age COMPUSTAT 2.746 2.258
Pre-IPO asset (in millions of dollars) COMPUSTAT, Compact Disclosure 439.911 529.453
A prestigious underwriter SDC Platinum .735 .328
Venture-capital backing SDC Platinum .607 .466
Lagged market return CRSP 1.376 5.679
7. 104 / Journal of Marketing, September 2008
proxy for measuring pre-IPO marketing spendings. First,
several prior studies in the literature have used SG&A to
measure the stock of marketing spendings (e.g., Dutta,
Narasimhan, and Rajiv 1999; Mizik and Jacobson 2007).
Specifically, Dutta, Narasimhan, and Rajiv (1999, p. 556)
argue that SG&A is “a good proxy for the amount the firm
spends on its market research, sales effort, trade promotion
expenses, and other related activities.” Thus, the proxy is
grounded in the marketing science literature. Second, to be
more precise, R&D expenses are parceled out from the raw
SG&A one year before IPOs. In this way, it is possible to
derive a measure that is more closely related to pre-IPO
marketing spendings than the raw SG&A; this is in line
with Mizik and Jacobson’s (2007) recent empirical study.
Third, theoretically, the SG&A – R&D expenses one year
before IPOs may be more appropriate than a single market-
ing spending item (e.g., advertising) one year before IPOs
because the former (but not the latter) includes a multitude
of pre-IPO marketing spending items, such as market
research, trade promotion, communications, and other mar-
keting instruments (Mizik and Jacobson 2007), all of which
may provide information about the true value of IPOs and
thus are likely to affect investor responses to IPOs. In other
words, without considering the multitude of pre-IPO mar-
keting spending items, subsequent empirical analyses
would be narrower and less powerful and thus would not
reveal the full strategic importance of marketing spendings
in IPOs. Finally, the results are checked by conducting more
sensitivity analyses. That is, the single item of advertising
spending one year before IPOs is also used as an alternative
proxy. This alternative measure of pre-IPO marketing
spendings yields results consistent with those reported sub-
sequently. Therefore, on the basis of the theoretical and
empirical support, SG&A – R&D expenses one year before
IPOs scaled by total assets is a reasonable proxy for mea-
suring pre-IPO marketing spendings (though it is not the
ideal or perfect proxy, as noted in the “Limitations and Fur-
ther Research” section).
Cost Reduction Efficiency
Cost reduction efficiency was measured with the data envel-
opment analysis (DEA) approach. This approach is a
mathematical programming technique that measures the
optimally weighted relative efficiency of a firm in convert-
ing multiple inputs into multiple outputs (Banker, Charnes,
and Cooper 1984; Charnes, Cooper, and Rhodes 1978). The
main advantages of the nonparametric DEA approach are
(1) it compares the best practices of rival firms and (2) it
does not assume any subjective relationship between inputs
and outputs (Luo 2004).
As in the work of Mittal and colleagues (2005, p. 549),
firm cost reduction efficiency was modeled with four
inputs: number of employees (EMP), the cost of the goods
sold (COG), advertising expenses (ADV), and the selling
and general expenses (SG&A). The outputs are sales (SLS)
and sales growth (SLG). Data for all inputs and outputs
were collected from COMPUSTAT, and advertising data
were also based on the Competitive Media Reporting data-
base (Luo and Donthu 2006; Rao, Agarwal, and Dahloff
4Per an anonymous reviewer, sensitivity checks were also con-
ducted with more advanced DEA models. More specifically, the
context-dependent DEA models were employed, which allow the
production function frontier to vary across different industries
(Luo 2004). Analyses showed that the additional efficiency results
from this more advanced DEA approach largely converge with the
results reported (i.e., correlation r = .908, p < .01).
2004). The mathematical programming model for estimat-
ing firm cost reduction efficiency is as follows:
where k = 1, 2, …, n, and o1, o2, w1, w2, w3, w4 ≥ 0.
The objective of this programming model is to maxi-
mize cost reduction efficiency for each company by fitting
the data with different weights for outputs (o1 and o2) and
inputs (w1, w2, w3, and w4).4 In the data set, the mean of
firm cost reduction efficiency was .495 (SD = .361), as
reported in Table 2.
The Number of Historical IPOs and Control
Variables
Data for the number of historical IPOs were from the SDC
source. This variable is the recorded number of IPOs in the
same industry in the preceding year (Brau and Fawcett
2006; Derrien 2005; Loughran and Ritter 2002).
Data were also collected for the control variables, such
as pre-IPO assets, a prestigious underwriter, venture-capital
backing, and lagged market returns (Lowry and Murphy
2007). Specifically, pre-IPO assets were measured as the
natural log of the book value of total asset one year before
the IPO from COMPUSTAT. Because larger firms tend to
offer more information with lower information asymmetry
(Chemmanura and Paeglis 2005; Ritter and Welch 2002),
pre-IPO assets may reduce IPO underpricing and increase
IPO trading.
The prestigious underwriter variable was measured with
a dummy variable (1 if the firm’s IPO involves a prestigious
underwriter, and 0 if otherwise) based on the quality of
underwriters from Compact Disclosure database, which was
constructed by Carter and Manaster (1990) and is updated
by Loughran and Ritter (2004). Because there is less
uncertainty/risk if IPO values are certified by a prestigious
underwriter, the presence of a prestigious underwriter is
likely to reduce IPO underpricing and increase IPO trading.
Venture-capital backing was gauged with a dummy
variable (1 if the firm used venture-capital financing before
its IPO, and 0 if otherwise) from SDC database. Because
venture capitalists can also certify the value of an IPO, it
may decrease information asymmetry and thus reduce IPO
underpricing and increase IPO trading (Bradley, Jordon,
and Ritter 2003; Megginson and Weiss 1991).
(7) Cost reduction efficiency = 100 Max
M
iφ
aax =
SLS + SLG
EMP + w COG + wi
i 2 i
1 i 2 i
φ
o o
w
1
33 i 4 i
1 k 2 k
ADV + w SG&A
,
subject to
SLS + o SLGo
ww1 k 2 k 3 k 4 kEMP + w COG + w ADV + w SG&A
1,≤
8. When Marketing Strategy First Meets Wall Street / 105
Finally, lagged market returns were measured by the
compounded equally weighted market return (from CRSP)
of NYSE/AMEX over the previous 15 trading days before
the IPO. The finance literature seems to conclude that pre-
IPO overall stock market returns have a positive relation-
ship to IPO underpricing and a negative relationship to IPO
trading (Cook, Kieschnick, and Van Ness 2006; Demers and
Lewellen 2003; Lowry and Murphy 2007).
Results
Hypotheses-Testing Results
H1a and H1b predicted that pre-IPO marketing spendings
affect investor responses to IPOs such as underpricing and
trading. The results on IPO underpricing appear in Table 3,
and those on IPO trading appear in Table 4. As Model 1 in
Table 3 shows, the HLM results lend support for the predic-
tion; pre-IPO marketing spendings are indeed significantly
and negatively related to IPO underpricing (b = –2.872, p <
.05).
In addition, as Model 3 in Table 4 shows, pre-IPO mar-
keting spendings are significantly and positively related to
IPO trading (b = 7.119, p < .01). Consequently, the data
support H1a and H1b; the higher the firms’ pre-IPO market-
ing spendings, the lower is the IPO underpricing, and the
higher is IPO trading in financial markets.
H2a and H2b predicted that firms’ pre-IPO marketing
spendings have a stronger impact on investor responses to
IPOs for firms with higher cost reduction efficiency. As
Model 2 in Table 3 shows, because the interaction between
pre-IPO marketing spendings and cost reduction efficiency
is negative and significant (MS × CE: b = –1.013, p < .10)
in affecting IPO underpricing, cost reduction efficiency
increases the negative main effects of pre-IPO marketing
spendings on IPO underpricing. In other words, pre-IPO
marketing spendings indeed have a stronger negative impact
on IPO underpricing in firms with higher cost reduction
efficiency than in firms with lower cost reduction efficiency,
as expected.
In addition, as Model 4 in Table 4 shows, because the
interaction between pre-IPO marketing spendings and cost
TABLE 3
Results of the Impact of Pre-IPO Marketing Spendings on IPO Underpricing
Model 1 Model 2
Variables Hypothesis Coefficient p-Value Coefficient p-Value Conclusion
Pre-IPO asset –3.038 *** –3.212 ***
A prestigious underwriter –.0650 ** 0–.068 **
Venture-capital backing –.0120 n.s. 0–.011 n.s.
Lagged market return 03.266 *** 03.259 ***
Firm age –.008 n.s. 0–.004 n.s.
Pre-IPO marketing spendings (MS) H1a –2.872 ** –2.918 ** H1a is supported
Firm cost reduction efficiency (CE) 0–.295 **
The number of historical IPOs (NH) 0–.062 n.s.
MS × CE H2a –1.013 ** H2a is supported
MS × NH H3a .095 * H3a is supported
*p < .10.
**p < .05.
***p < .01.
Notes: n.s. = not significant.
TABLE 4
Results of the Impact of Pre-IPO Marketing Spendings on IPO Trading
Model 3 Model 4
Variables Hypothesis Coefficient p-Value Coefficient p-Value Conclusion
Pre-IPO asset 11.275 *** 13.090 ***
A prestigious underwriter 00.218 *** 00.172 **
Venture-capital backing 0–.009 n.s. 0–.007 n.s.
Lagged market return –1.553 n.s. –1.207 n.s.
Firm age 00.011 n.s. 00.016 *
Pre-IPO marketing spendings (MS) H1b 07.119 *** 07.303 *** H1b is supported
Firm cost reduction efficiency (CE) 01.142 *
The number of historical IPOs (NH) 00.207 n.s.
MS × CE H2b 03.288 ** H2b is supported
MS × NH H3b –.316 n.s. H3b is not supported
*p < .10.
**p < .05.
***p < .01.
Notes: n.s. = not significant.
9. 106 / Journal of Marketing, September 2008
5The additional variance explained after entering the mean-
centered interaction terms was significant statistically (for IPO
underpricing: ΔR2 = .057, Fdiff = 14.186, p < .01; for IPO trading:
ΔR2 = .061, Fdiff = 17.203, p < .01). Because the highest variance
inflation factor was 3.107 for IPO underpricing and 2.892 for IPO
trading, both less than 10.0, multicollinearity does not seem to be
a serious threat to the findings.
reduction efficiency is positive and significant (MS × CE:
b = 3.288, p < .05) in affecting IPO trading, cost reduction
efficiency tends to increase the positive main effects of pre-
IPO marketing spendings on IPO trading. That is, pre-IPO
marketing spendings indeed have a stronger positive impact
on IPO trading in firms with higher cost reduction effi-
ciency, as predicted. Thus, overall, the data support H2a and
H2b.5
H3a and H3b predicted that pre-IPO marketing spendings
have a stronger impact on investor responses to IPOs in
markets with fewer historical IPOs. As Model 2 in Table 3
shows, because the interaction between pre-IPO marketing
spendings and the number of historical IPOs is positive
(MS × NH: b = .095, p < .10) in affecting IPO underpricing,
the number of historical IPOs tends to reduce the negative
main effects of pre-IPO marketing spendings on IPO under-
pricing, in support of H3a. Conversely, this means that pre-
IPO marketing spendings have a stronger impact on IPO
underpricing in markets with a smaller (versus larger) num-
ber of historical IPOs.
However, the results in Model 4 in Table 4 do not sug-
gest a statistically significant interaction between the num-
ber of historical IPOs and pre-IPO marketing spendings
(p > .10). Thus, the number of historical IPOs does not sig-
nificantly moderate the effects of pre-IPO marketing spend-
ings on IPO trading. Thus, the data do not support H3b.
Robustness of Results
Several additional steps were taken to substantiate the
robustness of the findings and refine the modeling results.
For example, there is no evidence that the results are sensi-
tive to the fixed effects of different periods from 1996 to
2005, because the time dummies were controlled for in the
HLM. In addition, because prior finance studies (Bradley,
Jordon, and Ritter 2003; Lowry and Murphy 2007) find
some IPO implications of the Internet bust in 2000, the data
were split into two periods: 1996–2000 and 2001–2005. By
and large, the sensitivity analysis results consistently sup-
port the main and moderated effects of pre-IPO marketing
investment across the subperiods.
In addition, because the two IPO variables can be
related (i.e., underpricing may affect the number of shares
traded at IPO), more analyses were conducted with a simul-
taneous equations approach—namely, seemingly unrelated
regression (SUR). This SUR estimation technique can
explicitly model the impact of IPO underpricing on trading
and account for heteroskedasticity and contemporaneous
correlations in the errors across the equations, when testing
the effects of pre-IPO marketing spendings on IPO under-
pricing and trading simultaneously (Luo and Homburg
2007). The SUR estimation results confirm the positive
association between IPO underpricing and trading (b = .21,
p < .05), in line with prior research on IPOs (Pollock and
Rindova 2003). The estimation also yields better fitting sta-
tistics—that is, with lower Akaike information criterion
(AIC) and Bayesian information criterion (BIC) (ΔAIC =
12.516, ΔBIC = 12.553). Importantly, and reassuringly, the
SUR results indicate that pre-IPO marketing spendings
indeed have a negative impact on IPO underpricing (b =
–2.853, p < .05) and a positive impact on IPO trading (b =
6.978, p < .01), adding further empirical evidence for our
conclusion.
Furthermore, the impact of the changes of pre-IPO mar-
keting spendings (both from t – 2 to t – 1 and from t – 1 to
t) on IPO underpricing and trading was investigated. In all
cases, there was no evidence to call the results into question
regarding both the main and the moderating effects of pre-
IPO marketing spendings.
Because prior research also suggests that investors often
have a negativity bias (Kahneman and Tversky 1979), an
examination was conducted on whether the IPO implica-
tions of marketing spending changes were asymmetric.
Through use of the steps in Mitra and Golder (2006, p.
235), it was found that drops (negative momentum) in pre-
IPO marketing spendings over time more significantly (p <
.05) affected IPO underpricing in magnitude than increases
(positive momentum) in pre-IPO marketing spendings, in
support of the negativity bias in the context of IPO equity
markets. Thus, these findings confirm that drops in market-
ing spendings before an IPO exert a greater impact on sub-
sequent investor responses to IPOs.
Implications and Conclusions
This article was intended to examine the possible role of
marketing in the context of IPOs in the stock market. On the
basis of a sample of 1981 IPOs between January 1, 1996,
and December 31, 2005, this article shows that pre-IPO
marketing spendings significantly reduce IPO underpricing
and boost IPO trading. In addition, these effects are hetero-
geneous, depending on both micro, firm-level cost reduc-
tion efficiency and the macro, industry-level factor of the
number of historical IPOs. These findings offer some impli-
cations for both theory and practice.
Implications for Theory
This research helps extend market-based assets and cus-
tomer equity theories (Rust et al. 2004; Srivastava, Sher-
vani, and Fahey 1998). It is the first to uncover evidence for
the value of marketing spendings in IPO equity markets.
The results support the proposition that pre-IPO marketing
spendings affect investor responses to newly launched
stocks. If the IPO event is a critical milestone representing
wealth, recognition, and fame, the uncovered IPO benefits
of marketing spendings are not trivial. More specifically,
the findings are important in three ways. First, they expand
the substantive domain of market-based assets and customer
equity by ushering in a greenfield of IPOs. In this way, this
article uncovers fresh IPO-based reasons marketing can
help create shareholder value. Second, the findings help
build a more powerful framework of market-based assets by
appreciating the value relevance of marketing before IPOs
10. When Marketing Strategy First Meets Wall Street / 107
6By uncovering the incremental value relevance of pre-IPO
marketing spendings beyond established financial predictors, this
article contributes to both marketing and finance, especially for the
marketing–finance interface literature.
because most prior studies have valued market-based assets
after IPOs. Third, they show the ability of the market-based
asset framework to help solve some intriguing puzzles, such
as IPO underpricing; that is, pre-IPO marketing spendings
(a significant marketing variable omitted in previous
finance models) may help certify IPO values and reduce
information asymmetry. As such, coupled with prior
research (e.g., Joshi and Hanssens 2008; Luo 2008;
Pauwels et al. 2004), this study boosts the power of market-
based assets theory to explain stock market responses both
before and after IPOs.
In addition, the findings advance empirical research on
the marketing–finance interface (Gupta, Lehmann, and Stu-
art 2004; Srinivasan and Hanssens 2007) on two fronts.
First, whereas prior empirical studies in marketing have
modeled outcome metrics, such as Tobin’s q, stock return,
and systematic risk of the firm (Anderson, Fornell, and
Mazvancheryl 2004; Luo 2007; McAlister, Srinivasan, and
Kim 2007), this article introduces two new metrics with
underpricing and trading of newly listed stocks. These
novel metrics of investor responses to IPOs may contribute
to the literature by providing marketing scholars with a new
twist (i.e., offering more options regarding the appropriate
outcome metrics or dependent variables directly from the
finance literature).6
Second, going beyond main effects, this article also uses
robust econometric models to reveal the moderated, hetero-
geneous effects of pre-IPO marketing spendings. To date,
the extant literature on the marketing–finance interface
appears to have paid only scant attention to such moderated
relationships (Luo and Bhattachaya 2006; Mizik and Jacob-
son 2007, 2008). As such, the current research reveals origi-
nal evidence (and enthusiastically calls) for a contingency
theory of the marketing–finance interface. Indeed, in prac-
tice, factors such as firm efficiency in operations may act as
boundary conditions for the linkage between marketing and
finance.
Implications for Practice
Initial public offerings are now on the comeback trail.
Thrilled by stupendous returns, hungry investors and entre-
preneurial executives are making record-busting IPO sea-
sons since the tech crash. According to the popular trade
press, companies such as Orbitz and Heelys both had suc-
cessful IPOs (Bogoslaw 2007; Ghosh 2007). However,
there is a catch:
The threshold for IPOs is much higher than it was during
the bull market of the late 90s. Back then, any entrepre-
neur who could spin a good tale had a very strong chance
of taking his company public. Things are different now.
Investors, burned by the stock market crash of 2000, want
companies to show profits and cash flows, not aggregated
eyeballs or foosball tables. (Rosenbush 2006, p. 3)
As such, marketers on Main Street and investors on
Wall Street ponder the question of how to “kick the tires.”
The current findings suggest two points in this regard. First,
this article builds the case for the significant role of market-
ing spendings before an IPO. Executives should allocate
capital to marketing programs in building market-based
intangibles for an improved fundamental outlook (superior
cash flows) before IPOs to attract investors and cultivate
healthy IPOs. In this study, it was calculated that, on aver-
age, for companies in the sample, one unit increase of pre-
IPO marketing spendings reduced IPO underpricing by
approximately $11.6 million in the amount of money left on
the table. In addition, when coupled with higher cost reduc-
tion efficiency, the benefit of one unit increase of pre-IPO
marketing spendings was even more evident; that is, it
reduced approximately $15.08 million (or the benefit of
pre-IPO marketing spendings is expanded by 29% =
[15.08 – 11.6]/11.6 because of the moderating role of cost
reduction efficiency) of underpricing at IPOs. As such, mar-
keters can, and should, think like investors and speak the
same language of finance. By using such language with
underpricing and trading of IPOs, this study not only helps
marketers join in the conversation with investors but also
provides them with guidance on creating more effective and
efficient pre-IPO marketing budgets that are appealing to
the investor community.
Second, there are some cautionary notes to the IPO
dream. Marketers would be naive if they assumed that pre-
IPO marketing spendings are always fruitful. In the face of
fierce competition, unwise use of marketing capital before
IPOs could destroy customer/brand equity and shareholder
value. Without a solid history of top-line growth backed up
by strong marketing in developing new products and/or sup-
porting current ones, it is no wonder some IPOs (e.g., Von-
age, Webhire) were gloomy. Investors simply take no more
blank checks from marketers. In addition, marketers should
acknowledge that pre-IPO marketing spendings do not
unconditionally affect IPOs. Rather, marketing spendings
have heterogeneous effects and create value within context;
they play a more (less) salient role in affecting investor
responses to IPOs when the firm has a high (low) cost
reduction efficiency and in markets with a small (large)
number of historical IPOs. These conditional results support
Srivastava, Shervani, and Fahey’s (1998, p. 2, emphasis
added) theory that “market-based assets arise from the
commingling of the firm with entities in its external
environment.”
Nevertheless, the results also indicate that careful
investors may be better able to pick star IPOs if they can
track pre-IPO marketing spendings and model firm cost
reduction efficiency simultaneously. Although IPOs have
two enemies—uncertainty and volatility—the good news is
that marketing can help reduce these risks insofar as com-
pany fundamentals are boosted by pre-IPO marketing
spendings. In addition, this good news goes a long way,
especially when firms have superior operating efficiency
relative to their rivals. Indeed, with lean and shrinking bud-
gets, marketers are often pressured to cut corners and
achieve the same goals with fewer resources. The current
research suggests that marketers can meet this challenge
11. 108 / Journal of Marketing, September 2008
and get more bang for their buck if they can enjoy both
more effective marketing spendings and more efficient
operations simultaneously.
Limitations and Further Research
Although this study advances the understanding of the
marketing–finance interface, it also has limitations that may
serve as good directions for further research. First, the mea-
sure of marketing spendings (SG&A expense – R&D
expense) is coarse. Although there is good theoretical and
empirical justification (Dutta, Narasimhan, and Rajiv 1999;
Mizik and Jacobson 2007), this measure covers general
overheads and legal costs. It would be ideal to isolate only
marketing spendings. However, the ability to do this is lim-
ited by the nature of the reporting in the COMPUSTAT data
source. Therefore, further research could assemble different
data sets to isolate the marketing spending items and derive
a more precise measure.
Second, the IPO implications of every market-based
asset were not evaluated, and this can be embedded in many
business processes, such as product development, supply
chain management, and customer relationship management.
Thus, further research is called for to examine whether IPO
activities are related to variables involved in these pro-
cesses, including product innovations (Chandy et al. 2006;
Pauwels et al. 2004), brand dimensions (Mizik and Jacob-
son 2008), corporate social responsibility initiatives (Luo
and Bhattacharya 2006), and customer satisfaction (Rust et
al. 2004). For example, are pre-IPO product development
and customer relationship efforts related to the level and
volatilities of post-IPO cash flows?
Third, IPO theory and evidence have a profound influ-
ence on financial academics and practitioners. Various
important topics, including IPO motivation, underpricing,
signaling, failure risk, and underwriter selection, have been
studied in the finance literature (Brau and Fawcett 2006;
Gondat-Larralde and James 2008; Ritter and Welch 2002).
The empirical analyses herein are limited to a subset of
these topics. Although not all the IPO topics can or should
be directly linked to marketing, further research could con-
duct explorations along those lines to advance the theory
development on the marketing–finance interface.
Conclusion
This research illuminates a link between marketing spend-
ings and IPO underpricing and trading. Given the impor-
tance of IPO financing and the lack of research on IPOs in
marketing, additional scholarly research of this kind should
be conducted. It is hoped that in doing so, investors and
managers will gain a more complete view of the impact of
marketing both before and after IPOs and, thus, more
heartily appreciate the shareholder value of market-based
assets.
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