The document provides information on weathering processes (luluhawa) and the formation of sedimentary rocks. It discusses the three main types of weathering - physical, chemical, and biological weathering - and their effects on breaking down rocks. Sediment produced by weathering can lithify to form sedimentary rocks through compaction and cementation. Sedimentary rocks are classified into clastic sediments like sandstone, siltstone and shale, or chemical/biochemical sediments like evaporites, carbonates and siliceous rocks which form from dissolved components in seawater. Carbonate rocks include limestones and dolostone. Siliceous rocks are dominated by silica and form from organisms like diatoms.
Tiga jenis aliran sungai yang penting ialah aliran laminar, aliran turbulen, dan aliran transisi. Aliran laminar bergerak perlahan secara berlapis-lapis manakala aliran turbulen bergerak deras dan bercampur aduk, membolehkan pengangkutan pelbagai saiz muatan sungai. Aliran transisi pula berlaku di antara kedua-dua jenis aliran tersebut.
Bentuk muka bumi hasil hakisan dan pemendapan sungaiNorhayati Saffie
Bentuk muka bumi hasil hakisan sungai dan pemendapan termasuk air terjun, jeram, lubuk pusar, likuan sungai, susuh bukit berpanca, tasik ladam, delta, dataran banjir, dan tetambak. Proses hakisan dan pemendapan oleh sungai membentuk berbagai fitur muka bumi.
Dokumen tersebut membahas proses pengangkutan dan pemendapan bahan oleh sungai. Ia menjelaskan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi kedua-dua proses seperti tenaga air, cerun, muatan, bentuk alur, dan halangan. Proses pengangkutan dominan di hulu sungai manakala pemendapan berlaku di hilir akibat penurunan halaju air.
Tiga jenis aliran sungai yang penting ialah aliran laminar, aliran turbulen, dan aliran transisi. Aliran laminar bergerak perlahan secara berlapis-lapis manakala aliran turbulen bergerak deras dan bercampur aduk, membolehkan pengangkutan pelbagai saiz muatan sungai. Aliran transisi pula berlaku di antara kedua-dua jenis aliran tersebut.
Bentuk muka bumi hasil hakisan dan pemendapan sungaiNorhayati Saffie
Bentuk muka bumi hasil hakisan sungai dan pemendapan termasuk air terjun, jeram, lubuk pusar, likuan sungai, susuh bukit berpanca, tasik ladam, delta, dataran banjir, dan tetambak. Proses hakisan dan pemendapan oleh sungai membentuk berbagai fitur muka bumi.
Dokumen tersebut membahas proses pengangkutan dan pemendapan bahan oleh sungai. Ia menjelaskan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi kedua-dua proses seperti tenaga air, cerun, muatan, bentuk alur, dan halangan. Proses pengangkutan dominan di hulu sungai manakala pemendapan berlaku di hilir akibat penurunan halaju air.
Luluhawa adalah proses pemecahan dan penguraian batuan secara in-situ. Ia dibahagi kepada 3 jenis: fizikal (mekanikal), kimia (dalaman), dan biologi. Luluhawa fizikal melibatkan pecahan batuan akibat tindakan cuaca seperti air hujan, fros, dan panas-sejuk. Luluhawa kimia pula melibatkan proses larutan, pengoksidaan, dan penghidrasi mineral yang memecahkan ik
Dokumen tersebut membahasikan konsep lembangan saliran, proses hakisan permukaan bumi, jenis-jenis hakisan sungai, dan faktor yang mempengaruhinya. Ia juga menjelaskan proses pengangkutan beban sungai dan faktor yang mempengaruhinya.
Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi kadar hakisan ombak di pinggir pantai meliputi faktor geologi seperti jenis dan ketahanan batuan serta struktur cerun, halaju angin, orientasi pantai, kedalaman air, jenis muatan yang dibawa ombak, dan aktiviti manusia. Langkah pengurusan pantai meliputi penguatkuasaan undang-undang, kaedah kejuruteraan seperti pembinaan struktur pertahanan, penanaman tum
The document discusses different types of plants found in steppe grasslands, including short grasses like Festuca ovina and wildflowers like daisies. Festuca ovina is a short grass species that forms dense clumps and spreads via underground stems. The document thanks the reader.
Luluhawa adalah proses pemecahan dan penguraian batuan secara in-situ. Ia dibahagi kepada 3 jenis: fizikal (mekanikal), kimia (dalaman), dan biologi. Luluhawa fizikal melibatkan pecahan batuan akibat tindakan cuaca seperti air hujan, fros, dan panas-sejuk. Luluhawa kimia pula melibatkan proses larutan, pengoksidaan, dan penghidrasi mineral yang memecahkan ik
Dokumen tersebut membahasikan konsep lembangan saliran, proses hakisan permukaan bumi, jenis-jenis hakisan sungai, dan faktor yang mempengaruhinya. Ia juga menjelaskan proses pengangkutan beban sungai dan faktor yang mempengaruhinya.
Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi kadar hakisan ombak di pinggir pantai meliputi faktor geologi seperti jenis dan ketahanan batuan serta struktur cerun, halaju angin, orientasi pantai, kedalaman air, jenis muatan yang dibawa ombak, dan aktiviti manusia. Langkah pengurusan pantai meliputi penguatkuasaan undang-undang, kaedah kejuruteraan seperti pembinaan struktur pertahanan, penanaman tum
The document discusses different types of plants found in steppe grasslands, including short grasses like Festuca ovina and wildflowers like daisies. Festuca ovina is a short grass species that forms dense clumps and spreads via underground stems. The document thanks the reader.
Proses geomorfologi utama meliputi luluhawa, hakisan permukaan, dan hakisan pantai. Luluhawa terjadi melalui proses fisikal dan kimia yang memecah dan menguraikan batuan, menghasilkan tanah. Hakisan oleh air, glasier, dan angin juga mengubah lanskap. Proses-proses alam ini penting dalam pembentukan tanah dan pengembangan infrastruktur.
Buku ini membahas tentang ilmu pengetahuan sosial untuk siswa kelas 7 SMP. Terdiri dari 3 bab yang membahas tentang lingkungan kehidupan manusia, kehidupan sosial manusia, dan usaha manusia memenuhi kebutuhannya.
This document discusses a lecture on weathering and erosion given by Dr. Shahid Ullah. It covers the main topics of the lecture including definitions of weathering and the processes involved, physical and chemical agents that cause weathering, factors affecting the rate of weathering, the products of weathering, erosion and factors influencing erosion rates. The document provides detailed explanations and examples of various weathering and erosion concepts.
This document provides an overview of sedimentary rocks and their formation. It discusses the key processes involved - weathering, erosion, deposition, compaction and cementation. Sedimentary rocks form in layers called strata and there are three main types: clastic, chemical and organic. Clastic rocks like sandstone and shale are formed from compressed fragments, while chemical rocks like halite form from mineral solutions. Organic rocks include fossil-bearing limestone and coal, which are made from plant and animal remains. Sedimentary structures provide clues about the depositional environment, and these rocks have important uses as building materials.
S6E5. Students will investigate the scientific view of how the earth’s surface is formed.
d. Describe processes that change rocks and the surface of the earth.
Sediments form through the weathering and erosion of rocks, followed by transportation and deposition. There are three main types of sediments: mechanical (clastic), chemical, and organic. Sedimentary rocks form through the compaction and cementation of sediments via the process of diagenesis. Sedimentology involves the study of sediment formation and depositional environments, while stratigraphy examines the temporal and spatial relationships between sedimentary strata. Key methods used in sedimentology include facies analysis, particle size and shape analysis, lithological analysis, and stratigraphic mapping and description.
The document summarizes key information about shales, argillite, and siltstone. It discusses the rock cycle and how these sedimentary rocks form. Shales form through compaction of fine particles in slow-moving water. Their composition includes clay minerals, quartz, and feldspar. Shales exhibit fissility and laminations. Argillite is a metamorphosed shale or siltstone with increased induration. Siltstone contains silt-sized particles cemented together. These mudrocks are economically important raw materials.
The document discusses the three major rock types - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - and how they form. It also describes the rock cycle and the processes of weathering, erosion, and deposition that transform rocks over time. Weathering breaks rocks down through mechanical, chemical and biological processes. Erosion then transports the weathered materials which may be deposited and lithified into sedimentary rocks, starting the cycle again.
Weathering and soil erosion presentation.pptxFelcherLayugan
Rock weathering breaks down Earth's crust through physical and chemical processes. Physical weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces through mechanical means like temperature changes, plant and animal activity, and abrasion. Chemical weathering alters the chemical composition of rocks through reactions with water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and acids. The rate of weathering depends on factors like climate, rock type, and exposure. Weathering produces sediments and soils that cover much of the Earth's surface.
The document discusses exogenic processes that shape the Earth's surface. It describes weathering as the breakdown of rocks into smaller pieces through mechanical or chemical means. The main types of weathering are physical, chemical, and biological. Physical weathering breaks rocks through stresses like frost cracking or heat expansion. Chemical weathering alters rocks through reactions with acids, oxygen, or water. Biological weathering occurs when organisms like lichen or plant roots interact with rocks. Erosion is then able to transport weathered rock and sediment particles via agents like wind, water, glaciers or gravity. These erosional processes ultimately lead to deposition of sediments in new locations.
This document discusses various types of weathering and mass wasting processes that shape the Earth's surface. It defines weathering as the physical and chemical breakdown of rocks. The main types of weathering are mechanical, chemical, and biological. Mass wasting involves the downslope movement of earth materials such as rock and soil due to gravity. The classification of mass wasting includes falls, slides, flows, and spreads. Mass wasting and weathering both influence landform development and sediment production.
This document discusses exogenic processes, which are external processes that occur near Earth's surface and are part of the rock cycle. It describes various types of weathering including mechanical and chemical weathering. Mechanical weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces without changing their mineral composition through processes like frost wedging, insolation, and unloading. Chemical weathering decomposes rocks through oxidation, hydrolysis, carbonation, and biological processes. The document also discusses mass wasting, which transports weathered materials down slopes through various types of movements like rock falls, landslides, and flows that are influenced by gravity, water, and earthquakes. Erosion by agents like water, glaciers, and wind further transports materials by processes like solution
Music In Mental Health This Is A Wonderful Ppt22wj5a0130
This document discusses weathering and soil formation. It describes two types of weathering - mechanical and chemical - and their causes such as temperature changes, frost action, oxidation, and acids. Mechanical weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces without changing their chemical composition, while chemical weathering alters the rocks' minerals. Over time, weathered rocks break down into soil. Factors like climate, rock type, and time influence soil formation, which results in distinct layers or horizons of topsoil, subsoil, and partially weathered parent material.
This document discusses weathering and soil formation. It describes two types of weathering - mechanical and chemical. Mechanical weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces without changing their chemical composition, while chemical weathering alters the rocks' chemical makeup. Weathering occurs due to factors like temperature changes, frost action, abrasion, and acids. Over time, weathering breaks rocks down into soil. Soil provides nutrients for plants and animals and is important for life. The document also examines different types of soil like residual and transported soil and how soil composition varies by location.
This document discusses weathering and soil formation. It describes two types of weathering - mechanical and chemical - and their causes such as temperature changes, frost action, oxidation, and acids. Mechanical weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces without changing their chemical composition, while chemical weathering alters the rocks' minerals. Over time, weathered rocks break down into soil. Factors like climate, rock type, and time influence soil formation, which results in distinct layers or horizons of topsoil, subsoil, and partially weathered parent material.
Exogenic processes are processes that take place at or near the Earth's surface and cause weathering and erosion. There are four main types: weathering, erosion, mass wasting, and sedimentation. Weathering breaks down rocks into smaller pieces through mechanical and chemical processes. Mechanical weathering breaks rocks down physically without changing their composition, while chemical weathering changes the rocks' composition through oxidation, dissolution, and hydrolysis. The major agents of erosion are water, wind, ice, and gravity, each of which shapes the landscape in different ways.
This document provides an overview of sedimentary rocks and the processes involved in their formation. Sedimentary rocks are formed from the deposition of materials at the Earth's surface or within bodies of water. They provide information about past environmental conditions and geological history. The key processes involved in sedimentary rock formation are weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition, and diagenesis, which is the chemical and physical changes that occur after deposition. Sedimentary rocks can be divided into clastic sediments like sandstone, chemical sediments like limestone formed by precipitation from solution, and biochemical sediments like coal formed from organic material.
The document discusses the rock cycle, which describes how rocks are continuously changing forms over geological time through igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic processes. Igneous rocks form from the cooling of magma either below ground as plutonic rocks or above ground as volcanic rocks. Sedimentary rocks form from the lithification of sediments eroded from other rocks. Metamorphic rocks form from changes to existing rocks through heat, pressure, and fluids in the Earth. The rock cycle demonstrates how these three main rock groups are interrelated and how matter is recycled over time through weathering, erosion, deposition, and tectonic activity.
The document discusses the formation of soil through weathering processes. It describes mechanical weathering which breaks down rock physically via frost wedging, pressure release, hydraulic action, salt crystal growth and thermal stress. It also describes chemical weathering which alters the molecular structure of rocks through dissolution, carbonation, hydration, hydrolysis and oxidation. The weathered rocks and minerals are broken down into clay, silt, sand and nutrients that combine with organic materials to form various soil types.
This document provides information about igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. It begins with the lesson objectives of classifying rocks into these three categories. It then discusses each rock type in detail, including their formation processes and examples. Various diagrams illustrate concepts like the rock cycle and types of metamorphism. Activities are included to help students understand rock identification and transformations through the rock cycle.
The processes that shape the Earth's surface from forces above and at the surface are called exogenetic processes. These include processes of degradation that destroy material and processes of aggradation that build up material. Processes of degradation are weathering, mass movement, erosion, and transportation. Weathering breaks down rocks through physical and chemical processes. Physical weathering is caused by factors like temperature changes, frost action, and plants and animals. Chemical weathering results from reactions with substances like water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen. These exogenetic processes gradually wear down and alter the Earth's surface over time.
Weathering is the physical and chemical breakdown of rocks at Earth's surface. Physical weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces through frost cracking, plant root growth, abrasion by water, ice or wind. Chemical weathering alters the composition of rocks through oxidation, hydrolysis and carbonation. The rate of weathering depends on climate, mineral composition, and surface area. Weathering produces sediments and soils through mechanical and chemical breakdown over time.
Unlock the Future of Search with MongoDB Atlas_ Vector Search Unleashed.pdfMalak Abu Hammad
Discover how MongoDB Atlas and vector search technology can revolutionize your application's search capabilities. This comprehensive presentation covers:
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* Importance and benefits of vector search
* Practical use cases across various industries
* Step-by-step implementation guide
* Live demos with code snippets
* Enhancing LLM capabilities with vector search
* Best practices and optimization strategies
Perfect for developers, AI enthusiasts, and tech leaders. Learn how to leverage MongoDB Atlas to deliver highly relevant, context-aware search results, transforming your data retrieval process. Stay ahead in tech innovation and maximize the potential of your applications.
#MongoDB #VectorSearch #AI #SemanticSearch #TechInnovation #DataScience #LLM #MachineLearning #SearchTechnology
Building RAG with self-deployed Milvus vector database and Snowpark Container...Zilliz
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Presented by Vladimir Iglovikov:
- https://www.linkedin.com/in/iglovikov/
- https://x.com/viglovikov
- https://www.instagram.com/ternaus/
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Created out of a necessity for superior performance in Kaggle competitions, Albumentations has grown to become a widely used tool among data scientists and machine learning practitioners.
This case study covers various aspects, including:
People: The contributors and community that have supported Albumentations.
Metrics: The success indicators such as downloads, daily active users, GitHub stars, and financial contributions.
Challenges: The hurdles in monetizing open-source projects and measuring user engagement.
Development Practices: Best practices for creating, maintaining, and scaling open-source libraries, including code hygiene, CI/CD, and fast iteration.
Community Building: Strategies for making adoption easy, iterating quickly, and fostering a vibrant, engaged community.
Marketing: Both online and offline marketing tactics, focusing on real, impactful interactions and collaborations.
Mental Health: Maintaining balance and not feeling pressured by user demands.
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Explore more about Albumentations and join the community at:
GitHub: https://github.com/albumentations-team/albumentations
Website: https://albumentations.ai/
LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/company/100504475
Twitter: https://x.com/albumentations
GraphSummit Singapore | The Art of the Possible with Graph - Q2 2024Neo4j
Neha Bajwa, Vice President of Product Marketing, Neo4j
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Essentials of Automations: The Art of Triggers and Actions in FMESafe Software
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Alt. GDG Cloud Southlake #33: Boule & Rebala: Effective AppSec in SDLC using ...James Anderson
Effective Application Security in Software Delivery lifecycle using Deployment Firewall and DBOM
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Speakers:
Bob Boule
Robert Boule is a technology enthusiast with PASSION for technology and making things work along with a knack for helping others understand how things work. He comes with around 20 years of solution engineering experience in application security, software continuous delivery, and SaaS platforms. He is known for his dynamic presentations in CI/CD and application security integrated in software delivery lifecycle.
Gopinath Rebala
Gopinath Rebala is the CTO of OpsMx, where he has overall responsibility for the machine learning and data processing architectures for Secure Software Delivery. Gopi also has a strong connection with our customers, leading design and architecture for strategic implementations. Gopi is a frequent speaker and well-known leader in continuous delivery and integrating security into software delivery.
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TrustArc Webinar - 2024 Global Privacy SurveyTrustArc
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See how organizational priorities and strategic approaches to data security and privacy are evolving around the globe.
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“An Outlook of the Ongoing and Future Relationship between Blockchain Technologies and Process-aware Information Systems.” Invited talk at the joint workshop on Blockchain for Information Systems (BC4IS) and Blockchain for Trusted Data Sharing (B4TDS), co-located with with the 36th International Conference on Advanced Information Systems Engineering (CAiSE), 3 June 2024, Limassol, Cyprus.
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2. Learning objectives
luluhawa
1 Apa itu
2 Bagaimana
terjadi
3 Jenis2 luluhawa
4 Faktor2 yg mempengaruhi
luluhawa
5 Impak/kesan
6 hasil
7 kepentingan
3. Luluhawa – suatu proses yang
berlaku di permukaan bumi untuk
memecah dan menguraikan
batuan (break and decompose
rocks)
Enviromen: terhad kepada sejauh
mana air tanah (groundwater)
boleh menusuk masuk (penetrate)
ke dalam permukaan bumi
4. luluhawa
Boleh dilihat sebagai destructive forces
- yang memecah, mengurai, mengubah
bentuk dan keadaan fizikal dan kimia batuan
Boleh dilihat sebagai constructive forces –
yang menghasilkan sedimen, membentuk
batuan mendak, mineral, mendapan
mineral, landform baru
5. Fakta asas luluhawa
Berlaku perlahan sepanjang masa
Mengambil masa yang lama
Semua jenis luluhawa berlaku kadang2
serentak dan tak terpisah satu sama lain.
Dipisahkan untuk memudahkan
pemahaman sahaja
Keadaan di keliling menentukan segalanya
7. 1. Luluhawa fizikal
Memecahkan batuan yang bersaiz besar kepada
bahagian yang lebih kecil
contoh: wedging (pembajian), exfoliation
(pengelupasan), thermal expansion (kembang
haba), lelasan (abrasion), (wetting and drying (esp
in shales), pressure release by erosion of
overburden
8. Luluhawa fizikal
1 Frost wedging (pembajian ibun) – water
expands when it freezes, breaking rocks
into angular fragments; lazim berlaku
dalam iklim temperat (ada ais)
Nota: apabila air menjadi ais, isipadu
meningkat sebanyak 10% => mebungkah
(pries) batuan
11. Luluhawa fizikal
2 Exfoliation (pengelupasan) – bedrocks
(batuan hampar) breaks into flat sheets
along joints (kekar) which parallel the
ground surface. This phenomenon is
caused by expansion of rock when the
pressure of overlying rock is removed by
erosion => sometimes called unloading
Apa itu kekar?
22. Luluhawa fizikal
3 Thermal expansion (kembang haba) – heat
causes action; cooling causes contraction
=> expand and contract at different rate
causes stresses along mineral boundaries.
Repeated heating and cooling => batuan
pecah
23. 4 Lelasan (abrasion)
Batuan menjadi lebih kecil hasi drpd
pergeseran dan pelanggaran semasa
terangkut, contohnya di dasar sungai
Glasial, ombak dan angin juga boleh
menjadi agen lelasan
24. Kelebihan kimia fizikal
Luluhawa fizikal memecahkan batuan ke
saiz yg lebih kecil => menyediakan lebih
banyak luas permukaan batuan bersaiz
kecil untuk tindakbalas kimia berlaku
25. 2. Luluhawa kimia
Memecahkan batuan secara kimia dgn
menambah atau menanggalkan (removing)
unsur2 kimia, mengubah unsur2 tersebut
menjadi bahan2 baru
contoh: dissolution (pelarutan), hydrolysis
(hidrolisis), oxidation (pengoksidaan)
26. Luluhawa kimia
1 Dissollution (pelarutan) – alters rocks by
removing soluble minerals => soluble ions
and insoluble ions => precipitate and
crystallize (dalam tasik atau laut)
Ex: pembentukan garam, batu
kapur, travertine
Batuan => ion larut/ tak larut => pemendakan
27.
28. Luluhawa kimia
2 Hydrolisis – proses di mana feldspar are
weathered to form clay
Note: clay make up half of sedimentary
rocks on Earth
(Berapa jenis feldspar kita ada? Apakah
komposisinya?)
30. Beberapa contoh t/b kimia
A. Solution of carbon dioxide in water to form
acid
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3
-
B. Solution of calcite
CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O Ca2+ + 2HCO3
-
C. CaCO3 + H+ HCO3
- Ca2+ + 2HCO3
-
31. D. Chemical weathering of feldspar to form
clay mineral
2KAlSi3O8 + 2H+ + 2HCO3
- + H2O
K feldspar
Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 2K+ + 2HCO3
- + 4SiO2
clay mineral Silica in solution
or as fine solid
particles
33. Luluhawa kimia
3 oxidation – the process by which iron-
bearing minerals
(pyroxene, amphibole, biotite) weather to
produce iron oxides
Di kawasan tropik iron bearing
aluminosilicate => lateritic soils, red clayey
soils
35. 3. Luluhawa biologi
Pemecahan batuan disebabkan oleh
tindakan organisma hidup spt
tumbuh2an, haiwan dalam tanah dan lichen
(kulat? yang hidup di atas batuan dan kayu)
43. Mineral stability in the weathering
environment
Mineral didapati tak stabil dalam enviromen
tertentu
Minerals which formed at high temperature
and pressures are least stable in the
weathering environment and weather most
quickly
Minerals which formed at lower temperatures
and pressures are most stable under
weathering conditions
48. Leaching/larutlesap: proses kimia yang
menghasilkan unsur larut dan tak larut.
Yang larut akan lesap ke bawah dalam
profil tanah sementara yang tak larut akan
terkumpul di bahagian atas profil tanah =>
warna membezakan lapisan tanah
Eluviation: removal of materials dissolved
or suspended in water
Illuviation: horizon of maximum
accumulation of suspended material or
clay
Chelation: pembentukan kompleks kimia
60. Gred luluhawa (weathering grade), kekuatan
ekapaksi dan rock-soil ratio
UCS(MPa) RSR
Gred VI tanah/soil
Gred V completely weathered <0.15 0-30
Gred IV highly weathered 0.2-0.15 30-60
Gred III moderately weathered 0.4-0.2 60-90
Gred II slightly weathered 0.9-0.4 90-95
Gred I Fresh rock 95-100
Tengok transparensi lain
62. Jenis2 tanah
Residual soil - laterit, iklim tropik
Transported soil – till, loess, iklim temperat
Tanih - pelbagai jenis tanah
contoh: laterit, pedalfer, latosol,
paleosol
63.
64. Wentworth scale - grain size scale
Particle name Particle diameter Gravel
Boulders > 256 mm
Cobbles 64 - 256 mm
Pebbles 2 - 64 mm
Granules 2 - 4 mm
Sand
Very coarse sand 1 - 2 mm
Coarse sand 0.5 - 1 mm
Medium sand 0.25 - 0.5 mm
Fine sand 0.125 - 0.25 mm
Very fine sand 0.0625 - 0.125 mm
Silt 1/256 - 1/16 mm
(or 0.004 - 0.0625 mm)
Clay < 1/256 mm
(or < 0.004 mm) sesetengah
buku guna takrif <2 mikron
66. Hakisan (erosion)
The movement of weathered material from
the site of weathering. Primary agent is
gravity, but gravity acts in concert with
running water
pergerakan bahan terluluhawa dari tempat
luluhawa berlaku ke tempat ia ditemui
70. Faktor yang mempengaruhi
pembentukan tanah
1. Iklim (climate)
2. Batuan induk (parent material)
3. Relief (keadaan permukaan bumi)
4. Vegetation (tumbuhan)
5. Masa (time)
71.
72. Sambung => batuan mendak
(lihat beberapa transparensi
mengenai luluhawa)
84. Silt: Grain size 1/256 to 1/16 mm (gritty)
Siltstone
85. Clay: Grain size less than 1/256 mm
(smooth) (< 2 micron)
Shale (if fissile)
Claystone (if massive)
Note: Mud is technically a mixture of silt and
clay. It forms a rock called mudstone (or
mudshale if fissile).
88. B. Chemical/biochemical Sedimentary
Rocks
This group includes the evaporites, the
carbonates (limestones and
dolostone), and the siliceous rocks. These
rocks form within the depositional basin from
chemical components dissolved in the
seawater
89. Evaporites - The evaporites form from the
evaporation of water (usually seawater).
Rock salt - composed of halite (NaCl).
Rock gypsum - composed of gypsum
(CaSO4.2H20)
Travertine - composed of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3), and therefore, also
technically a carbonate rock; travertine
forms in caves and around hot springs.
90. Bonneville Salt Flats of the Great Salt Lake, Utah. The lake
bed is covered with rock salt which gives it the white color.
The salt is mined by the Morton Salt Company.
93. Carbonates - The carbonate sedimentary rocks
are formed through both chemical and
biochemical processes. They include the
limestones (many types) and dolostones.
Two minerals are dominant in carbonate rocks:
– Calcite (CaCO3) (batu kapur)-mudah berbuih
dgn asid lemah
– Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) – perlu digores jadi
serbuk, baru bertindakbalas dgn asid
94. Carbonate rock names:
Micrite (microcrystalline limestone) - very fine-
grained; may be light gray or tan to nearly black in
color. Made of lime mud, which is also called
calcilutite.
Oolitic limestone (look for the sand-sized oolites)
Fossiliferous limestone (look for various types of
fossils in a limestone matrix)
Coquina (fossil hash cemented together; may
resemble granola)
Chalk (made of microscopic planktonic organisms
such as coccolithophores; fizzes readily in acid)
Crystalline limestone
Travertine (see evaporites)
Others - intraclastic limestone, pelleted limestone
97. Siliceous rocks - The siliceous rocks are those
which are dominated by silica (SiO2). They
commonly form from silica-secreting organisms
such as diatoms, radiolarians, or some types of
sponges. Chert is formed through chemical
reactions of silica in solution replacing
limestones.
Diatomite - looks like chalk, but does not fizz in
acid. Made of microscopic planktonic organisms
called diatoms. May also resemble kaolinite, but
is much lower in density and more porous).
Also referred to as Diatomaceous Earth.
Chert - Massive and hard, microcrystalline
quartz. May be dark or light in color. Often
replaces limestone. Does not fizz in acid.
98. . Organic Sedimentary Rocks (Coals)
This group consists of rocks composed of organic
matter (mainly plant fragments). Because of this, they
lack minerals (which must be inorganic, be definition).
These are the coals. In order of increasing depth of
burial (temperature and pressure):
Peat (porous mass of brownish plant fragments
resembling peat moss)
Lignite (crumbly and black)
Bituminous coal (dull to shiny and black; sooty;
layers may be visible)
Anthracite coal (extremely shiny and black, may
have a slight golden shine; low density; not sooty;
technically a metamorphic rock due to high
temperatures and pressures to which it has been
subjected)
99. others
There are several other interesting
sedimentary rock types: Ironstones -
Oolitic hematite, banded iron formations
102. Sedimentary structures form in the basin of
deposition, as a result of the action of
natural processes such as
waves, currents, drying events, etc.
Beds or strata
Cross-bedding
Graded beds
Ripple marks
-Current ripple marks (asymmetrical ripples)
Oscillation or wave ripple marks
(symmetrical ripples)
Mud cracks
Sedimentary Structures
113. Important note
Descriptive properties => interpretive
properties
Geology => engineering
Objective: to aid
planning, design, construction, mitigation, co
nservation, preservation
114. Sedimentary Environments
Sedimentary environments are places where
sediments accumulate and sedimentary rocks
form. They can be grouped into:
Terrestrial environments (non-marine)
– Rivers (fluvial environment)/sungai)
– Alluvial fans (kipas lanar)
– Lakes (lacustrine environment)/tasik
- Swamps/paya
- Deserts (aeolian environment)
- Glacial environments
115. Transitional environments (at the
transition between the marine and non-
marine environments)
Beach and barrier islands
Delta
Lagoons
Estuaries
130. 14
Si
28.0855(3)The essentials
Name: silicon
Symbol: Si
Atomic number: 14
Atomic weight: 28.0855 (3) r
CAS Registry ID: 7440-21-3
Group number: 14
Group name: (none)
Period number: 3
Block: p-block
Description
Here is a brief description of silicon.
Standard state: solid at 298 K
Colour: dark grey with a bluish tinge
Classification: Semi-metallic
www.webelements.com
131. Silicon is present in the sun and stars and is a
principal component of a class of meteorites known
as aerolites. Silicon makes up 25.7% of the earth's
crust by weight, and is the second most abundant
element, exceeded only by oxygen. It is found
largely as silicon oxides such as sand
(silica), quartz, rock
crystal, amethyst, agate, flint, jasper and opal.
Silicon is found also in minerals such as
asbestos, feldspar, clay and mica.
Silicon is important in plant and animal life.
Diatoms in both fresh and salt water extract silica
from the water to use as a component of their cell
walls. Silicon is an important ingredient in steel.
Silicon carbide is one of the most important
abrasives. Workers in environments where
silicaceous dust is breathed may develop a serious
lung disease known as silicosis.
132. Hydrolysis and condensation of substituted
chlorosilanes can be used to produce a very
great number of polymeric products, or
silicones. These range from liquids to
hard, glasslike solids with many useful
properties.
Elemental silicon transmits more than 95%
of all wavelengths of infrared and and has
been used in lasers to produce coherent
light at 456 nm.
Important facts
133. Isolation
Here is a brief summary of the isolation of silicon.
There is normally no need to make silicon in the
laboratory as it is readily available commercially. Silicon
is readily available through the treatment of
silica, SiO2, with pure graphite (as coke) in an electric
furnace.
SiO2 + 2C Si + 2CO
Under these conditions, silicon carbide, SiC, can form.
However, provided the amount of SiO2 is kept
high, silicon carbide may be eliminated.
2SiC + SiO2 3Si + 2CO
Very pure silicon can be made by the reaction of SiCl4
with hydrogen, followed by zone refining of the resultant
silicon.
SiCl4 + 2H2 Si + 4HCl
135. Most cities and large towns in the
Peninsula are located on a thin
surface alluvium over limestone
and granite.
136. Malaysia is generally formed by highland,
floodplain, and coastal zones (Figure 1.2 ).
In the Peninsula, the Banjaran Titiwangsa
from north to south divides the West Coast
and East Coast states, while in Sarawak the
Banjaran Kapuas Hula and Banjaran Iran
border Indonesia. All of these ranges are
governed by virgin forest
137. Malaysia is warm and humid throughout the
year, as characterised by the equatorial
climate, and has an average annual rainfall
of more than 2500 mm with spatial variation
shown in Figure 1 . 3 .
138. In the Peninsula wettest area is Taiping in Perak
whilst the driest is Kuala Pilah in Negeri Sembilan
(Figure 1 . 5 ).
Average daily temperatures range from a
minimum of 25o C to a maximum of 33o C.
Relative humidity is high, sometimes exceeding
80%. Daytime cloudy hours are also high while
haze lately is a frequent occurrence that will
contribute to acid rains.
139. Urbanisation poles are formed in many different
ways including;
· centrally in dense arrangements such as
towns, cities, ports, commercial/business
centres, and new development areas
· linearly along
road, highway, railway, river, estuary, and coastal
areas
· randomly located, including villages and
high class residential areas