This study explored the relationship between Chinese adult English learners' language proficiency level, use of language learning strategies, and use of communicative strategies in oral tasks. The study involved 10 participants divided into low and advanced proficiency groups. Participants completed a background questionnaire, the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) to assess their strategy use, and speaking tasks which were video recorded. Participants then reported on the communicative strategies they used during the speaking tasks. The researchers analyzed the data to examine differences between proficiency groups in learning strategy use and communicative strategy use, and to see if there was a relationship between learning strategy use and communicative strategy use.
Language learning strategy use and reading achievementmizzyatie14
This document discusses a study that investigated the relationship between language learning strategy use and reading achievement among 307 Iranian university students studying English. The students were divided into three groups based on their scores on an IELTS reading test - low, intermediate, and high ability. All students completed the reading test and a questionnaire assessing their use of different language learning strategies. The results showed that students with higher reading ability used strategies to facilitate reading processing more frequently compared to lower ability students, reflecting greater autonomy in language learning. Specifically, higher ability students used cognitive and metacognitive strategies more than lower ability students. The findings support the idea that appropriate use of language learning strategies can improve reading ability.
This study investigated the language learning strategies used by Cambodian EFL students. It surveyed 159 students using a questionnaire based on Oxford's Strategy Inventory for Language Learning. The findings were:
1) Students reported a high overall use of language learning strategies, with the most frequently used being metacognitive strategies.
2) There was no significant difference between male and female students in their overall use of language learning strategies. Some individual strategies showed differences but not the overall use.
3) Indirect strategies like metacognitive, affective and social strategies were used more frequently than direct strategies like memory, cognitive and compensation strategies.
This study investigated the use of metacognitive language learning strategies by Bangladeshi English learners with different proficiency levels. The study found that students with low English proficiency use metacognitive strategies more frequently than students with high proficiency. Both low and high proficiency students were frequent users of metacognitive strategies. Specifically, 64% of low proficiency students were high users of metacognitive strategies while 38% of high proficiency students were also high users. The findings suggest that Bangladeshi learners of various proficiency levels are aware of metacognitive strategies.
Factors affecting language learning strategiesAkhmaShabani
This document discusses several factors that affect language learning strategies:
Gender - Studies have found both minor and some significant differences in the strategies used by males and females. Females generally tend to use social interaction and metacognitive strategies more frequently.
Background - Learners from different cultural backgrounds often prefer different types of strategies, with Asian learners favoring rote learning strategies and Hispanic learners using dictionaries more.
Proficiency level - More proficient learners tend to use metacognitive and cognitive strategies more, while less proficient learners rely more on communication and compensation strategies.
Motivation - Motivation is a primary factor in language learning achievement, as more motivated learners put more effort
Language Needs Analysis for English Curriculum Validationinventionjournals
This document summarizes a study that analyzed the language needs of 349 tertiary students in Oman to validate the English curriculum. The study found that most respondents were under 19 years old and female. It also found that identifying errors skills, writing skills, correct usage, reading skills and listening skills were significantly affected by the respondents' profiles, but speaking skills and vocabulary skills were not. The document discusses the methodology used, which was a descriptive method employing purposive sampling and questionnaires. It also provides tables analyzing the respondents' profiles and language performance in areas like listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary and grammar. The study aims to help curriculum designers develop an English learning process based on students' needs.
The document summarizes research on various factors that influence language learning strategies. It discusses the teacher's mediating role in language acquisition and how their interactions with students can help develop language learning strategies. It also looks at how personality traits, language proficiency level, cultural background, age, gender, motivation, and language exposure can impact what strategies a learner employs. Research shows high proficiency learners tend to use more interactive strategies while lower levels rely more on memorization and external resources. Cultural background and amount of language exposure also influence strategy use.
The document summarizes research on various factors that influence language learning strategies. It discusses the teacher's mediating role in language acquisition and how their interactions with students can help develop language learning strategies. It also looks at how personality traits, language proficiency level, cultural background, age, gender, motivation, and language exposure can impact what strategies students employ. Research shows high proficiency learners tend to use more interactive strategies while lower levels rely more on memorization and external resources. Cultural background and amount of language exposure also influence strategy use.
Vocabular learning strategies preferred by knorean univ stPatricia Cuamatzi
This study surveyed 135 Korean university students about their use of and perceptions of helpfulness for various vocabulary learning strategies (VLS). It compared the results to Schmitt's 1997 taxonomy of VLS, adding some technology-based strategies.
The results showed higher reported use of VLS across the board compared to Schmitt's study, with an average increase of 37% in reported use. Perceived helpfulness of VLS was also generally higher, with an average increase of 14% compared to Schmitt. Technological strategies were widely used for meaning discovery. The trends suggest learners rely on a range of VLS rather than just a few core strategies, and that technological strategies are commonly used among Korean university students.
Language learning strategy use and reading achievementmizzyatie14
This document discusses a study that investigated the relationship between language learning strategy use and reading achievement among 307 Iranian university students studying English. The students were divided into three groups based on their scores on an IELTS reading test - low, intermediate, and high ability. All students completed the reading test and a questionnaire assessing their use of different language learning strategies. The results showed that students with higher reading ability used strategies to facilitate reading processing more frequently compared to lower ability students, reflecting greater autonomy in language learning. Specifically, higher ability students used cognitive and metacognitive strategies more than lower ability students. The findings support the idea that appropriate use of language learning strategies can improve reading ability.
This study investigated the language learning strategies used by Cambodian EFL students. It surveyed 159 students using a questionnaire based on Oxford's Strategy Inventory for Language Learning. The findings were:
1) Students reported a high overall use of language learning strategies, with the most frequently used being metacognitive strategies.
2) There was no significant difference between male and female students in their overall use of language learning strategies. Some individual strategies showed differences but not the overall use.
3) Indirect strategies like metacognitive, affective and social strategies were used more frequently than direct strategies like memory, cognitive and compensation strategies.
This study investigated the use of metacognitive language learning strategies by Bangladeshi English learners with different proficiency levels. The study found that students with low English proficiency use metacognitive strategies more frequently than students with high proficiency. Both low and high proficiency students were frequent users of metacognitive strategies. Specifically, 64% of low proficiency students were high users of metacognitive strategies while 38% of high proficiency students were also high users. The findings suggest that Bangladeshi learners of various proficiency levels are aware of metacognitive strategies.
Factors affecting language learning strategiesAkhmaShabani
This document discusses several factors that affect language learning strategies:
Gender - Studies have found both minor and some significant differences in the strategies used by males and females. Females generally tend to use social interaction and metacognitive strategies more frequently.
Background - Learners from different cultural backgrounds often prefer different types of strategies, with Asian learners favoring rote learning strategies and Hispanic learners using dictionaries more.
Proficiency level - More proficient learners tend to use metacognitive and cognitive strategies more, while less proficient learners rely more on communication and compensation strategies.
Motivation - Motivation is a primary factor in language learning achievement, as more motivated learners put more effort
Language Needs Analysis for English Curriculum Validationinventionjournals
This document summarizes a study that analyzed the language needs of 349 tertiary students in Oman to validate the English curriculum. The study found that most respondents were under 19 years old and female. It also found that identifying errors skills, writing skills, correct usage, reading skills and listening skills were significantly affected by the respondents' profiles, but speaking skills and vocabulary skills were not. The document discusses the methodology used, which was a descriptive method employing purposive sampling and questionnaires. It also provides tables analyzing the respondents' profiles and language performance in areas like listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary and grammar. The study aims to help curriculum designers develop an English learning process based on students' needs.
The document summarizes research on various factors that influence language learning strategies. It discusses the teacher's mediating role in language acquisition and how their interactions with students can help develop language learning strategies. It also looks at how personality traits, language proficiency level, cultural background, age, gender, motivation, and language exposure can impact what strategies a learner employs. Research shows high proficiency learners tend to use more interactive strategies while lower levels rely more on memorization and external resources. Cultural background and amount of language exposure also influence strategy use.
The document summarizes research on various factors that influence language learning strategies. It discusses the teacher's mediating role in language acquisition and how their interactions with students can help develop language learning strategies. It also looks at how personality traits, language proficiency level, cultural background, age, gender, motivation, and language exposure can impact what strategies students employ. Research shows high proficiency learners tend to use more interactive strategies while lower levels rely more on memorization and external resources. Cultural background and amount of language exposure also influence strategy use.
Vocabular learning strategies preferred by knorean univ stPatricia Cuamatzi
This study surveyed 135 Korean university students about their use of and perceptions of helpfulness for various vocabulary learning strategies (VLS). It compared the results to Schmitt's 1997 taxonomy of VLS, adding some technology-based strategies.
The results showed higher reported use of VLS across the board compared to Schmitt's study, with an average increase of 37% in reported use. Perceived helpfulness of VLS was also generally higher, with an average increase of 14% compared to Schmitt. Technological strategies were widely used for meaning discovery. The trends suggest learners rely on a range of VLS rather than just a few core strategies, and that technological strategies are commonly used among Korean university students.
This document discusses issues in language learning strategy research that affect teachers and students. It explores eight key issues identified from previous research: 1) identification of learning strategies, 2) terminology and classification of strategies, 3) the relationship between strategy use and learner characteristics like gender and proficiency, 4) the impact of culture and context on strategy use, 5) explicit vs. integrated strategy instruction, 6) the language used for instruction, 7) transfer of strategies to new tasks, and 8) models for strategy instruction. The author analyzes existing research on these issues and suggests areas for future research to provide better guidance for teachers and help students become more effective language learners.
Factors affecting second language strategy useamira9377
The document summarizes research on factors that influence language learning strategies. It discusses gender differences in strategy use, with some studies finding that females tend to use more strategies overall and prefer social and metacognitive strategies while males favor metacognitive and compensation strategies. Motivation is also addressed, including the concepts of instrumental and integrative motivation. Experience studying a language may impact strategy use, as demonstrated in a study showing more experienced students used cognitive and memory strategies more. Proficiency level relates to strategy use, with some research indicating higher proficiency learners use a greater variety of strategies. Cultural background can also influence preferences, such as Asian students tending to favor memorization and rule-based strategies in some studies.
Metacognition and second or foreign language learningJoyce Nguyen
This document summarizes a review of 33 studies published between 1999 and 2013 on the role of metacognition in second/foreign language learning. The review found that metacognitive interventions can promote language performance but evidence is mixed on their effectiveness in enhancing metacognitive awareness/strategy use. Several factors were also found to affect L2 learners' metacognition. The review expands understanding of metacognition's role in language learning and has implications for teaching practices and directions for future research.
Factors Affecting Language Learning StrategiesRiduan Huda
There are a host of factors which appear to influence the use of language learning strategies by language learners. These factors may be sociocultural, situational or related to the personality of the language learner. Some factors are said to affect the type of learning strategy used by the language learner, whilst other factors are said to affect frequency of use of particular learning strategies. In this presentation. I will describe only five factors affecting language learning strategies.
Effects of Reading Instruction Based on Cognitive Academic Language Learning ...Angcharin Thongpan
1) The document summarizes a study that examined the effects of a reading instruction method called the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) on Thai students' public administration English reading abilities and strategy use.
2) Data was collected from 30 students who received 8 weeks of CALLA reading instruction and were tested before and after on their reading comprehension and strategy use.
3) The findings showed that students' reading comprehension scores improved significantly after instruction and that they used cognitive, social/affective, and metacognitive reading strategies more frequently as a result of the CALLA approach.
This study examines the language learning strategies used by Russian university students in a TEFL program. The researchers administered a strategy inventory to first-year students and fourth-year students to compare their strategy use and evaluate the effectiveness of the TEFL program. Overall, both groups reported high to medium use of all strategy categories. However, fourth-year students showed a more nuanced understanding of strategy priorities. The findings can help curriculum designers refine the TEFL program focus and instructors make informed decisions about strategy instruction.
Dr. Hasbi Sjamsir in Linguistic IntelligenceHasbi Sjamsir
This study examined the effect of teaching method and linguistic intelligence on English learning outcomes of 2nd grade students in Samarinda, East Borneo. The study used an experimental design to compare the Total Physical Response method to the Grammatical Translation Method. Results showed that students taught with the Total Physical Response method performed better, students with higher linguistic intelligence performed better, and for students with lower linguistic intelligence, the Total Physical Response method led to significantly better outcomes. The study concluded that both teaching method and linguistic intelligence influence English learning outcomes.
The effectiveness of using linguistic classroom activities inaylinsilva
Research of the effective classroom activities on linguistics by using linguistics performance and decision making on Students of Makah.
Information that can be practical for a project.
Wong ratcliff effects of the reading first program on acquisition of early li...William Kritsonis
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, PhD - Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Established 1982). Dr. Kritsonis earned his PhD from The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; M.Ed., Seattle Pacific University; Seattle, Washington; BA Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington. He was also named as the Distinguished Alumnus for the College of Education and Professional Studies at Central Washington University.
5 factors affecting language learning strategies usageAmrien Hamila
1) Five factors that affect language learning strategy usage are motivation, gender, proficiency level, age, and learning styles.
2) More motivated learners use a greater range and more metacognitive strategies than less motivated learners. Integrative motivation leads to greater proficiency than instrumental motivation.
3) Females generally use more language learning strategies than males, though some studies found no difference or males using more strategies.
Integrating language learning strategies to promote active cooperative langua...Alexander Decker
The document discusses a study that compared traditional teaching methods to active-cooperative learning methods and their impact on student motivation and behavior. The study involved 60 students ages 14-16 from schools in Tirana and Shkoder, Albania. Classroom observations and student surveys found that interactive teaching strategies positively impacted student motivation, leading them toward active-cooperative learning. Applying these strategies can be effective for teachers and rewarding for students, helping students improve their language skills.
This article aims at exposing a design of project based content language integrated learning (CLIL) at a higher education insitution in Indonesia. Th design is proposed based on a mixture of the principle of language integrated learning (CLIL) and the principle of project based learning. The design was implemented for the teaching of English as a compulsory subject at three departments of the university of Lampung. Quantitative data was obtained from the value of students’ English proficiency before and after CLIL model application. While the qualitative data was obtained from the output of language produced by students during the learning process took place. The results showed that project based CLIL English language course at the faculty of teaching and education, the University of Lampung could work effectively. This is evident from the implementation of the whole program activities, from the implementation of the formation of groups, students work in groups to finish the project, group presentation activities, personal presentations and students’ responses to all activities.
SRJIS/ MURAD AL-AZZANI, FAZEE KHALID AL-EZI AL-MUSLIMI (393-402) OCT-NOV, 201...Fazee1974
This study investigated the effects of English proficiency level and task type on Yemeni students' use of communication strategies. Two tasks were designed: a concept identification task and a culture-based task. The results showed that proficiency level affected strategy use. Lower proficiency students used more strategies overall. The task type also influenced strategy use - in the concept task, lower proficiency students used more strategies, while in the culture task, higher proficiency students used more strategies. The study provides insight into how proficiency level and task design influence non-native English speakers' communication strategy choices.
Implementing a RTI Model for ELL: An Urban Case StudyClaudia Rinaldi
THis session will provide present the implementation of an RTI model in urban schools with large percentage of ELL. Student Achievement in reading and teacher perceptions of implementation will be presented.
The document is a curriculum vitae for Jonathan Hand. It includes his personal and contact details, a profile highlighting his positive attitude and learning abilities. It then outlines his extensive work experience in customer service and technical support roles spanning several industries. His education qualifications and interests are also included.
Este documento proporciona instrucciones para preparar un shampoo casero con huevos, aguacate, miel y limón para combatir la caída del cabello. Se explica cómo mezclar los ingredientes en un plato y luego vaciar la mezcla en una botella para agitarla y aplicarla como shampoo diariamente, lo que ayudará a fortalecer el cabello y detener su caída. También incluye enlaces a otros recursos sobre cómo eliminar definitivamente la calvicie.
The report provides a vision for a vibrant, sustainable and resilient rural Irish economy and analyzes the challenges currently facing rural communities, which have experienced disproportionate increases in unemployment compared to urban areas since the economic crisis. CEDRA conducted extensive public consultation and identifies strategic initiatives, policy measures, and ways to better leverage rural areas' natural, physical, human and capital resources to contribute to national economic recovery through a more integrated and supportive approach to rural development.
This document discusses issues in language learning strategy research that affect teachers and students. It explores eight key issues identified from previous research: 1) identification of learning strategies, 2) terminology and classification of strategies, 3) the relationship between strategy use and learner characteristics like gender and proficiency, 4) the impact of culture and context on strategy use, 5) explicit vs. integrated strategy instruction, 6) the language used for instruction, 7) transfer of strategies to new tasks, and 8) models for strategy instruction. The author analyzes existing research on these issues and suggests areas for future research to provide better guidance for teachers and help students become more effective language learners.
Factors affecting second language strategy useamira9377
The document summarizes research on factors that influence language learning strategies. It discusses gender differences in strategy use, with some studies finding that females tend to use more strategies overall and prefer social and metacognitive strategies while males favor metacognitive and compensation strategies. Motivation is also addressed, including the concepts of instrumental and integrative motivation. Experience studying a language may impact strategy use, as demonstrated in a study showing more experienced students used cognitive and memory strategies more. Proficiency level relates to strategy use, with some research indicating higher proficiency learners use a greater variety of strategies. Cultural background can also influence preferences, such as Asian students tending to favor memorization and rule-based strategies in some studies.
Metacognition and second or foreign language learningJoyce Nguyen
This document summarizes a review of 33 studies published between 1999 and 2013 on the role of metacognition in second/foreign language learning. The review found that metacognitive interventions can promote language performance but evidence is mixed on their effectiveness in enhancing metacognitive awareness/strategy use. Several factors were also found to affect L2 learners' metacognition. The review expands understanding of metacognition's role in language learning and has implications for teaching practices and directions for future research.
Factors Affecting Language Learning StrategiesRiduan Huda
There are a host of factors which appear to influence the use of language learning strategies by language learners. These factors may be sociocultural, situational or related to the personality of the language learner. Some factors are said to affect the type of learning strategy used by the language learner, whilst other factors are said to affect frequency of use of particular learning strategies. In this presentation. I will describe only five factors affecting language learning strategies.
Effects of Reading Instruction Based on Cognitive Academic Language Learning ...Angcharin Thongpan
1) The document summarizes a study that examined the effects of a reading instruction method called the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) on Thai students' public administration English reading abilities and strategy use.
2) Data was collected from 30 students who received 8 weeks of CALLA reading instruction and were tested before and after on their reading comprehension and strategy use.
3) The findings showed that students' reading comprehension scores improved significantly after instruction and that they used cognitive, social/affective, and metacognitive reading strategies more frequently as a result of the CALLA approach.
This study examines the language learning strategies used by Russian university students in a TEFL program. The researchers administered a strategy inventory to first-year students and fourth-year students to compare their strategy use and evaluate the effectiveness of the TEFL program. Overall, both groups reported high to medium use of all strategy categories. However, fourth-year students showed a more nuanced understanding of strategy priorities. The findings can help curriculum designers refine the TEFL program focus and instructors make informed decisions about strategy instruction.
Dr. Hasbi Sjamsir in Linguistic IntelligenceHasbi Sjamsir
This study examined the effect of teaching method and linguistic intelligence on English learning outcomes of 2nd grade students in Samarinda, East Borneo. The study used an experimental design to compare the Total Physical Response method to the Grammatical Translation Method. Results showed that students taught with the Total Physical Response method performed better, students with higher linguistic intelligence performed better, and for students with lower linguistic intelligence, the Total Physical Response method led to significantly better outcomes. The study concluded that both teaching method and linguistic intelligence influence English learning outcomes.
The effectiveness of using linguistic classroom activities inaylinsilva
Research of the effective classroom activities on linguistics by using linguistics performance and decision making on Students of Makah.
Information that can be practical for a project.
Wong ratcliff effects of the reading first program on acquisition of early li...William Kritsonis
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, PhD - Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Established 1982). Dr. Kritsonis earned his PhD from The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; M.Ed., Seattle Pacific University; Seattle, Washington; BA Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington. He was also named as the Distinguished Alumnus for the College of Education and Professional Studies at Central Washington University.
5 factors affecting language learning strategies usageAmrien Hamila
1) Five factors that affect language learning strategy usage are motivation, gender, proficiency level, age, and learning styles.
2) More motivated learners use a greater range and more metacognitive strategies than less motivated learners. Integrative motivation leads to greater proficiency than instrumental motivation.
3) Females generally use more language learning strategies than males, though some studies found no difference or males using more strategies.
Integrating language learning strategies to promote active cooperative langua...Alexander Decker
The document discusses a study that compared traditional teaching methods to active-cooperative learning methods and their impact on student motivation and behavior. The study involved 60 students ages 14-16 from schools in Tirana and Shkoder, Albania. Classroom observations and student surveys found that interactive teaching strategies positively impacted student motivation, leading them toward active-cooperative learning. Applying these strategies can be effective for teachers and rewarding for students, helping students improve their language skills.
This article aims at exposing a design of project based content language integrated learning (CLIL) at a higher education insitution in Indonesia. Th design is proposed based on a mixture of the principle of language integrated learning (CLIL) and the principle of project based learning. The design was implemented for the teaching of English as a compulsory subject at three departments of the university of Lampung. Quantitative data was obtained from the value of students’ English proficiency before and after CLIL model application. While the qualitative data was obtained from the output of language produced by students during the learning process took place. The results showed that project based CLIL English language course at the faculty of teaching and education, the University of Lampung could work effectively. This is evident from the implementation of the whole program activities, from the implementation of the formation of groups, students work in groups to finish the project, group presentation activities, personal presentations and students’ responses to all activities.
SRJIS/ MURAD AL-AZZANI, FAZEE KHALID AL-EZI AL-MUSLIMI (393-402) OCT-NOV, 201...Fazee1974
This study investigated the effects of English proficiency level and task type on Yemeni students' use of communication strategies. Two tasks were designed: a concept identification task and a culture-based task. The results showed that proficiency level affected strategy use. Lower proficiency students used more strategies overall. The task type also influenced strategy use - in the concept task, lower proficiency students used more strategies, while in the culture task, higher proficiency students used more strategies. The study provides insight into how proficiency level and task design influence non-native English speakers' communication strategy choices.
Implementing a RTI Model for ELL: An Urban Case StudyClaudia Rinaldi
THis session will provide present the implementation of an RTI model in urban schools with large percentage of ELL. Student Achievement in reading and teacher perceptions of implementation will be presented.
The document is a curriculum vitae for Jonathan Hand. It includes his personal and contact details, a profile highlighting his positive attitude and learning abilities. It then outlines his extensive work experience in customer service and technical support roles spanning several industries. His education qualifications and interests are also included.
Este documento proporciona instrucciones para preparar un shampoo casero con huevos, aguacate, miel y limón para combatir la caída del cabello. Se explica cómo mezclar los ingredientes en un plato y luego vaciar la mezcla en una botella para agitarla y aplicarla como shampoo diariamente, lo que ayudará a fortalecer el cabello y detener su caída. También incluye enlaces a otros recursos sobre cómo eliminar definitivamente la calvicie.
The report provides a vision for a vibrant, sustainable and resilient rural Irish economy and analyzes the challenges currently facing rural communities, which have experienced disproportionate increases in unemployment compared to urban areas since the economic crisis. CEDRA conducted extensive public consultation and identifies strategic initiatives, policy measures, and ways to better leverage rural areas' natural, physical, human and capital resources to contribute to national economic recovery through a more integrated and supportive approach to rural development.
Muhammad Farrukh Shahzad has over 10 years of experience in telecom transmission planning for 2G, 3G, and 4G networks. He is currently a team lead for Ericsson Saudi Arabia providing consultation on 3G/4G broadband transmission solutions and planning. Previously he has held transmission planning and implementation roles for Ericsson and Warid Telecom in Saudi Arabia and Pakistan.
Files ppt-partnering with parents and dbrtlassiter80
This document discusses training parents in positive parenting skills using direct behavior ratings (DBRs). DBRs involve brief ratings of a child's target behavior following a specified observation period. Parents are trained to use DBRs to monitor and communicate about their teen's behaviors. Individual parent training sessions will teach behavioral management techniques and positive parenting skills using modeling, coaching, and feedback. Parents will rate their teen's behaviors using DBRs between sessions. Changes in the teen's behavior will be analyzed over time using the DBR data.
This document provides a crash course manual for new parents, covering topics like bathing, diapering, burping, caring for the umbilical cord, helpful hints, and more. It begins with an overview of the career objective of parenting and includes physical and mental requirements. Various techniques for bathing, diapering, and burping infants are described. The document also shares many creative solutions and tricks that experienced parents have developed.
This document discusses psychological disorders from multiple perspectives. It describes how abnormal behavior is defined and classified in the DSM. Psychological disorders are highly prevalent and can be understood using biological, psychological, and social models. The document focuses on anxiety disorders like panic disorder, phobias, and PTSD. It examines their symptoms, prevalence, explanatory models, and relationship with suicide risk. Biological factors like genetics and neurotransmitters are also discussed in explaining mood disorders.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
A Case Study On Language Learning Strategies Of EFL Learners At A State Unive...Joaquin Hamad
This study examined the language learning strategies of 185 Turkish EFL learners enrolled in preparatory classes at Pamukkale University. Data was collected using the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning questionnaire. The findings showed that the learners had a moderate overall use of strategies, with the highest being metacognitive strategies and the lowest being affective strategies. There were no significant differences between male and female learners' strategy use. Strategy use increased with higher language proficiency levels. The type of high school graduated from had a significant effect on strategy use.
This study investigated the language learning strategies used by Cambodian EFL students. It surveyed 159 students using a questionnaire based on Oxford's Strategy Inventory for Language Learning. The findings were:
1) Students reported a high overall use of language learning strategies, with the most frequently used being metacognitive strategies.
2) While males reported a slightly higher use of strategies overall, there was no statistically significant difference found between males and females in their overall strategy use or in most individual strategy categories.
3) Indirect strategies like metacognitive, affective and social strategies tended to be used more than direct strategies like memory, cognitive and compensation strategies.
Does applying vocabulary learning strategies vary based on gender the case of...Alexander Decker
1. The document examines differences in vocabulary learning strategies used by male and female Turkish EFL learners.
2. It analyzes data from a study that assessed the frequency of 44 vocabulary learning strategies, including psycholinguistic and metacognitive strategies, among undergraduate students.
3. The findings showed that female respondents reported slightly higher use of psycholinguistic strategies, metacognitive strategies, and overall strategy use compared to male respondents.
This document summarizes a study on the speaking strategies used by students studying for a Bachelor's degree in English Language Teaching (ELT) at five public universities in Mexico. The study found that the most commonly used strategies were asking for repetition, using paraphrases or synonyms for unknown words, and asking for clarification of the message. While students used a wide variety of strategies, they tended to select strategies based on their English proficiency level. The document discusses research on language learning strategies and the importance of teaching speaking strategies to help students communicate effectively in English.
The influence of pronunciation learningJoyce Nguyen
This study examined the relationship between English learners' use of pronunciation learning strategies and their ability to perceive and produce English vowels. 63 first-year English students completed a pronunciation test and questionnaire on strategy use. The results showed a significant positive relationship between strategy use and production of English vowels, suggesting that strategy instruction could help students improve pronunciation skills.
There are many factors that can influence an individual's usage of language learning strategies (LLS), including motivation, gender, level of language proficiency, and learning experiences. Highly motivated learners and those with higher proficiency levels tend to use a wider variety of LLS more frequently. Females generally report using LLS more than males. Prior experience studying a language abroad can also impact strategy selection and use. Learning style preferences, cultural background, and the social environment additionally shape an individual's approach to language learning.
This document summarizes a study on integrating language learning strategies to promote active cooperative learning. The study examined the impact of interactive teaching methods on student motivation and learning in high schools in Tirana and Shkoder, Albania. Surveys and classroom observations of 60 students found that interactive teaching strategies had a strong positive impact on student motivation and led students toward more active cooperative learning. The findings suggest that applying these interactive strategies can be effective for teachers and rewarding for students, helping students improve their language skills.
The exploring nature of language learning strategies (ll ss) and their relati...Dr. Seyed Hossein Fazeli
This document summarizes research on language learning strategies and their relationship to various variables, with a focus on personality traits. It provides an overview of the literature on language learning strategies, noting they can be taught to learners and are influenced by factors like proficiency, culture, and personality. The document indicates that while research has found links between certain personality traits and language learning, the results are mixed. It concludes that more research is needed on the role of individual differences and personality traits in language learning strategy use.
This article reviews research on language learning strategies from 1970-2006 and proposes revisions to the theoretical framework. It discusses strategies used for both learning and using a second language. The author draws on previous works and studies college students learning a language. Two important aspects are defining strategies and using them in learning. The relationship between subconscious activity and strategies is explored, showing how they shape learning preferences and processes. The article recommends viewing strategies as an integral part of learning, not just for speeding it up. Learning depends more on the strategies available and best fitting a learner's preferences and intelligence. While much research has been done, theoretical criticisms have persisted for over two decades.
This document summarizes a study that investigated the differences in vocabulary learning strategies used by Arabic majoring students versus non-Arabic majoring students at the Kulliyyah Islamic Revealed Knowledge (KIRK) at the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM). The study found no significant differences between the two groups, with both groups most frequently using spontaneous vocabulary learning strategies. The study used a vocabulary learning strategies questionnaire to survey 248 students from the two groups and analyzed their use of formal vocabulary learning strategies, self-initiated strategies, and spontaneous strategies.
Cross-linguistic Influence on Second Language Use of College StudentsAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : The study determined the cross-linguistic influence (CLI) on the second language use of college
students for the school year 2022-2023. This study included qualitative descriptive research approaches and
thematic analysis. The purposely chosen participants in this study were the twenty-five sophomore BSED
English students from one higher institution in Sorsogon. The instruments used in this study were researchermade field notes, survey checklist and interview schedule. When replying to the teachers during recitation
English (L2) was used. Most participants used Taglish to interact with teachers, reporting, and in group
activities. The majority of participants used the Bicol dialect when chatting with peers and when ordering in the
cafeteria. The socio-cultural context, learning environment, teaching strategies, prior linguistic knowledge, and
support at home are the elements that influence vocabulary, syntax, and pronunciation in the context of CLI to
the speaking abilities of L2 students. The Filipino (L1) may influence the participants' use of L2 by making
them use their own dialect in the classroom instead of English. This suggests that everyone who speaks does so
with a solid foundation of language knowledge acquired from past exposure to a different language.
Furthermore, multiple consonants and vowels are frequently switched or mixed. The findings showed that CLI
can be linked to home language, location, socioeconomic status, parental education level, and literal or wordfor-word translation from Filipino to English all contributed to these issues. To eradicate cross-linguistic
influence, the researcher suggested the institutional policy known as English Language Only Policy.
KEYWORDS :cross linguistic influence, L1, L2, Sorsogon, Philippines.
The present study was an attempt to investigate the effect of critical thinking level on Iranian EFL learners’ choice of language learning strategies. The participants were 93 male and female B.A. level Iranian students majoring in English language teaching and English translation at Imam Khomeini International University in Qazvin; Zanjan University; and Kar non-profit University in Qazvin. Data were collected using the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), and Peter Honey’s Critical Thinking Scale. The participants were divided into three levels (High, Mid, Low) of critical thinking based on their scores on the critical thinking questionnaire. The participants’ strategy use in the three groups was compared using six separate one-way ANOVA procedures. The results showed that the level of critical thinking significantly influenced students’ choice of memory, cognitive, metacognitive and social strategies, but had no significant effect on the choice of compensation and affective strategies. The findings of this study may have both theoretical and pedagogical implications for learners, teachers, and syllabus designers.
5 factors that affect language learning strategiesWanie Alhafiz
This document discusses 5 factors that affect language learning strategies: gender, motivation, experience studying the language, learning style, and language proficiency. Several studies found that females use language learning strategies more frequently than males. Motivated learners are more active in their learning and use strategies more often. Experience studying a language does not necessarily correlate with greater strategy use. Learning styles influence the strategies learners choose, and more proficient language learners tend to use a wider variety of strategies.
Factors Affecting Language Learning Strategies_GE6533Vino_thini
This task has been done as a course requirement (GE6533 Language Learning Strategies Instruction), a program offered for Masters in Education (TESL) at National University of Malaysia. Our instructor Prof Amin Embi has required us to present some points on 5 factors affecting language learning strategies based on previous researches.
The present study was an effort to investigate strategies mostly used in learning speaking, which covered direct strategies and indirect strategies. To this end, 60 students from two different high schools in a city in Indonesia, in which 30 students for each school participated this study. In collecting the data, this study used close-ended questionnaires with Strategy Inventory Language Learner (SILL) consisting of 39 items, which were analyzed by using a scoring system. The results of the study showed that students of both schools generally used the same and different learning strategies. The same learning strategies used by the students of both schools were organizing and evaluating learning, referring to metacognitive or indirect strategies. Meanwhile, the different learning strategies used by the students of both schools occurred on five strategies at a medium level. From the six types of learning strategies, as indicated in this study, the most popular learning strategies which were used by students of both schools were organizing and evaluating learning.
A study of the role of rote learning in vocabulary learningiqbal vidianto
This study investigated the role of rote learning (RL) in vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs) of Burmese English as a foreign language (EFL) students. The researchers collected data through questionnaires with 100 Burmese EFL students and interviews with teachers. The results showed that RL strategies were used more than other memory strategies by Burmese students, who felt RL was effective not only initially but also at higher stages of English vocabulary learning. Creating mental linkages was also a main strategy used along with RL. The findings suggest RL will continue to be applied by Burmese learners due to cultural/educational background factors, the EFL environment, traditional learning habits, national exam demands, and not exploring
This document provides an introduction to a study on language learning strategies used by Japanese university students learning English. It begins by defining language learning strategies as conscious mental or behavioral actions taken by language learners to improve their learning. The document then discusses different frameworks for defining strategies and settles on a definition that strategies are behaviors or mental processes consciously used by learners to directly or indirectly facilitate language learning. Key features of strategies discussed are that they can make learning easier and contribute to acquisition, allow learner autonomy, and may be observable behaviors or mental processes. The study aims to examine patterns in strategy use among Japanese university English students and how this relates to their English proficiency levels.
This document introduces the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), a self-assessment tool for students learning a second language. The SILL asks students to rate how true certain statements are of their own language learning strategies and behaviors, from "never true" to "always true." It is divided into five parts that cover cognitive, memory, compensatory, metacognitive, and affective strategies. Students are instructed to answer based on their own experiences and not how they think they should learn, as there are no right or wrong answers.
The document discusses a study that compared language learning strategies reported in interviews with Greek EFL learners to those included in the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL). The study found that:
1) Around half of the strategies reported in interviews were accurately recorded in the SILL.
2) Some reported strategies varied from how they are described in the SILL, suggesting possible adjustments.
3) Several strategies reported in interviews were entirely different from those in the SILL.
The results indicate that while the SILL captures many strategies, it may not fully reflect the full range used by Greek EFL learners and could be improved by incorporating some common variations and different strategies identified in the interviews.
This document summarizes criticisms of using questionnaires as the primary method for collecting data in language learner strategy research. It notes that while questionnaires have provided a broad overview of strategy use across different learner populations, they have also been subject to five main criticisms. First, there is a lack of consensus on how to classify language learning strategies. Second, questionnaires may not adequately account for contextual variations in strategy use. Third, the wording of questionnaire items can be interpreted differently. Fourth, questionnaires cannot fully capture the multidimensionality and complexity of an individual's strategy use. Fifth, questionnaires may present strategy use as a static variable rather than a dynamic process. The document calls for greater use of qualitative and multi-method approaches to complement questionnaire data.
This document summarizes a study that investigated the writing needs and strategies of primary school students in FELDA schools in Malaysia who are learning English as a second language. The study found that the students were interested in learning English and aware of its importance. It identified different writing strategies used by boys and girls. Preferences for an English learning module included using the Malay language for instruction, focusing on writing skills, and a book format for the module. The findings can help guide the development of an English learning module tailored to the needs of these students.
This study explored the relationship between Chinese adult English learners' language learning strategies, communicative strategies, and proficiency level. The researchers administered a background questionnaire, the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), and recorded speaking tasks from two groups of participants with low and advanced English proficiency. They analyzed differences in reported learning strategy and communicative strategy use between proficiency levels. The findings provide insight into how instruction can help learners develop strategic awareness to improve language skills.
This document summarizes a study that investigated the relationship between EFL learners' use of listening strategies (cognitive, metacognitive, and social/affective) and their individual differences. 40 Iranian university students completed questionnaires on strategy use, learning style, motivation, and personality traits, as well as an IELTS listening test. Statistical analysis found a significant relationship between motivation level and strategy use, and learning style also impacted strategy use. Personality traits and other variables did not significantly affect strategy use. Social/affective strategies were rarely used and omitted from analysis. The study aimed to clarify the under-researched relationship between listening strategies and individual learner differences.
Language education in_asia_vol3_iss2_2012Hamizah Osman
This document summarizes the editor's note for an issue of the journal "Language Education in Asia". It discusses the growing emphasis on English language education across Asia driven by globalization. While English instruction was traditionally only at higher levels, it is now increasingly being implemented at primary levels. This raises challenges, such as needing hundreds of thousands more English teachers and disparities in teacher availability between urban and rural areas. Cultural factors can also impact the implementation of communicative language approaches. The papers in this issue examine research on data-driven learning techniques and using video recordings to improve presentation skills, as well as methodologies like task-based learning and project work.
This document discusses a research study on language learning strategies used by English as a Second Language learners and their course performance at Kolej Poly-Tech MARA Ipoh. The study aims to identify the most frequent strategies used, compare strategies used by more and less successful learners, and determine which strategies are most frequently employed by successful learners. A questionnaire based on Oxford's Strategy Inventory for Language Learning will be administered to collect data, which will then be analyzed using descriptive statistics to identify relationships between strategies used and course performance. The findings hope to provide insight on how raising awareness of language learning strategies can enhance students' language acquisition.
This document discusses a research study on language learning strategies used by English as a Second Language learners and their course performance at Kolej Poly-Tech MARA Ipoh. The study aims to identify the most frequent strategies used, compare strategies used by more and less successful learners, and determine which strategies are most frequently used by successful learners. A questionnaire based on Oxford's Strategy Inventory for Language Learning will be used to collect data, which will then be analyzed using descriptive statistics to identify relationships between strategies used and course performance. The findings could help make students aware of how language learning strategies may enhance their language acquisition.
J clegg metacognition_an_ovwerview_of_its_uses_in_language-learningHamizah Osman
This document provides an overview of metacognition and its uses in language learning. It discusses:
1. What metacognition is and how it relates to cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies.
2. Related fields like learning styles, learning to learn, learner autonomy, and assessment that are relevant to understanding metacognition.
3. Components of the language learning curriculum, including metacognitive skills, cognitive skills, and subcategories of language.
4. The importance of understanding learners, including their learning styles, strategies, aptitudes, and cultural influences.
This document summarizes a study that investigated the writing needs and strategies of primary school students in FELDA schools in Malaysia. The study found that over half of the students were interested in learning English, though less than half were interested in English reading activities. Students were generally aware of the importance of English proficiency. Regarding writing strategies, students used a variety of strategies with some differences between boys and girls. Students preferred an English learning module to be in book format, use Malay as the language of instruction, and focus on writing skills. The study provides insights that can help develop targeted English learning materials for these students.
Language education in_asia_vol3_iss2_2012Hamizah Osman
The editor's note discusses the growing importance and implementation of English language education across Asia due to globalization, and some of the challenges faced in applying communicative language teaching approaches within Asian cultural contexts and education systems. It previews several papers in the journal issue that report on research investigating data-driven learning approaches and using video recordings to improve presentation skills, as well as methodologies like task-based learning and project work. The note frames the context around ongoing discussions on effective English language instruction in Asia.
Language education in_asia_vol3_iss2_2012Hamizah Osman
This document is the editor's note for Volume 3, Issue 2 of the journal Language Education in Asia. It provides a summary of several key articles in the issue. The note discusses the growing emphasis on English language education in Asia, driven by factors like globalization and economic development. It also outlines some challenges in implementing English curricula, such as large class sizes, exam-focused systems, and cultural differences. The rest of the note previews the contents of the issue, briefly summarizing the research, teaching practices, and commentary covered in the various articles. The overarching topics examined are innovative language teaching methodologies, the use of technology, adapting materials to local contexts, developing student skills and strategies, and debates around
The article analyzes the use of circumlocution strategies among Malaysian ESL learners at intermediate high and intermediate low levels of English proficiency. It finds that high intermediate learners used more types of circumlocution strategies, such as descriptions, references, and examples, compared to low intermediate learners. The study suggests that learners' use of communication strategies may reflect their stage of language acquisition. Teaching circumlocution strategies could help learners compensate for gaps in their linguistic knowledge.
1. Journal of Second and Multiple Language Acquisition – JSMULA Vol: 2 Issue: 1 22-35, 2014, Feb.
ISSN:2147-9747
22
Chinese Adult Second Language Learners’ Learning Strategy
and Communicative Strategy Use
Mingda Sun1
The University of Alabama
MiguelMantero2
The University of Alabama
Robert Summers3
Buffalo State
(State University of New York)
Abstract
This paper aimed to explore differences in how Chinese adult second language learners
apply communicative strategies in oral production across proficiency levels and to see if
these distinctions are related to their comprehensive language learning strategy (LLS) use.
This small-scale study involved two groups of five English learners with low and advanced
proficiency levels respectively. Background questionnaires and Oxford‘s (1990) Strategy
Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) were used to determine the participants‘ condition of
using LLSs. Both groups were given speaking tasks and their speech was digitally recorded.
Though a great number of studies have been conducted on learning strategies and
proficiency, no research relates them to a learner‘s pragmatic application into speech. The
findings highlight the positive relation between LLS and reported communicative strategy
and provide instructors information about how different proficiency classrooms incorporate
instruction that enables learners to develop an awareness of their strategy application.
Keywords: language learning strategy, communicative strategy, language proficiency,
second language acquisition, oral task.
1. Introduction
In order to attain individual learning goals and accomplish career success,
language learners apply various strategies to finish speaking, reading,
vocabulary, listening or writing tasks through the learning process.
Recognizing that there is a task to complete or a problem to solve, language
learners will use whatever metacognitive, cognitive or social/affective
strategies they possess to attend to the language-learning activity. Since
language processing without awareness could occur in every learning step,
formal instruction in how to use strategies efficiently as a way to improve
language learning and performance is needed. In recent years, researchers
have increasingly been concerned with the learning strategies, and the
present paper aims to study how the variation of learners‘ language
proficiency relates their learning strategies and reported communicative
strategy. Background questionnaire and Oxford‘s (1990) SILL are used to
explore the participants‘ different attitudes towards English learning
strategies, and the results of oral activities are coded to investigate the
1Bio: Doctoral student in the program of second language acquisition and teaching at the
University of Alabama. E-mail address: msun1@crimson.ua.edu
2
Bio: Professor of educational linguistics, director of program in second language acquisition
and teaching at the University of Alabama. E-mail address: mmantero@bamaed.ua.edu
3 Bio: Associate professor of modern and classical languages, assistant dean of international
and exchange programs at Buffalo State. E-mail address: summerrh@buffalostate.edu
Received 20.08.2013
2. Learning Strategy and Communicative Strategy Use Sun, Mantero, Summers
23
learners‘ communicative strategic behaviors and to conclude the effects of
the strategies.
1.1. Research on defining and classifying language learning strategies
Since 1970s, researchers and linguists had become increasingly concerned
about how learners‘ individual differences might influence their learning
outcomes, such as the effects of learning strategies in second language
acquisition(Rubin, 1975; Stern, 1975). This research trend could be traced
back to the development of cognitive psychology and the fact that foreign
language education shifted its focus from studying ―how teachers instruct‖ to
investigating ―how students learn.‖
According to O‘ Malley & Chamot (1990), learning strategies were defined as
―the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them
comprehend, learn, or retain new information‖ (p.1). From the cognitive point
of view, they explored how language learners deal with interlanguage, the
role different variables play on students‘ strategy selection, the relation
between strategy use and language task performance, and identified what
good language learners do to ensure their language learning success.
Holding the same opinion, Swain et al (2009) contended that these strategies
were ―conscious, goal-oriented thoughts and behaviors‖ learners use to
―regulate cognitive process, with the goal of improving their language use or
test performance‖ (p.11).
Oxford (1992) provided a long-standing definition that learning strategies
referred to specific steps employed by students to make their learning faster
and more effective. Learners could apply strategies as helping tools in order
to actively engage in learning. Recently, Oxford (2011) added the component
of socio-cultural interaction into the definition. ―Appropriate language
learning strategies result in improved proficiency and greater self-
confidence‖ (Oxford, 1990, p. 1). Stated another way, learning strategies are
important to explain how learners acquire second language and help to
improve learners‘ automation.
Scholars within the field of second language acquisition (SLA) have generated
different opinions to organize and categorize learning strategies over the last
twenty years. On the basis of the findings from their research, O‘ Malley &
Chamot (1990) developed a framework that included cognitive,
metacognitive, and social/affective strategies. Oxford (1990) also outlined a
classification system based on her and others‘ studies, and this system was
considered as the most comprehensive classification of learning strategies to
date. Oxford divided the strategies into two broad categories: direct strategies
and indirect strategies. Under either class there are three subcategories:
memory, cognitive, and compensation belonged to the direct class;
metacognitive, affective and social belonged to the indirect class.
Hsiao & Oxford (2002) suggested some approaches to classify strategies.
These approaches include differentiating strategies for using a language from
strategies for learning it, recognizing the importance of the learning
environment, slightly modifying the prevalent strategy classification theories
by reclassifying particular strategies, ensuring that the language skills are
obvious in each strategy item, and creating a task–based strategy inventory.
3. Journal of Second and Multiple Language Acquisition – JSMULA Vol: 2 Issue: 1 22-35, 2014, Feb.
ISSN:2147-9747
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With this empirical classification, Oxford (1990) designed the Strategy
Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) that can be used as a survey
assessment tool. The SILL is currently considered as the most
comprehensive and widely used instrument for identifying strategy
preferences of language learners throughout the world (Bremmer, 1999). Due
to its reliability and validity checked by multiple studies (Oxford & Burry-
Stock, 1995), the current paper will apply the SILL to investigate the involved
participants‘ variation in learning strategy preferences.
1.2. Research with regard to LLS in SLA
Numerous studies have suggested that identified learner strategy type,
variety, and frequency are significantly associated with language
performance among learners of English as a second language worldwide
(Oxford & Burry-Stock, 1995). Meanwhile, findings from various research
involving learning strategies have shown that strategy use differs due to
various factors including gender, motivation, setting, cultural background,
and attitudes (Oxford, 2001; Oxford & Burry-Stock, 1995).
According to O‘ Malley & Chamot‘s (1990) experiment on classroom
observation, they suggested that it was quite likely for students to relate
their strategy use to language learning task and language proficiency. Park
(1997) conducted a study which examined the strategy use among 332
Korean university students, with a focus on the relationship between
participants‘ learning strategies and English proficiency, as measured by a
practice version of the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOFEL). The
results indicated that cognitive and social strategies were used most
comparing with other strategy categories. Goh and Kwah (1997) planned a
survey on the strategy use of college-level students from China learning
English as a second language in Singapore, aiming to find out how students‘
proficiency level and gender influence their application of strategies.
Metacognitive and compensation strategies were concluded to be the most
frequently used whereas memory strategies were the least used. In addition,
female students tended to use compensation and affective strategies more
often than male students. They reported that cognitive and compensation
strategies to be positively related to the variation of proficiency level. A
similar argument to Goh and Kwah‘s came from Bremmer (1999): in his
study on a group of students at the City University of Hong Kong, he
indicated a more frequent use of compensation and metacognitive strategy
categories. Similar to Goh and Kwah‘s study, the participants with higher
language proficiency level were found to select cognitive and compensation
strategies most frequently. Li (2001) developed a large-scale study on a
group of Chinese students at a university in New Zealand and examined the
association between the participants‘ strategy use and language proficiency
and gender. Overall, the results were consistent with the research findings
and further suggested that perceived areas of difficulty may cause
differences in the use of strategy categories. Oxford (2003) introduced the
important concepts found in this issue such as learning styles, learning
strategies and motivation, and explained how these concepts related to each
other.
4. Learning Strategy and Communicative Strategy Use Sun, Mantero, Summers
25
Richards & Renandya (2002) put forward the point that strategy training can
help students make effective use of multiple strategies. They also concluded
the roles of each strategy. Metacognitive strategies help students keep
themselves on track; cognitive, compensation and memory strategies provide
the necessary intellectual tools; and affective and social strategies offer
continuous emotional and interpersonal support.
Based on the discussion of the studies mentioned above, it can be seen that
the studies investigating learners‘ strategy use solely examine how different
variables determine language learning strategy use. No study reported in the
literature so far has related learners‘ language learning strategies to their
practical communicative strategies used in oral task performance. This
paper aims to fill the gap and to establish if preferred learning strategy
applied throughout learning process may influence second language
learners‘ practical communicative strategies in speech.
1.3. Current study and research questions
Instead of solely concentrating on the significance of different variables for
learners‘ language learning strategy (LLS) use, the present study explored if
language learners‘ learning strategies, used across the learning process, may
cause them to utilize correlated communicative strategies in oral tasks.
Oxford‘s (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) was utilized
for this study to demonstrate the participants‘ overall learning strategy use.
In addition, a summary of communicative-strategy classification scheme
established by other researchers (Swain et al, 2009; Huang, 2006) was
employed in order to analyze the participants‘ communicative strategies used
in oral activities.
The current paper examined following research questions: (1) What is the
relationship between second language learners‘ proficiency level and their
learning strategy use? (2) What is the relationship between language
learners‘ proficiency level and the reported communicative strategy use when
performing speaking tasks? (3) Is there any association between learners‘
learning strategy use and the reported communicative strategy use?
2. Methodology
2.1. Participants
This study involved two groups of five Chinese English learners in the U.S.
Since this study was mainly conducted with qualitative methods, the
authors believed that information and insight we acquired from the ten
participants were rich enough to look for valid patterns. Ten individuals
volunteered to participate in the experiment. All the participants started to
learn English in their middle school, and by the time of this study, they had
received at least six years‘ formal English instruction in China. They all
reported to have basic knowledge of language learning strategies acquired
through their former education. Participants in both groups were graduate
students at the university.
They varied in terms with age (from 19 to 30) and gender (four males and six
females). The standards used in dividing groups were the participants‘
speaking scores at TOFEL which was taken at the time of the current study
and the length of their stay in the U.S. Advanced-level participants‘ speaking
5. Journal of Second and Multiple Language Acquisition – JSMULA Vol: 2 Issue: 1 22-35, 2014, Feb.
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scores were higher than twenty in a total of thirty and they had lived in the
U.S. for more than three years. Students from the low level group had scores
lower than fifteen and the length they had stayed in the U.S. was less than
one year. In order to improve the validity of our grouping, the authors used
TOEIC speaking sample tests from the official website to reexamine the
participants‘ proficiency levels. The scores of advanced-level participants
belonged to the first and second top score classifications (international
professional proficiency and working proficiency plus); while scores of low-
level participants belonged to the last three score levels (elementary
proficiency plus, elementary proficiency, and basic proficiency).
2.2. Data collection
2.2.1.Background questionnaire
All participants were asked to complete a questionnaire (Oxford, 1990) that
assisted the authors to collect the background information including gender,
age, educational experience, language-learning experience, length of stay in
the U.S., primary languages spoken at home, work, and socially, number of
hours per day speaking English, and proficiency tests they had taken and
the scores they received (see appendix I). The questionnaire was distributed
to the participants days before they started the speaking activity. The
authors surveyed each learner separately due to scheduling constraints.
2.2.2.The strategy inventory of language learning
Research findings have demonstrated the credibility of Oxford‘s Strategy
Inventory of Language Learning (SILL) with regard to learners‘ learning
strategy use. For this study, a Chinese translation of the SILL was used (see
appendix II). The translation was chosen by the authors from a Chinese
website and based on the authors‘ English learning experience, the
translation matched the original SILL very well. All participants completed it
after they had finished the background questionnaires. The SILL was used
as a self-assessment to determine the differences between the two
proficiency levels in language learning strategy use and to measure the
frequency of each strategy category used by the learners throughout the
learning process.
2.2.3.Video-taped recordings of oral language production
After the participants completed the SILL survey, the speaking activity was
given to them. Six topics were selected from IELTS sample speaking
questions on a study guide website (see appendix III). Under each topic there
were several questions that helped the learners to develop their thoughts.
They had been prepared in an envelope first and each participant randomly
took out a piece of paper with a topic and talked about it for two to three
minutes. They had one minute to think about what they were going to say
and could make notes if they wanted. The oral production was video
recorded because such data could stimulate participants‘ memory and help
them to reflect which communicative strategies had been used in the speech.
2.2.4.Self-reported speaking strategy use
6. Learning Strategy and Communicative Strategy Use Sun, Mantero, Summers
27
All the participants engaged in verbal reports through stimulated recall
immediately after performing the speaking task. They were given a recall
instruction designed by Swain, et al (2009) before they started to reflect their
speech. The instruction informed the participants to speak either English or
Chinese, ―whichever came naturally when they were recalling their thoughts
about what they did before, during, and after the speaking task‖ during the
recall session (p.77). The participants were also reminded that they should
report ―what they were thinking at the time, not what they thought they
should have thought or done, or how they thought they should have
responded‖ (p.77). In terms of accuracy of reporting, think-aloud and
stimulated recall were more focused and specific than interview or
questionnaire data with respect to a specific event. The authors believed that
stimulated recall was one of the best available means to achieve the goal of
gaining greater understanding of the strategic behaviors the participants
used during a specific communication task.
2.3. Data analysis
To address the research questions set out for this study, the strategic
behaviors of both groups were compared mainly with qualitative methods.
The oral reflection data gathered from the two groups were fully transcribed
and coded. The coding scheme used in this study was established by other
researchers (Swain et al, 2009; Huang, 2006, see appendix IV). The coding
scheme consists of five main categories of strategies that correspond to
different learning theoretical perspectives concerning self-regulation:
approach, communication, cognitive, metacognitive, and affective (see
appendix IV). Within each category are individual strategies. For example,
the approach strategy category includes individual strategies such as
recalling the task type, recalling the question, generating choices, which are
coded as instances of strategies reported to approach the question. In coding
scheme, the authors took the following actions. For example:
(1) 在说这个题目的时候,我在回想我之前去过哪些地方。 Linking to prior
experience
(Translation: When I started to answer this question, I was recalling which
places I had ever been.)
Using SPSS 20.0, the means for each category of the SILL and the overall
average for the whole SILL for both groups were calculated in order to
address the first research question. With the help of the coding scheme,
percentages of coded strategies were calculated to find out if there was
relation between reported communicative strategy use and proficiency levels.
By comparing the results of the first two questions, the correlation was
examined to determine the relationship between participants‘ language
learning strategy use and learners‘ reported communicative strategy use.
3. Results
In order to answer the first research question of the relation between LLS
use and proficiency levels, the means were calculated as shown in Table 1.
The results were basically consistent with previous research findings (Goh
7. Journal of Second and Multiple Language Acquisition – JSMULA Vol: 2 Issue: 1 22-35, 2014, Feb.
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and Kwah, 1997; Bremmer, 1999) that the proficiency level led to positive
influences on learners‘ language learning strategy use, i.e. the higher the
level, the higher the use of the strategies. The category of memory
represented a negative relation.
Strategy group Means for
advanced
level
Means for
low level
group
A memory 2.24 2.83
B cognitive 3.03 2.94
C compensation 4.2 3.3
D metacognitive 3.75 3.1
E affective 2.75 2.6
F social 2.91 2.08
The overall average 3.31 2.97
Table 1: Learning Strategy Table
Regarding the second research question, the frequency of the communicative
strategies reported to be used by the two groups‘ participants were analyzed
with the help of the strategy category schemes. Overall, the participants
used 33 different individual strategies across the speaking tasks. Because
none of the participants reported to use affective strategies in the current
study, the authors only examined the categories of approach,
communication, cognitive and metacognitive strategies.
Approach Communication Cognitive Metacognitive
Low level number
percentage
8 43 15 19
.47 .62 .40 .33
Advanced
Level
number
percentage
9 26 22 39
.53 .38 .60 .67
Table 2: Reported Communicative Strategy Table
As shown in table 2, in terms of percentages of strategies reported, the low-
level learners had a greater preference for the communication strategy than
advanced speakers had. On the other hand, the high-level learners reported
to apply cognitive and metacognitive strategies more often, with the
percentage of .60 and .67 respectively. It showed no big difference in the
percentage of the approach strategy usage between the groups.
To answer the final question of the relationship between LLS and learners‘
self-reported speaking strategies used in practical speech, a comparison
between the findings of the above two tables could be made. It could be
observed that both the SILL and the coding scheme have the categories of
cognitive and metacognitive strategies and their sub-categories were also the
same. In addition, under the compensation category of the SILL and the
communication category of the coding scheme, we could also find a lot of
same sub-categories. Therefore, we were able to compare LLS and reported
speaking strategy use by contrasting the results of the two classification
schemes. Table 1 showed that both groups used compensation learning
8. Learning Strategy and Communicative Strategy Use Sun, Mantero, Summers
29
strategies most, followed by metacognitive and cognitive strategies. The
second table indicated that the low-level group maintained the same order of
utilizing speaking strategies; while the advanced-level participants reported
to use metacognitive strategies the most, followed by communication
(compensation category in the SILL) and cognitive speaking strategies.
Though the frequency of communication category was not the highest for the
higher-level groups, it still ranked the second in the list. Therefore, it could
be assumed that language learners who use compensation, metacognitive
and cognitive learning strategies across their learning process also use them
when performing speaking tasks. There was a positive relation between LLS
and speaking strategy use.
The correlation was calculated to further support the results. As shown in
Table 3, the significant relationships were positive and occurred in three
cases: the cognitive and approach categories were positively correlated
(r=.32*), as were the cognitive and communication categories (r = .46**).
Additionally, we found that the metacognitive category was significantly
correlated with the cognitive category (r=.43**). These positive and significant
correlations indicate that participants who used more cognitive language
learning strategies tended to use more approach and communication
speaking strategies in oral tasks. Similarly, participants who used more
metacognitive learning strategies tended to use more cognitive speaking
strategies. Overall, the positive correlations demonstrate that there is a
positive relationship between learners‘ language learning strategies and their
actual speaking strategies used in oral activities.
Approach Communication Cognitive Metacognitive
Memory 1.00
Compensation .09 1.00
Cognitive .32* .46** 1.00
Metacognitive .16 .19 .43** 1.00
Note. N=10; *p < .05, **p < .01.
Table 3: Correlation Table
4. Discussion
This study has confirmed the findings illustrated by previous studies (Li,
2001, Bremmer, 1999, Goh&Kwah, 1997) that there is a positive relation
between learners‘ proficiency levels and their language learning strategies:
the means of five strategy categories for high-level group were higher than
those for lower-level group. The result showing that lower proficiency
participants used more memory learning strategies (the mean was 2.83) than
participants from advanced level group (the mean was 2.24) is explainable.
Students of lower proficiency are more likely to use memory techniques to
remember new words and sentences. Unlike the high-level learners, they do
not know specific techniques such as using rhymes or connecting the
sounds of new words to an image or picture.
In this study, the low-level participants reported to use more communication
strategies but less cognitive and metacognitive ones when performing
speaking tasks. This is because the low-level participants had very low
speaking test scores and had stayed in the U.S. for a short time; thus, their
9. Journal of Second and Multiple Language Acquisition – JSMULA Vol: 2 Issue: 1 22-35, 2014, Feb.
ISSN:2147-9747
30
speech was not fluent or coherent. They reported that they were unable to
recall exact English words to express their thoughts, and they had to
simplify the message, avoid what they really planned to express, use
Chinese, guess, repeat, slow their speech, and elaborate to fill time when
speaking. These strategies are communication category. Meanwhile, they
would not set goals, identify the purpose of the task, plan or anticipate the
content and structure of their speaking a lot in advance, which are cognitive
strategies. Additionally, the result that both groups reported to use the
similar number of approach strategies may be because of the speaking tasks
they were given. The speaking task included one topic and sub-questions. In
order to answer the question, they need to use approach strategies such as
generating choices, making choices and developing reasons in order to
discuss the topic and complete the sub-questions.
Last but not the least, there is a positive relationship between participants‘
language learning strategy use and reported communicative strategies used
in speech. Both groups of participants were adult language learners who had
acquired their first language before. During the experience of first language
acquisition, they have already known how to transfer learning strategies into
communicative strategies required in a given oral task. Though dealing with
different languages, they still have sufficient cognitive and metacognitive
abilities to define the goal of speaking tasks, deal with the language in
unfamiliar contexts, and overcome imperfect knowledge of rules and gaps in
their knowledge. Therefore, it could be argued that the frequent use of
learning strategies could contribute to the improvement of communicative
strategy use, and finally reach the advancement of communicative
proficiency. Effective methods of teaching learning strategies are needed to
raise students‘ awareness and increase existing knowledge of language
learning strategy. The finding also provides impetus for teachers to create
appropriate activities that help learners transfer learning strategies into
communicative strategies in the target language.
5. Pedagogical implications
In second language learning contexts, language production skills are
particularly important because students‘ acquisition of speaking and writing
competence is crucial for their success in academic settings. Since learners
would apply their learning strategies into practical speech, it is important to
integrate learning strategy instruction into classroom teaching. As Oxford
(1990) states, to help students learn better, teaching agendas would have to
focus systematically on raising students awareness of language learning
strategies, to highlight the relationship between strategy use and language
learning tasks, and to methodically increase students‘ existing repertoire of
language learning strategies.
O‘Malley & Chamot (1990) outlines a basic structure for teachers to
introduce learning strategies. (1) Preview teaching material and activities to
identify strategies for instruction, (2) present strategy by naming it and
explaining when and why to use it, (3) model the strategy; provide
opportunities to practice the strategy with various activities/tasks, and (4)
develop students‘ ability to evaluate strategy use. As teachers, we first need
to know well how the given techniques can be used in learning process, as a
10. Learning Strategy and Communicative Strategy Use Sun, Mantero, Summers
31
consequence, how they can be transferred to practical production. The
importance lies on our explanation of the strategies‘ roles in language
learning and performance. We need to design authentic and real-life
activities for students to use the learned strategies and make them aware
that how the strategies help them complete the tasks.
With regard to learners of different language proficiencies, instructors should
consider an appropriate time that the instruction of learning strategies can
most effectively be initiated by their students. In a mother tongue setting,
learning strategy instruction can be given from the beginning. As discussed
above, both high and low level learners have already been equipped with
sufficient knowledge concerning their first language and they have the
cognitive and metacognitive abilities to understand the instruction provided.
In a second language setting, such as Chinese learners in the U.S., students
at the initial level of language proficiency may not be able to understand the
language associated with learning strategy instruction. Instructors could
consider delaying the instruction until students have developed sufficient
proficiency to understand the talk about learning strategies. While for
advanced level learners, instructors not only provide introduction of learning
strategies, they create opportunities for learners to apply techniques so as to
link the provided strategies to actual practice.
6. Conclusion
The findings of this study offer practical contributions to understand the
relation between overall L2 language learning strategies and the variation of
language proficiency through analyzing the results from the SILL. The study
also compares learners‘ LLS and their reported communicative strategy use
through reflection after performing identical speaking tasks. The insights
gained from the respondents‘ perspectives provide important information
concerning both the learning strategy and reported speaking strategy used in
oral production for both low and advanced level students. With the help of
the results, Chinese learners of English can evolve a general situation of
their own learning strategy use and come to be aware of the strategies that
they need to conquer or develop in the future in order to fulfill the needs of
speaking tasks. In addition, teachers of English as a second language will
find it useful to understand the process of having students engage in
different types of tasks that facilitate the development of awareness about
the knowledge of learning strategies. They are supposed to integrate
language learning strategy instruction into regular language lessons so as to
help learners to apply learning strategies appropriately. Because of time
constraints and limited number of participants, longitudinal research
involving more participants is needed for the future investigation. What is
more, the participants in this study did not report to use affective or social
communicative strategies; therefore, future studies concerning these two
strategy categories are necessary. Finally, besides the variation of language
proficiency, the impacts of other variables, such as gender, on the relation
between language learning strategy and communicative strategy use are also
worth exploring in the future.
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ISSN:2147-9747
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