Living organisms (even human) evolve to match with the climate or not and geographical distribution (biogeography) opposite to Darwin’s theory or not
This document discusses whether living organisms evolve to match their climate and environment, as Darwin theorized, or if their geographical distributions oppose Darwin's theory of evolution. It provides several arguments against Darwin's view: 1) Plants and animals are beautifully adapted to changing environments but do not evolve in response. 2) When climate changes, organisms migrate to safer areas and later return, rather than evolving new adaptations. 3) If migration is impossible, species will go extinct rather than evolve new traits. 4) The presence of cosmopolitan species in different climates opposes climate influencing evolution.
History and Usefulness of Evolution.pptxMaryam Riasat
Evolution refers to the process of change over generations in organisms through descent with modification. Darwin proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection, where organisms with variations better suited to the environment are more likely to survive and pass on their traits. Evidence for evolution includes fossils showing changes over time, homologous and vestigial structures, biogeography, and molecular biology. Neo-Darwinism integrated genetics and population genetics into an evolutionary synthesis. Evolution explains the diversity of life and relationships between organisms.
Darwin’s theory (current version), human evolution (Physical anthropology) an...MdAbdulAhad26
The objectives of this article are to prove that any kind of evolution is not possible by Darwin’s theory
(current version) i.e. this theory unfits to disturb the Hardy-Weinberg’s Law and modify Mendel’s Laws.
In other words, Hardy-Weinberg’s Law and Mendel’s Laws never support any kind of evolution.
However, Darwin’s theory (current version) is popularly known as Neo-Darwinism/ the new synthesis/
the synthetic theory/the evolutionary synthesis/the modern synthesis/ population genetics/evolutionary
genetics and gene mutation is the main agent of it, which plays the key role of Neo-Darwinism. But all
mutations arise by the errors of DNA replication and damage of DNA. Consequently, it is harmful for all
living organisms; hence about 3,500 diseases (including cancer) are found in humans by a single gene
mutation. Therefore, mutated organisms are least fitted for survival and reproduction, and thus gene
mutation unfits for any kind of evolution. As gene mutation is responsible for the origin of humans
(physical anthropology) from the chimpanzee; so, humans were not evolve from the chimpanzees. If
chimpanzees were evolved into a human, then no chimpanzees could be found in the world. Similarly,
since, evolution is a continuous process, at present, it is occurring rapidly; mutations are constantly
occurring in plants and animals. Consequently, all other organisms have to transfer into another organism
successively and present organisms have to be absent from the earth but not so happen. However, other
agents of Neo-Darwinism are interrelated to mutation and depend on mutations for their actions on the
evolution. Thus, those agents of Neo-Darwinism are also unfit for the evolution of new species. Again, it
is proved separately and repeatedly that other agents of Neo-Darwinism are also unfit for any kind of
evolution. So, albino and double-headed animals are very common in nature, which arise by mutations,
yet an albino or double-headed animal variety/race is developed either naturally or artificially. However,
if a new type arises accidentally by the agent of Neo-Darwinism; but by random mating, it returns to the
original type, and by non-random mating, it produced homozygous organisms and may extinct over time.
Hence, there is no evidence that a species evolved either artificially or naturally. Hence, no evolution
occurs by Neo-Darwinism. So, fossil evidence opposes Neo-Darwinism, and many evolutionary
biologists also reject this theory, which supports the results of the present study. Thus, NeoDarwinism/population genetics (evolutionary genetics) is opposite to any kind of evolution and those
never disturb the Hardy-Weinberg’s Law and could not modify Mendel’s Laws. So, Darwinists oppose
the Neo-Darwinism
Biogeography is the study of the distribution of plant and animal species around the world. The continents were once joined together in a supercontinent called Pangaea, but plate tectonics have caused the continents to slowly drift apart over millions of years, impacting species distribution. Organisms can disperse through various means of transport, such as floating on water, being carried by other organisms like birds, or transported unintentionally by humans. When an organism is introduced to a new location, it faces barriers like physical geography, competition with other species, and differing climate that may limit its ability to spread.
There is very little doubt today among the scientific community that anthropogenic, or human-induced, greenhouse gas pollution has contributed significantly to the global warming. Greenhouse gases are so named because they trap heat and impede its radiation back into the atmosphere, much like the glass panes on a greenhouse does, thus causing a rise in surface temperatures on earth.
Naturalists at Large: Environmental SciencePhat Nattie
The document provides an overview of key concepts in environmental science, including ecology, geology, plants, animals, atmosphere, water cycle, and oceans. It discusses important ecological terms like biotic and abiotic factors, food webs, symbiosis, and biodiversity. Key geology concepts covered include plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanoes, and the three main types of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The document is intended to give readers foundational knowledge of natural science topics for teaching environmental education.
The document discusses evidence that supports evolution through natural selection, including:
1) The fossil record provides evidence that life has changed over long periods of time, with early life forms being vastly different than present-day forms.
2) Artificial selection in breeding programs demonstrates that organisms can change over generations through selective breeding.
3) Homologous structures across different species, like pentadactyl limbs, provide evidence of common ancestry even if the structures have different functions today.
Ecology is the scientific study of organisms `at home' which is called as the `environment'. The term `environment' refers to those parts of the world or the total set of circumstances which surround an organism or a group of organisms.
This summary provides the key information from the document in 3 sentences:
The document summarizes the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, noting that it recognizes climate change as a problem, sets the objective of stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations to prevent dangerous interference with the climate system, and directs that this be achieved within a timeframe that allows ecosystems and food production to adapt while allowing sustainable economic development.
History and Usefulness of Evolution.pptxMaryam Riasat
Evolution refers to the process of change over generations in organisms through descent with modification. Darwin proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection, where organisms with variations better suited to the environment are more likely to survive and pass on their traits. Evidence for evolution includes fossils showing changes over time, homologous and vestigial structures, biogeography, and molecular biology. Neo-Darwinism integrated genetics and population genetics into an evolutionary synthesis. Evolution explains the diversity of life and relationships between organisms.
Darwin’s theory (current version), human evolution (Physical anthropology) an...MdAbdulAhad26
The objectives of this article are to prove that any kind of evolution is not possible by Darwin’s theory
(current version) i.e. this theory unfits to disturb the Hardy-Weinberg’s Law and modify Mendel’s Laws.
In other words, Hardy-Weinberg’s Law and Mendel’s Laws never support any kind of evolution.
However, Darwin’s theory (current version) is popularly known as Neo-Darwinism/ the new synthesis/
the synthetic theory/the evolutionary synthesis/the modern synthesis/ population genetics/evolutionary
genetics and gene mutation is the main agent of it, which plays the key role of Neo-Darwinism. But all
mutations arise by the errors of DNA replication and damage of DNA. Consequently, it is harmful for all
living organisms; hence about 3,500 diseases (including cancer) are found in humans by a single gene
mutation. Therefore, mutated organisms are least fitted for survival and reproduction, and thus gene
mutation unfits for any kind of evolution. As gene mutation is responsible for the origin of humans
(physical anthropology) from the chimpanzee; so, humans were not evolve from the chimpanzees. If
chimpanzees were evolved into a human, then no chimpanzees could be found in the world. Similarly,
since, evolution is a continuous process, at present, it is occurring rapidly; mutations are constantly
occurring in plants and animals. Consequently, all other organisms have to transfer into another organism
successively and present organisms have to be absent from the earth but not so happen. However, other
agents of Neo-Darwinism are interrelated to mutation and depend on mutations for their actions on the
evolution. Thus, those agents of Neo-Darwinism are also unfit for the evolution of new species. Again, it
is proved separately and repeatedly that other agents of Neo-Darwinism are also unfit for any kind of
evolution. So, albino and double-headed animals are very common in nature, which arise by mutations,
yet an albino or double-headed animal variety/race is developed either naturally or artificially. However,
if a new type arises accidentally by the agent of Neo-Darwinism; but by random mating, it returns to the
original type, and by non-random mating, it produced homozygous organisms and may extinct over time.
Hence, there is no evidence that a species evolved either artificially or naturally. Hence, no evolution
occurs by Neo-Darwinism. So, fossil evidence opposes Neo-Darwinism, and many evolutionary
biologists also reject this theory, which supports the results of the present study. Thus, NeoDarwinism/population genetics (evolutionary genetics) is opposite to any kind of evolution and those
never disturb the Hardy-Weinberg’s Law and could not modify Mendel’s Laws. So, Darwinists oppose
the Neo-Darwinism
Biogeography is the study of the distribution of plant and animal species around the world. The continents were once joined together in a supercontinent called Pangaea, but plate tectonics have caused the continents to slowly drift apart over millions of years, impacting species distribution. Organisms can disperse through various means of transport, such as floating on water, being carried by other organisms like birds, or transported unintentionally by humans. When an organism is introduced to a new location, it faces barriers like physical geography, competition with other species, and differing climate that may limit its ability to spread.
There is very little doubt today among the scientific community that anthropogenic, or human-induced, greenhouse gas pollution has contributed significantly to the global warming. Greenhouse gases are so named because they trap heat and impede its radiation back into the atmosphere, much like the glass panes on a greenhouse does, thus causing a rise in surface temperatures on earth.
Naturalists at Large: Environmental SciencePhat Nattie
The document provides an overview of key concepts in environmental science, including ecology, geology, plants, animals, atmosphere, water cycle, and oceans. It discusses important ecological terms like biotic and abiotic factors, food webs, symbiosis, and biodiversity. Key geology concepts covered include plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanoes, and the three main types of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The document is intended to give readers foundational knowledge of natural science topics for teaching environmental education.
The document discusses evidence that supports evolution through natural selection, including:
1) The fossil record provides evidence that life has changed over long periods of time, with early life forms being vastly different than present-day forms.
2) Artificial selection in breeding programs demonstrates that organisms can change over generations through selective breeding.
3) Homologous structures across different species, like pentadactyl limbs, provide evidence of common ancestry even if the structures have different functions today.
Ecology is the scientific study of organisms `at home' which is called as the `environment'. The term `environment' refers to those parts of the world or the total set of circumstances which surround an organism or a group of organisms.
This summary provides the key information from the document in 3 sentences:
The document summarizes the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, noting that it recognizes climate change as a problem, sets the objective of stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations to prevent dangerous interference with the climate system, and directs that this be achieved within a timeframe that allows ecosystems and food production to adapt while allowing sustainable economic development.
Environmental determinism and possibilismAmstrongofori
Human-environment relationships involve how people use and are limited by their environment. There are three main aspects of this relationship:
1) Humans depend on the environment for survival.
2) Humans adapt to environmental conditions.
3) Humans modify their environment.
This document summarizes several research papers on how weather and climate affect animals. It discusses how temperature changes can impact cold-blooded animals and endangered species. Many animals experience discomfort during extreme heat or cold. The document also reviews how weather influences animal reproduction, metabolism, and corticosterone levels. One study found that weather had little impact on coyote health but more research is needed. Overall, the document analyzes how climate change and environmental conditions significantly impact animal populations and survival.
1) The document discusses the relationship between climate change and biodiversity.
2) Climate change is causing rising global temperatures through greenhouse gas emissions, which leads to consequences like rising sea levels and disrupted food systems.
3) Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth and is threatened by climate change impacts like worsening habitats and spreading diseases. Maintaining biodiversity through conservation efforts is important for human survival.
This document provides an overview of the historical development of the theory of evolution. It discusses pre-Darwinian thinkers like Jean Baptiste Lamarck and his theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics. It also mentions the contributions of Charles Lyell and his theory of uniformitarianism. The bulk of the document focuses on Charles Darwin and the influence of his voyage on the Beagle, particularly his observations of the Galapagos finches. It outlines Darwin's subsequent development of the theory of natural selection and publication of On the Origin of Species. Finally, it briefly discusses other scientists like Alfred Russel Wallace, Ernst Haeckel, and their role in further developing evolutionary thought, culminating in the modern synthesis of evolution.
Delivered this as talk series on Evolution to some of my colleagues interested in systems thinking. It was a great learning for me and will incorporate it into a sequel later.
Updates:
1. Version 2013.11.23 - Reorganized some slides, added images and credits
2. Version 2013.11.25 - Reorganized presentation around three aspects. Added better intro.
3. Version 2013.11.26 - Updated implications aspect for global warming and behavioral sink.
4. Version 2013.11.27 - Updated taxonomy discussion.
5. V 2013.12.05 - Updated natural selection, convergent evolution and punctuated equilibrium. Reorg of slides.
6. V 2013.12.16 - Added chaos and self-organization slides.
7. V 2013.12.21 - Added extinctions and explosions.
8. V2013.12.23 - Added more chaos explanation and Wikipedia logo.
9. V2014.05.05 - Corrected spelling mistakes and cleaned up slides.
This document summarizes Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. It describes how Darwin began to question the prevailing ideas that species were fixed and the Earth was relatively young during his voyage on the HMS Beagle. Through his observations of organisms around the world, fossils, and influences from scientists like Lyell and Malthus, Darwin developed the theory that species evolve over time through natural selection, where individuals with traits best suited to their environment are more likely to survive and pass on their genes. The document outlines some of the evidence that has accumulated in support of evolution, including the fossil record, geographic distribution of species, homologous structures, similarities in development, and molecular biology.
Punctuated equilibrium theory represents shifting balance theory (of macro an...MdAbdulAhad26
The objectives of this article are that to prove punctuated equilibrium theory represents shifting balance
theory and these two theories declared invalid Darwin’s theory and Neo-Darwinian theory and those are
true fact: Because all features of both theories are same- i) Genetic drift play the key role of both
theories. ii) Both theories advocated evolution progresses rapidly in a small and isolated population with
rapid evolution after long period of stasis without the help of Darwin’s theory. iii) Both theories
advocated allopatric speciation, macroevolution, quantum evolution and species selection. iv) Fossil is
the only evidence of both theories. Additionally, those theories declared invalid Darwin’s theory and
Neo-Darwinian theory. As a result, if anyone proves that genetic drift unable to produce new species or
rejected shifting balance theory and fossil does not support macroevolution but support gradual
evolution; then punctuated equilibrium theory even allopatric speciation theory would be invalid
automatically.
Keywords: Mac
Jefferson__Human Existence and impacts on the EarthRonald Jefferson
This document discusses how humans have evolved as an adaptive species over 200,000 years, originally in Africa, and then migrated throughout the world. While humans' will to survive has allowed the species to thrive, certain human activities like burning fossil fuels and deforestation are negatively impacting the earth's climate. Burning coal and oil releases greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, trapping heat and increasing global temperatures. Climate change poses challenges for humans and ecosystems. Some human adaptations to climate change include using renewable energy and conserving resources, but reducing greenhouse gas emissions will be important for long-term sustainability.
Charles Darwin developed the theory of evolution by natural selection based on observations he made during a 5-year voyage on the HMS Beagle. His theory proposed that all species share a common ancestor and evolve over time through gradual processes of variation, competition for limited resources, and natural selection of beneficial traits. Key evidence came from studies of finches and tortoises on the Galapagos Islands which had adapted in different ways on different islands. Darwin's theory revolutionized scientific understanding of the diversity and relatedness of life on Earth.
Genetic drift represents the punctuated equilibrium theory, the shifting balance theory, the allopatric speciation theory, the
species selection theory and work in small isolated populations. Those theories advocated that all plants and animals man arose
through macroevolution. However, genetic drift and small isolated populations are the key factors of those theories. But
genetic drift loses/changes the gene frequency randomly, which are very harmful to any organism and thus could not produce
any new species. Again, drift unfits to create any variation (raw material of evolution). Again, small isolated populations and
produce homozygous organisms. Those organisms have low fecundity, suffer from various disease, least fitted to survive and
may extinct suddenly, e.g. American heath hen. Thus, any kind of evolution is quite impossible through those theories.
Therefore, biologists rejected the genetic drift, shifting balance theory (a condition to declare invalid of those theories) and
also the punctuated equilibrium theory as the theory of evolution. Again, the fossil is the only evidence of those theories but
fossil opposes macroevolution (another condition to declare invalid of those theories) but support the gradual evolution.
Moreover, evolution is reasonably absurd by the extinction of living organism. Consequently, those theories are invalid and no
one plant and animal including human arose through those theories. Hence, Darwinists, Neo-Darwinists and Sociobiology’s
oppose those theories.
1. Charles Darwin was a British naturalist who developed the theory of evolution by natural selection while traveling around the world on the HMS Beagle from 1831-1836.
2. In 1859, Darwin published On the Origin of Species, which introduced the scientific theory that populations evolve over successive generations through a process of natural selection, in which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce at a higher rate.
3. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection was highly controversial at the time due to its conflict with religious beliefs, but it established the modern framework of evolutionary biology and revolutionized scientific thought.
I: Evolution
If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants.
-- Sir Isaac Newton
1
Theories in Science
In the context of scientific inquiry, a theory is:
A conceptual framework supported by a large body of evidence
Broader in scope than a hypothesis. A theory ties information together and leads to specific testable hypotheses
In other words, a theory is a big deal in science, NOT a synonym for guessing
2
2
3
(This used to be a joke, but I’m not laughing anymore.)
3
Historical Overview
What can explain both the unity and diversity of life on Earth?
Organic evolution: genetically based change over time. It acts on individuals in the present, but only manifests in the population over generations.
Natural Selection: mechanism causing the match between organisms and their environment (adaptive evolution = adaptation)
4
4
Traditional views involved unchanging and perfect species inhabiting a young Earth (Old Testament, Linnaeus, etc.)
The emergence of paleontology and geology helped lay the groundwork for Darwin’s contributions
Other areas of research also influenced his thinking, including studies on human population growth
6
6
Fig. 22-2
American Revolution
French Revolution
U.S. Civil War
1900
1850
1800
1750
1795
1809
1798
1830
1831–1836
1837
1859
1837
1844
1858
The Origin of Species is published.
Wallace sends his hypothesis to Darwin.
Darwin begins his notebooks.
Darwin writes essay on descent with modification.
Darwin travels around the world on HMS Beagle.
Malthus publishes “Essay on the Principle of Population.”
Lyell publishes Principles of Geology.
Lamarck publishes his hypothesis of evolution.
Hutton proposes his theory of gradualism.
Linnaeus (classification)
Cuvier (fossils, extinction)
Malthus (population limits)
Lamarck (species can change)
Hutton (gradual geologic change)
Lyell (modern geology)
Darwin (evolution, natural selection)
Wallace (evolution, natural selection)
7
7
Younger stratum
with more recent
fossils
Layers of deposited
sediment
Older stratum
with older fossils
8
8
Several 18th century naturalists (including Erasmus Darwin) suggested life evolves as environments change
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck hypothesized that species evolve through use and disuse of body parts and subsequent inheritance of acquired characteristics
This mechanism is unsupported by evidence (e.g., even if you and your mate lost the same finger, your children would still be born with all ten), but it did refocus subsequent research
Lamarck’s Hypothesis
9
9
10
The miniature phenotype of Bonsai trees is caused by manipulations of a bonsai master, not genetics. Would the next generation still be stunted if we planted their seeds and allowed them to grow naturally?
11
12
After first studying medicine, then theology at Cambridge, Darwin took an unpaid position as naturalist for a 5-year voyage around the world
During his travels on HMS Beagle, he collected thousa ...
Global climate change is increasing the prevalence and severity of bacterial diseases by altering ecosystems in ways that benefit disease-carrying organisms. Rising temperatures expand suitable habitats for disease vectors like mosquitoes and ticks, allowing diseases to spread into new areas. Climate change also influences disease transmission cycles - for example, some parasites now complete their life cycles faster. These changes are having significant impacts, including the potential introduction of new parasites into freshwater ecosystems like the Great Lakes, posing health risks to both wildlife and humans. Effective monitoring and predictive modeling are needed to understand and address how climate change continues to influence infectious diseases worldwide.
The document discusses patterns in nature at various scales from geological processes that form landscapes to ecological patterns like nutrient cycling and succession. It notes how patterns are constantly changing in response to disturbances from forces like climate change. While natural disturbances are usually temporary, human impacts are often permanent and disruptive to natural patterns. Maintaining biodiversity is important for ecosystem resilience against environmental changes.
Theories of evolution other than modern synthetic theoryzaidMahmood10
1. The document discusses several theories of evolution other than modern synthetic theory, including Lamarckism, Darwinism, and the mutation theory.
2. Lamarckism proposed that acquired characteristics can be inherited and that use and disuse of organs leads to the formation of new species. Darwinism proposed natural selection and the survival of the fittest. The mutation theory proposed discontinuous evolution through large mutations.
3. Each theory has evidence supporting it but also has criticisms, and no single theory could fully explain the mechanisms of evolution.
Evolution and Its ProcessesFigure 1 Diversity of Life on Eart.docxturveycharlyn
Evolution and Its Processes
Figure 1: Diversity of Life on Earth
The diversity of life on Earth is the result of evolution, a continuous process that is still occurring.
“wolf”: modification of work by Gary Kramer, USFWS; “coral”: modification of work by William Harrigan, NOAA; “river”: modification of work by Vojtěch Dostál; “protozoa”: modification of work by Sharon Franklin, Stephen Ausmus, USDA ARS; “fish” modification of work by Christian Mehlführer; “mushroom”, “bee”: modification of work by Cory Zanker; “tree”: modification of work by Joseph Kranak
Chapter Outline
1. Discovering How Populations Change
2. Mechanisms of Evolution
3. Evidence of Evolution
4. Speciation
5. Common Misconceptions about Evolution
Introduction
All species of living organisms—from the bacteria on our skin, to the trees in our yards, to the birds outside—evolved at some point from a different species. Although it may seem that living things today stay much the same from generation to generation, that is not the case: evolution is ongoing. Evolution is the process through which the characteristics of species change and through which new species arise.
The theory of evolution is the unifying theory of biology, meaning it is the framework within which biologists ask questions about the living world. Its power is that it provides direction for predictions about living things that are borne out in experiment after experiment. The Ukrainian-born American geneticist Theodosius Dobzhansky famously wrote that "nothing makes sense in biology except in the light of evolution" (Dobzhansky 1964, 449). He meant that the principle that all life has evolved and diversified from a common ancestor is the foundation from which we understand all other questions in biology. This chapter will explain some of the mechanisms for evolutionary change and the kinds of questions that biologists can and have answered using evolutionary theory.
Discovering How Populations Change
By the end of this section, you will bbe able to:
· Explain how Darwin’s theory of evolution differed from the current view at the time.
· Describe how the present-day theory of evolution was developed.
· Describe how population genetics is used to study the evolution of populations
The theory of evolution by natural selection describes a mechanism for species change over time. That species change had been suggested and debated well before Darwin. The view that species were static and unchanging was grounded in the writings of Plato, yet there were also ancient Greeks that expressed evolutionary ideas.
In the eighteenth century, ideas about the evolution of animals were reintroduced by the naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon and even by Charles Darwin’s grandfather, Erasmus Darwin. During this time, it was also accepted that there were extinct species. At the same time, James Hutton, the Scottish naturalist, proposed that geological change occurred gradually by the accumulation of small changes from pr.
Charles Darwin published evidence of evolution in 1859. He proposed that natural selection causes populations to change over generations in response to their environment, resulting in adaptation and the diversity of life on Earth. Most scientists now accept evolution as the basis for this diversity based on decades of observations, experiments, and evidence like fossils showing links between ancient and modern species.
Charles Darwin published evidence in 1859 that evolution occurs through natural selection. He observed that the plants and animals on the Galapagos Islands resembled those on the nearby coast of South America but were distinct species. Darwin proposed that individuals with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those advantageous traits and gradually changing populations over time through evolution. The fossil record and comparisons of anatomy and DNA provide evidence that all living things share common ancestry and have evolved from earlier life forms over billions of years. Examples of natural selection include the evolution of antibiotic resistant tuberculosis strains and Darwin's finches developing different beak sizes and shapes based on available food sources.
Similar to Living organisms (even human) evolve to match with the climate or not and geographical distribution (biogeography) opposite to Darwin’s theory or not
Environmental determinism and possibilismAmstrongofori
Human-environment relationships involve how people use and are limited by their environment. There are three main aspects of this relationship:
1) Humans depend on the environment for survival.
2) Humans adapt to environmental conditions.
3) Humans modify their environment.
This document summarizes several research papers on how weather and climate affect animals. It discusses how temperature changes can impact cold-blooded animals and endangered species. Many animals experience discomfort during extreme heat or cold. The document also reviews how weather influences animal reproduction, metabolism, and corticosterone levels. One study found that weather had little impact on coyote health but more research is needed. Overall, the document analyzes how climate change and environmental conditions significantly impact animal populations and survival.
1) The document discusses the relationship between climate change and biodiversity.
2) Climate change is causing rising global temperatures through greenhouse gas emissions, which leads to consequences like rising sea levels and disrupted food systems.
3) Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth and is threatened by climate change impacts like worsening habitats and spreading diseases. Maintaining biodiversity through conservation efforts is important for human survival.
This document provides an overview of the historical development of the theory of evolution. It discusses pre-Darwinian thinkers like Jean Baptiste Lamarck and his theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics. It also mentions the contributions of Charles Lyell and his theory of uniformitarianism. The bulk of the document focuses on Charles Darwin and the influence of his voyage on the Beagle, particularly his observations of the Galapagos finches. It outlines Darwin's subsequent development of the theory of natural selection and publication of On the Origin of Species. Finally, it briefly discusses other scientists like Alfred Russel Wallace, Ernst Haeckel, and their role in further developing evolutionary thought, culminating in the modern synthesis of evolution.
Delivered this as talk series on Evolution to some of my colleagues interested in systems thinking. It was a great learning for me and will incorporate it into a sequel later.
Updates:
1. Version 2013.11.23 - Reorganized some slides, added images and credits
2. Version 2013.11.25 - Reorganized presentation around three aspects. Added better intro.
3. Version 2013.11.26 - Updated implications aspect for global warming and behavioral sink.
4. Version 2013.11.27 - Updated taxonomy discussion.
5. V 2013.12.05 - Updated natural selection, convergent evolution and punctuated equilibrium. Reorg of slides.
6. V 2013.12.16 - Added chaos and self-organization slides.
7. V 2013.12.21 - Added extinctions and explosions.
8. V2013.12.23 - Added more chaos explanation and Wikipedia logo.
9. V2014.05.05 - Corrected spelling mistakes and cleaned up slides.
This document summarizes Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. It describes how Darwin began to question the prevailing ideas that species were fixed and the Earth was relatively young during his voyage on the HMS Beagle. Through his observations of organisms around the world, fossils, and influences from scientists like Lyell and Malthus, Darwin developed the theory that species evolve over time through natural selection, where individuals with traits best suited to their environment are more likely to survive and pass on their genes. The document outlines some of the evidence that has accumulated in support of evolution, including the fossil record, geographic distribution of species, homologous structures, similarities in development, and molecular biology.
Punctuated equilibrium theory represents shifting balance theory (of macro an...MdAbdulAhad26
The objectives of this article are that to prove punctuated equilibrium theory represents shifting balance
theory and these two theories declared invalid Darwin’s theory and Neo-Darwinian theory and those are
true fact: Because all features of both theories are same- i) Genetic drift play the key role of both
theories. ii) Both theories advocated evolution progresses rapidly in a small and isolated population with
rapid evolution after long period of stasis without the help of Darwin’s theory. iii) Both theories
advocated allopatric speciation, macroevolution, quantum evolution and species selection. iv) Fossil is
the only evidence of both theories. Additionally, those theories declared invalid Darwin’s theory and
Neo-Darwinian theory. As a result, if anyone proves that genetic drift unable to produce new species or
rejected shifting balance theory and fossil does not support macroevolution but support gradual
evolution; then punctuated equilibrium theory even allopatric speciation theory would be invalid
automatically.
Keywords: Mac
Jefferson__Human Existence and impacts on the EarthRonald Jefferson
This document discusses how humans have evolved as an adaptive species over 200,000 years, originally in Africa, and then migrated throughout the world. While humans' will to survive has allowed the species to thrive, certain human activities like burning fossil fuels and deforestation are negatively impacting the earth's climate. Burning coal and oil releases greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, trapping heat and increasing global temperatures. Climate change poses challenges for humans and ecosystems. Some human adaptations to climate change include using renewable energy and conserving resources, but reducing greenhouse gas emissions will be important for long-term sustainability.
Charles Darwin developed the theory of evolution by natural selection based on observations he made during a 5-year voyage on the HMS Beagle. His theory proposed that all species share a common ancestor and evolve over time through gradual processes of variation, competition for limited resources, and natural selection of beneficial traits. Key evidence came from studies of finches and tortoises on the Galapagos Islands which had adapted in different ways on different islands. Darwin's theory revolutionized scientific understanding of the diversity and relatedness of life on Earth.
Genetic drift represents the punctuated equilibrium theory, the shifting balance theory, the allopatric speciation theory, the
species selection theory and work in small isolated populations. Those theories advocated that all plants and animals man arose
through macroevolution. However, genetic drift and small isolated populations are the key factors of those theories. But
genetic drift loses/changes the gene frequency randomly, which are very harmful to any organism and thus could not produce
any new species. Again, drift unfits to create any variation (raw material of evolution). Again, small isolated populations and
produce homozygous organisms. Those organisms have low fecundity, suffer from various disease, least fitted to survive and
may extinct suddenly, e.g. American heath hen. Thus, any kind of evolution is quite impossible through those theories.
Therefore, biologists rejected the genetic drift, shifting balance theory (a condition to declare invalid of those theories) and
also the punctuated equilibrium theory as the theory of evolution. Again, the fossil is the only evidence of those theories but
fossil opposes macroevolution (another condition to declare invalid of those theories) but support the gradual evolution.
Moreover, evolution is reasonably absurd by the extinction of living organism. Consequently, those theories are invalid and no
one plant and animal including human arose through those theories. Hence, Darwinists, Neo-Darwinists and Sociobiology’s
oppose those theories.
1. Charles Darwin was a British naturalist who developed the theory of evolution by natural selection while traveling around the world on the HMS Beagle from 1831-1836.
2. In 1859, Darwin published On the Origin of Species, which introduced the scientific theory that populations evolve over successive generations through a process of natural selection, in which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce at a higher rate.
3. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection was highly controversial at the time due to its conflict with religious beliefs, but it established the modern framework of evolutionary biology and revolutionized scientific thought.
I: Evolution
If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants.
-- Sir Isaac Newton
1
Theories in Science
In the context of scientific inquiry, a theory is:
A conceptual framework supported by a large body of evidence
Broader in scope than a hypothesis. A theory ties information together and leads to specific testable hypotheses
In other words, a theory is a big deal in science, NOT a synonym for guessing
2
2
3
(This used to be a joke, but I’m not laughing anymore.)
3
Historical Overview
What can explain both the unity and diversity of life on Earth?
Organic evolution: genetically based change over time. It acts on individuals in the present, but only manifests in the population over generations.
Natural Selection: mechanism causing the match between organisms and their environment (adaptive evolution = adaptation)
4
4
Traditional views involved unchanging and perfect species inhabiting a young Earth (Old Testament, Linnaeus, etc.)
The emergence of paleontology and geology helped lay the groundwork for Darwin’s contributions
Other areas of research also influenced his thinking, including studies on human population growth
6
6
Fig. 22-2
American Revolution
French Revolution
U.S. Civil War
1900
1850
1800
1750
1795
1809
1798
1830
1831–1836
1837
1859
1837
1844
1858
The Origin of Species is published.
Wallace sends his hypothesis to Darwin.
Darwin begins his notebooks.
Darwin writes essay on descent with modification.
Darwin travels around the world on HMS Beagle.
Malthus publishes “Essay on the Principle of Population.”
Lyell publishes Principles of Geology.
Lamarck publishes his hypothesis of evolution.
Hutton proposes his theory of gradualism.
Linnaeus (classification)
Cuvier (fossils, extinction)
Malthus (population limits)
Lamarck (species can change)
Hutton (gradual geologic change)
Lyell (modern geology)
Darwin (evolution, natural selection)
Wallace (evolution, natural selection)
7
7
Younger stratum
with more recent
fossils
Layers of deposited
sediment
Older stratum
with older fossils
8
8
Several 18th century naturalists (including Erasmus Darwin) suggested life evolves as environments change
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck hypothesized that species evolve through use and disuse of body parts and subsequent inheritance of acquired characteristics
This mechanism is unsupported by evidence (e.g., even if you and your mate lost the same finger, your children would still be born with all ten), but it did refocus subsequent research
Lamarck’s Hypothesis
9
9
10
The miniature phenotype of Bonsai trees is caused by manipulations of a bonsai master, not genetics. Would the next generation still be stunted if we planted their seeds and allowed them to grow naturally?
11
12
After first studying medicine, then theology at Cambridge, Darwin took an unpaid position as naturalist for a 5-year voyage around the world
During his travels on HMS Beagle, he collected thousa ...
Global climate change is increasing the prevalence and severity of bacterial diseases by altering ecosystems in ways that benefit disease-carrying organisms. Rising temperatures expand suitable habitats for disease vectors like mosquitoes and ticks, allowing diseases to spread into new areas. Climate change also influences disease transmission cycles - for example, some parasites now complete their life cycles faster. These changes are having significant impacts, including the potential introduction of new parasites into freshwater ecosystems like the Great Lakes, posing health risks to both wildlife and humans. Effective monitoring and predictive modeling are needed to understand and address how climate change continues to influence infectious diseases worldwide.
The document discusses patterns in nature at various scales from geological processes that form landscapes to ecological patterns like nutrient cycling and succession. It notes how patterns are constantly changing in response to disturbances from forces like climate change. While natural disturbances are usually temporary, human impacts are often permanent and disruptive to natural patterns. Maintaining biodiversity is important for ecosystem resilience against environmental changes.
Theories of evolution other than modern synthetic theoryzaidMahmood10
1. The document discusses several theories of evolution other than modern synthetic theory, including Lamarckism, Darwinism, and the mutation theory.
2. Lamarckism proposed that acquired characteristics can be inherited and that use and disuse of organs leads to the formation of new species. Darwinism proposed natural selection and the survival of the fittest. The mutation theory proposed discontinuous evolution through large mutations.
3. Each theory has evidence supporting it but also has criticisms, and no single theory could fully explain the mechanisms of evolution.
Evolution and Its ProcessesFigure 1 Diversity of Life on Eart.docxturveycharlyn
Evolution and Its Processes
Figure 1: Diversity of Life on Earth
The diversity of life on Earth is the result of evolution, a continuous process that is still occurring.
“wolf”: modification of work by Gary Kramer, USFWS; “coral”: modification of work by William Harrigan, NOAA; “river”: modification of work by Vojtěch Dostál; “protozoa”: modification of work by Sharon Franklin, Stephen Ausmus, USDA ARS; “fish” modification of work by Christian Mehlführer; “mushroom”, “bee”: modification of work by Cory Zanker; “tree”: modification of work by Joseph Kranak
Chapter Outline
1. Discovering How Populations Change
2. Mechanisms of Evolution
3. Evidence of Evolution
4. Speciation
5. Common Misconceptions about Evolution
Introduction
All species of living organisms—from the bacteria on our skin, to the trees in our yards, to the birds outside—evolved at some point from a different species. Although it may seem that living things today stay much the same from generation to generation, that is not the case: evolution is ongoing. Evolution is the process through which the characteristics of species change and through which new species arise.
The theory of evolution is the unifying theory of biology, meaning it is the framework within which biologists ask questions about the living world. Its power is that it provides direction for predictions about living things that are borne out in experiment after experiment. The Ukrainian-born American geneticist Theodosius Dobzhansky famously wrote that "nothing makes sense in biology except in the light of evolution" (Dobzhansky 1964, 449). He meant that the principle that all life has evolved and diversified from a common ancestor is the foundation from which we understand all other questions in biology. This chapter will explain some of the mechanisms for evolutionary change and the kinds of questions that biologists can and have answered using evolutionary theory.
Discovering How Populations Change
By the end of this section, you will bbe able to:
· Explain how Darwin’s theory of evolution differed from the current view at the time.
· Describe how the present-day theory of evolution was developed.
· Describe how population genetics is used to study the evolution of populations
The theory of evolution by natural selection describes a mechanism for species change over time. That species change had been suggested and debated well before Darwin. The view that species were static and unchanging was grounded in the writings of Plato, yet there were also ancient Greeks that expressed evolutionary ideas.
In the eighteenth century, ideas about the evolution of animals were reintroduced by the naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon and even by Charles Darwin’s grandfather, Erasmus Darwin. During this time, it was also accepted that there were extinct species. At the same time, James Hutton, the Scottish naturalist, proposed that geological change occurred gradually by the accumulation of small changes from pr.
Charles Darwin published evidence of evolution in 1859. He proposed that natural selection causes populations to change over generations in response to their environment, resulting in adaptation and the diversity of life on Earth. Most scientists now accept evolution as the basis for this diversity based on decades of observations, experiments, and evidence like fossils showing links between ancient and modern species.
Charles Darwin published evidence in 1859 that evolution occurs through natural selection. He observed that the plants and animals on the Galapagos Islands resembled those on the nearby coast of South America but were distinct species. Darwin proposed that individuals with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those advantageous traits and gradually changing populations over time through evolution. The fossil record and comparisons of anatomy and DNA provide evidence that all living things share common ancestry and have evolved from earlier life forms over billions of years. Examples of natural selection include the evolution of antibiotic resistant tuberculosis strains and Darwin's finches developing different beak sizes and shapes based on available food sources.
Similar to Living organisms (even human) evolve to match with the climate or not and geographical distribution (biogeography) opposite to Darwin’s theory or not (20)
Microbial interaction
Microorganisms interacts with each other and can be physically associated with another organisms in a variety of ways.
One organism can be located on the surface of another organism as an ectobiont or located within another organism as endobiont.
Microbial interaction may be positive such as mutualism, proto-cooperation, commensalism or may be negative such as parasitism, predation or competition
Types of microbial interaction
Positive interaction: mutualism, proto-cooperation, commensalism
Negative interaction: Ammensalism (antagonism), parasitism, predation, competition
I. Mutualism:
It is defined as the relationship in which each organism in interaction gets benefits from association. It is an obligatory relationship in which mutualist and host are metabolically dependent on each other.
Mutualistic relationship is very specific where one member of association cannot be replaced by another species.
Mutualism require close physical contact between interacting organisms.
Relationship of mutualism allows organisms to exist in habitat that could not occupied by either species alone.
Mutualistic relationship between organisms allows them to act as a single organism.
Examples of mutualism:
i. Lichens:
Lichens are excellent example of mutualism.
They are the association of specific fungi and certain genus of algae. In lichen, fungal partner is called mycobiont and algal partner is called
II. Syntrophism:
It is an association in which the growth of one organism either depends on or improved by the substrate provided by another organism.
In syntrophism both organism in association gets benefits.
Compound A
Utilized by population 1
Compound B
Utilized by population 2
Compound C
utilized by both Population 1+2
Products
In this theoretical example of syntrophism, population 1 is able to utilize and metabolize compound A, forming compound B but cannot metabolize beyond compound B without co-operation of population 2. Population 2is unable to utilize compound A but it can metabolize compound B forming compound C. Then both population 1 and 2 are able to carry out metabolic reaction which leads to formation of end product that neither population could produce alone.
Examples of syntrophism:
i. Methanogenic ecosystem in sludge digester
Methane produced by methanogenic bacteria depends upon interspecies hydrogen transfer by other fermentative bacteria.
Anaerobic fermentative bacteria generate CO2 and H2 utilizing carbohydrates which is then utilized by methanogenic bacteria (Methanobacter) to produce methane.
ii. Lactobacillus arobinosus and Enterococcus faecalis:
In the minimal media, Lactobacillus arobinosus and Enterococcus faecalis are able to grow together but not alone.
The synergistic relationship between E. faecalis and L. arobinosus occurs in which E. faecalis require folic acid
SDSS1335+0728: The awakening of a ∼ 106M⊙ black hole⋆Sérgio Sacani
Context. The early-type galaxy SDSS J133519.91+072807.4 (hereafter SDSS1335+0728), which had exhibited no prior optical variations during the preceding two decades, began showing significant nuclear variability in the Zwicky Transient Facility (ZTF) alert stream from December 2019 (as ZTF19acnskyy). This variability behaviour, coupled with the host-galaxy properties, suggests that SDSS1335+0728 hosts a ∼ 106M⊙ black hole (BH) that is currently in the process of ‘turning on’. Aims. We present a multi-wavelength photometric analysis and spectroscopic follow-up performed with the aim of better understanding the origin of the nuclear variations detected in SDSS1335+0728. Methods. We used archival photometry (from WISE, 2MASS, SDSS, GALEX, eROSITA) and spectroscopic data (from SDSS and LAMOST) to study the state of SDSS1335+0728 prior to December 2019, and new observations from Swift, SOAR/Goodman, VLT/X-shooter, and Keck/LRIS taken after its turn-on to characterise its current state. We analysed the variability of SDSS1335+0728 in the X-ray/UV/optical/mid-infrared range, modelled its spectral energy distribution prior to and after December 2019, and studied the evolution of its UV/optical spectra. Results. From our multi-wavelength photometric analysis, we find that: (a) since 2021, the UV flux (from Swift/UVOT observations) is four times brighter than the flux reported by GALEX in 2004; (b) since June 2022, the mid-infrared flux has risen more than two times, and the W1−W2 WISE colour has become redder; and (c) since February 2024, the source has begun showing X-ray emission. From our spectroscopic follow-up, we see that (i) the narrow emission line ratios are now consistent with a more energetic ionising continuum; (ii) broad emission lines are not detected; and (iii) the [OIII] line increased its flux ∼ 3.6 years after the first ZTF alert, which implies a relatively compact narrow-line-emitting region. Conclusions. We conclude that the variations observed in SDSS1335+0728 could be either explained by a ∼ 106M⊙ AGN that is just turning on or by an exotic tidal disruption event (TDE). If the former is true, SDSS1335+0728 is one of the strongest cases of an AGNobserved in the process of activating. If the latter were found to be the case, it would correspond to the longest and faintest TDE ever observed (or another class of still unknown nuclear transient). Future observations of SDSS1335+0728 are crucial to further understand its behaviour. Key words. galaxies: active– accretion, accretion discs– galaxies: individual: SDSS J133519.91+072807.4
Signatures of wave erosion in Titan’s coastsSérgio Sacani
The shorelines of Titan’s hydrocarbon seas trace flooded erosional landforms such as river valleys; however, it isunclear whether coastal erosion has subsequently altered these shorelines. Spacecraft observations and theo-retical models suggest that wind may cause waves to form on Titan’s seas, potentially driving coastal erosion,but the observational evidence of waves is indirect, and the processes affecting shoreline evolution on Titanremain unknown. No widely accepted framework exists for using shoreline morphology to quantitatively dis-cern coastal erosion mechanisms, even on Earth, where the dominant mechanisms are known. We combinelandscape evolution models with measurements of shoreline shape on Earth to characterize how differentcoastal erosion mechanisms affect shoreline morphology. Applying this framework to Titan, we find that theshorelines of Titan’s seas are most consistent with flooded landscapes that subsequently have been eroded bywaves, rather than a uniform erosional process or no coastal erosion, particularly if wave growth saturates atfetch lengths of tens of kilometers.
Compositions of iron-meteorite parent bodies constrainthe structure of the pr...Sérgio Sacani
Magmatic iron-meteorite parent bodies are the earliest planetesimals in the Solar System,and they preserve information about conditions and planet-forming processes in thesolar nebula. In this study, we include comprehensive elemental compositions andfractional-crystallization modeling for iron meteorites from the cores of five differenti-ated asteroids from the inner Solar System. Together with previous results of metalliccores from the outer Solar System, we conclude that asteroidal cores from the outerSolar System have smaller sizes, elevated siderophile-element abundances, and simplercrystallization processes than those from the inner Solar System. These differences arerelated to the formation locations of the parent asteroids because the solar protoplane-tary disk varied in redox conditions, elemental distributions, and dynamics at differentheliocentric distances. Using highly siderophile-element data from iron meteorites, wereconstruct the distribution of calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions (CAIs) across theprotoplanetary disk within the first million years of Solar-System history. CAIs, the firstsolids to condense in the Solar System, formed close to the Sun. They were, however,concentrated within the outer disk and depleted within the inner disk. Future modelsof the structure and evolution of the protoplanetary disk should account for this dis-tribution pattern of CAIs.
Anti-Universe And Emergent Gravity and the Dark UniverseSérgio Sacani
Recent theoretical progress indicates that spacetime and gravity emerge together from the entanglement structure of an underlying microscopic theory. These ideas are best understood in Anti-de Sitter space, where they rely on the area law for entanglement entropy. The extension to de Sitter space requires taking into account the entropy and temperature associated with the cosmological horizon. Using insights from string theory, black hole physics and quantum information theory we argue that the positive dark energy leads to a thermal volume law contribution to the entropy that overtakes the area law precisely at the cosmological horizon. Due to the competition between area and volume law entanglement the microscopic de Sitter states do not thermalise at sub-Hubble scales: they exhibit memory effects in the form of an entropy displacement caused by matter. The emergent laws of gravity contain an additional ‘dark’ gravitational force describing the ‘elastic’ response due to the entropy displacement. We derive an estimate of the strength of this extra force in terms of the baryonic mass, Newton’s constant and the Hubble acceleration scale a0 = cH0, and provide evidence for the fact that this additional ‘dark gravity force’ explains the observed phenomena in galaxies and clusters currently attributed to dark matter.
Mending Clothing to Support Sustainable Fashion_CIMaR 2024.pdfSelcen Ozturkcan
Ozturkcan, S., Berndt, A., & Angelakis, A. (2024). Mending clothing to support sustainable fashion. Presented at the 31st Annual Conference by the Consortium for International Marketing Research (CIMaR), 10-13 Jun 2024, University of Gävle, Sweden.
Living organisms (even human) evolve to match with the climate or not and geographical distribution (biogeography) opposite to Darwin’s theory or not
1. International Journal of Botany Studies
28
International Journal of Botany Studies
ISSN: 2455-541X; Impact Factor: RJIF 5.12
Received: 13-01-2019; Accepted: 15-02-2019
www.botanyjournals.com
Volume 4; Issue 2; March 2019; Page No. 28-34
Living organisms (even human) evolve to match with the climate or not and geographical
distribution (biogeography) opposite to Darwin’s theory or not
Md. Abdul Ahad
Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University, Dinajpur,
Bangladesh
Abstract
Darwin and his followers’ belief is that plants and animals are dispersed away from their places of origins and then became
subsequently modified to match with the environment. Therefore, climate plays the key role both for the evolution of
organisms (even human) and their geographical distribution. However, living organisms are beautifully adapted with the
climate. Furthermore, they migrate to a safe place with the changing climate; if it is not possible, they simply extinct.
Cosmopolitan animals, and also places having the same climate do not possess the same type of fauna, which opposes the
effect of climate on the evolution. If climate has an effect on the evolution, then only six animals and plant species could be
found according to the six climatic zones. Additionally, seven theories of evolution are formulated without the effects of
environment on the evolution. Again, evolution is a continuous process but there is no record that living organism has evolved
by the effects of the environment. Therefore, living organisms (even human) not evolve to match with the climate. As the
evolution of organisms and their geographical distributions are interrelated and vice versa. So, geographical distributions are
opposite to Darwin’s theory. Gaia theory and Croizat’s views oppose the Darwin’s vision about evolution and his
biogeography.
Keywords: climate, zoogeography, Darwin’s theory, seven new theories
1. Introduction
The theory of evolution is central theme of biology and all
theories of evolution (Alters, 1996) [3]
. According to Darwin
evolution progressed in this way→ unicellular organism →
invertebrate→ lung fish→ amphibian→ reptile→ placental
mammal→ higher mammal→ human (Darwin, 1871) [1, 14]
.
Darwin uses the term “Climate” about 100 times in the
Origin of Species (Darwin, 1859) [2]
, to indicate how a new
species evolve by the effect of climate/environments. For
example: all organisms have descended from one parent and
some have migrated from their places of birth; and when we
better know the many means of migration, then, by the light
which geology now throws, and will continue to throw, on
former changes of climate (Darwin, 1872, Origin of Species,
p.481) [25]
. In addition, the environment is totally
responsible for shaping-up, pictured and driving force of
evolution and organisms are rendered passive objects
shaped by those autonomous environmental forces
(Gerking, 1974; Brooks et al, 1984 and Sober, 1985, Ho,
1987 and Gray, 1988, p.214) [47, 58, 66, 67, 68]
. The Oxford
research claimed that changing climatic conditions have the
direct influences for the adaptive evolution (Merilä and
Hoffmann, 2016) [4]
. Furthermore, living organisms evolve
to match with the environment and thus natural selection is
the mechanism to match with the environment for their
evolution (Bernstein and Bernstein, 1982, p.139). So,
climate is the sole agent for the evolution of living
organisms.
Darwin also acknowledged that the climate is also
responsible for the geographical distribution of all living
organisms such as: i. “Sir C. Lyell in a striking passage has
speculated, in language almost identical with mine, on the
effects of great alternations of climate on the geographical
distribution “Origin of Species” (Darwin, 1859 p.308). ii.
“Looking to geographical distribution, if we admit that there
has been much migration during the long course of ages
from one part of the world to another one, owing to former
climatically and geographical changes, is the most of the
great leading facts in distribution (Darwin, 1872, Origin of
Species, p.471)” [25]
. Moreover, Darwin explained the
geographical distribution of animals and plants on the
assumption that plants and animals were dispersed away
from their places of origins and then became subsequently
modified to match with the environment, until a barrier
appeared and thus the geographical distribution occurred
(Darlington, 1957; Simpson, 1980; Mayr, 1976 and
Ghiselin, 1986) [7, 8, 9, 10]
. Climate is the central premise of
biogeography that exerts a dominant control over the natural
distributions of species (Peason and Dawson, 2003) [11]
.
Additionally, Darwin uses the term “Climate” about 32
times in the “Decent of Man” to indicate how man evolves
by the effect of climate/environments and their distribution
occurred. For example: It might have been expected that
differences of climate would have had a marked influence,
as the lungs and kidneys are brought into fuller activity
under a low temperature, and the liver and skin under a high
one. But this subject will be more properly discussed when
we treat of the different races of mankind (Darwin, 1881,
p116). Colour of the skin is the most conspicuous and one
of the best marked. Differences of this kind, it was formerly
thought, could be accounted for by long exposure under
different climates; A very damp or a very dry atmosphere
has been supposed to be more influential in modifying the
colour of the skin than mere heat (Darwin, 1881, p242). It is
a still more singular fact that in different nations, under
different conditions and climates, in Naples, Prussia,
2. International Journal of Botany Studies
29
Westphalia, France and England (Darwin, 1881, p302).
Again, the “National Research Council (US) Committee on
the Earth system Context for Hominin Evolution” confirmed
that the earth's geological record suggests that the evolution
of human or dispersals from Africa to other continents due
to substantial changes of climate in African and Eurasian
(National Research Council, 2010). Those literatures
indicated that both the evolution of living organisms (even
human) and their geographical distributions are interrelated
and vice versa. So, if, it is proved that living organisms did
not evolve to match with the environment; then their
geographical distributions would be automatically opposite
Darwin’s theory. Hence, there is a great chance to work on
the objective/title whether “Living organisms (even human)
evolve to match with the climate or not and geographical
distribution (Biogeography) opposite to Darwin’s theory or
not.”
Nevertheless, there are numerous criticisms on the effects of
climate of evolution of organisms and their geographical
distributions. For instance, the effects of climate on the
evolutionary process are largely unknown (Gotanda, 2017)
[12]
. If all organism are come from the same ancestor and the
environment controls the process of evolution; so, why are
some living animals, some plants and some single celled
organisms and others are humans (La Pointe, 1995)?
Moreover, Croizat rejected Darwin’s ideas. Alternatively, he
suggested that the earth and the life evolve together and also
proposed the “Panbiogeographic method” for the
geographical distributions of organisms (Craw and page,
1988 and Gray, 1988) [15, 68]
and it is the generally accepted
views (Craw 1984). Besides, Gaia’s theory (Lovelock,
1995) opposed Darwinian biogeography. So, it is essential
to remove those contradictions for the benefit of the modern
biological sciences.
Moreover, there are many works against Darwin’s theory
and also the evidences of Darwin’s theory. For example:
Darwin’s theory is the mixture of Malthus’s theory and
Lyell’s theory and Darwin used the wrong theory of
Lamarck for the mechanism of evolution (Ahad, 2014) [16]
.
The fossil evidences are opposite to Darwin’s theory (Ahad,
2015) [17, 18]
, artificial selection is opposite to Darwin’s
theory (Ahad, 2015) [17, 18]
, Darwinian classifications of
plants and animals (taxonomical evidences) are opposite to
Darwin’s theory (Ahad, 2017) [60]
and embryological
evidences are opposite to Darwin’s theory (Ahad, 2018) [20]
.
Additionally, Biogenetic law (Recapitulation theory) and
Haeckel’s evolutionary tree is valid or not (Ahad, 2018) [20]
.
But the reviews of literatures reveal that there is no such
type work more especially on the title/ objective “Living
organisms evolve (even human) to match with the climate or
not and geographical distribution (Biogeography) opposite
to Darwin’s theory or not.” As science searches which is the
truth? Therefore, there is no alternate way but to work on
the title/objective. So, working on the above objective is
very essential for the benefit of the biological sciences.
2. Plants and animals beautifully are adjusted with the
changing environment but those did not evolve
Plants and animals are adjusted with the new environment
but those did not evolve and its documents are placed here:
i. Plants have a variety of ways to cope with the unfavorable
climate such as drought or the coming winter for example:
the shade-tolerant plants have adapted their photosynthesis
to function optimally under low-light conditions, whereas
the “Shade-avoiding” plants adapt their growth to perceive
maximum sunlight (Ruberti, 2012) [21]
. Moreover, during the
drought or the coming winter; simpler plants like lichens
and mosses may dry-up and then re-hydrate, but when moist
conditions are favorable, those re-grow again. Some
vascular plants may die back to the ground and then re-grow
during the most favorable season. Other loses their leaves
during an unfavorable period and those re-grow again
(Purves and Orians, 1987, p.1125) [22]
. Similarly, other
plants adjusted with their ecosystems various ways but not
evolve to match in the changing environment. ii. Animals of
various ecosystems also adapted themselves in various ways
in their respective ecosystems. For example, marine and
brackish animal inhibit the loss of water by osmosis through
the body wall to prevent an accumulation of salts in the
system. But invertebrates get around the problem by
possessing body fluids with the same osmotic pressure as
seawater (Smith, 1990, p.91) [23]
. Similarly, other animals
adjusted with their ecosystems in various ways but not
evolve to match with the environment. As a result, two
world renowned US biologists Sinnott and Wilson
acknowledged that plants and animals are beautifully
adjusted with their environment. As the environment is
constantly changing in both soil and air; so, the existence of
plants and animals in their own form/species in the changing
environment is questionable about the “Living organisms
evolve to match with the environment.” If living organisms
were evolved to match with the environment, then those
must have to react with the changing environment in an
adaptive way. But there is no evident that a plant and an
animal are changing in an adaptive way. Thus, the evolution
through the Darwin’s theory is questionable (Sinnott and
Wilson, 1963, p.314) [24]
.
3. Living organisms do not evolve to match with the
changing environment/climate; those migrate to a safe
place and again return to their original home or take
various mechanisms to adapt with
No new species evolve with the changing environment; as
when living organisms are unable to tolerate the changing
environment, those simply migrate to a safe place and again
return to their original home or those take various
mechanisms to adapt with the environment. There are
numerous evidences but a few are mentioned here:
i. Migration of birds in winter due to environmental
change/coming the winter is widespread (Purves and Orians,
1987) [22]
. As a result, it is commonly observed that during
the winter season, large number birds are compelled to
come far from Siberia to Bangladesh due to environmental
hazard/coldness (Ahad, 2006) [26]
. Nearly 50,000 millions of
land-birds migrate from Europe to Africa in each autumn to
avoid the winter (Moreau, 1972) [27]
; some birds migrate
southward to avoid the winter making trips up to 6000 km
each way in the USA (Wallace, 1990) [28]
; even birds of the
Arctic tern nests close to the North Pole in the summer and
in the autumn, those fly 12600 km south all the way to
Antarctica to avoid winter. But in each spring those return to
the north again (Anonymous, 2018) [29]
. ii. Many
invertebrates pass unfavorable periods as eggs and pupae.
Moreover, if the unfavorable period is cold, the
invertebrates may simply crawl to a safe place (Purves and
Orians, 1987, p.1125) [22]
. iii. Annually earthworms make a
vertical migration deeper into the soil to spend winter and
move back to the upper soil in spring and summer (Smith,
3. International Journal of Botany Studies
30
1990, p.334) [23]
. Similarly, other organisms take various
mechanisms to adapt with their respective environment or
migrate to the safest place and again return to their original
home.
Therefore, it is evident that with the changing environment,
living organisms migrate to the safest place and again return
to their home or take various mechanisms to avoid
unfavorable climate.
In supporting: i. as the temperature becomes cooler, the
mammoths became wooly. Is it then reasonable to predict
that elephants would get wooly, if the climate became
colder in Africa today too? But the answer is quite negative
for several reasons; because the elephants might adapt to
colder weather in different ways: (a) those could migrate.
(b) those might not be able to adapt at all, and could simply
be extinct; (c) if the climatic changes are not exceptionally
severe, those phenomenon would not happen at all (Bethell,
1976 and Tamarin, 2002, p.590) [30, 31]
. ii. At the Chicago
conference (1980) on the “Wister Destroys Evolution”, it is
declared that Darwinian gradual evolution is the change
within a species, it is an adaptation and but not adaptive
evolution. Small changes from generation to generation
within a species could never produce a new species (WDE,
1980, p.4) [32]
.
4. If it is impossible for animals to migrate due to the
changing environment, then those simply extinct but do
not evolve
If it is impossible for animals to migrate due to the changing
environment, then those simply extinct and its evidence is
that due to climate change (Global Warming), a species is
threatened to extinction and is documented here very
briefly.
The earliest global studies estimated that by 2050 due to
climate change 15-37% of species are committed to
extinction under intermediate climate warming (Thomas et
al.,2004) [39]
. By the study of the vulnerability of 25 major
biodiversity hotspots, it is found that the extinctions of
endemic species could reach 39-43% loss of 56,000
endemic plant species and 3,700 endemic vertebrate species
(Malcolm et al., 2006). The local losses of plant diversity in
Europe ranged from 2-84% of species lost per pixel
(Thuiller et al., 2005). Consequently, the IUCN forecasted
that about 35% of the world’s birds, 52% of amphibians and
71% of the warm-water reef-building corals are particularly
susceptible to climate change on the coral reefs (Foden et
al., 2008). As a result, by the investigation of the 136 topics
on the effects of climate change, it is predicted that the
major extinctions of species would be in the next 100 years
(Cahill et al., 2013) [41]
. So, the future of biodiversity is
alarming leading to extinction rates, which would qualify as
the sixth mass extinction in the history of the earth (Bellard
et al., 2012) [40]
.
Thus, it is proved that if it is impossible for animals to
migrate due to the changing environment, then those simply
extinct but do not evolve. So, it is trying with heart and soul
to manage the “Global Warming” by the “Earth summit”,
the “World summit” and other related efforts.
5. Cosmopolitan animals and plants oppose the effects of
environment on the evolution
Cosmopolitan fauna and flora strongly oppose the effects of
environment on the evolution of new species; because, if
living organisms evolve to match with the environment,
then all the cosmopolitan organisms should evolve to other
organisms to match with their respective environment (at
which climate those live) and thus no cosmopolitan
organism would be found. But There are numerous
cosmopolitan (those are found at every climate and in every
region of the world) animals such as : “i. Cosmopolitan
mammals: Cow, horse, pig, chicken, dog, cat, killer whale,
the house mouse, brown rat, the common domesticated
mammals etc. ii. Cosmopolitan birds: Peregrine, falcon,
osprey, barn owl, gull-billed tern, cattle egret, great egret,
house sparrow, rock pigeon etc. iii. Cosmopolitan
arthropods: Housefly, fruit fly, Green Stink bug, woodlouse
spider. iv. Cosmopolitan plant: Daisy, creeping wood sorrel,
shepherd's-purse etc. (Wikipedia, 2018a) [45]
.”
6. Places with the similar climates do not possess the
same kind of fauna, which oppose the idea of Darwin
about the effects of environment on the evolution
Places with the similar climatic conditions do not possess
the same types of fauna, which affirmed that environment
has no effect on the evolution of new species. A few
references are placed at this point:
The climatic conditions in Africa, India and Brazil are
identical but elephants are found in Africa and also in India
but not in Brazil (Jordan and Verma, 1990, p.1019 and
Grove and Newell, 1994, p.817) [43, 44]
. If living organisms
evolve to match with the environment, then elephants could
also be found in Brazil. Again, “The Great Britain and New
Zealand have the same climate but their fauna are
dissimilar. Furthermore, the climatic conditions of the North
and the South poles are almost identical, yet penguins are
limited to the South Pole, while polar bears are found only
in the North Pole. Moreover, the Great Britain and New
Zealand have the same climate but their fauna are dissimilar
(Jordan and Verma, 1990, p.1019 and Grove and Newell,
1994, p.817) [43, 44]
. If the climate effects on the evolution,
then the Great Britain and New Zealand should have the
same kinds of fauna. Moreover, the penguins and the polar
bears should also be found at both the Poles.
Thus, places with similar climates do not possess the same
kinds of fauna which indicates that the environment has no
effect on the evolution.
7. If Living organisms evolve to match with the changing
environment/climate, then only six plant and six animal
species would be found according to the six climatic
zones of the world
If living organisms evolve to match with the changing
environment/climate, then only six plant and six animal
species would be found according to the six climatic zones
of the world. It could be mentioned that there are six
climatic zones in the world, viz. i) Polar (very cold and dry
all year), ii) Temperate (cold winter and mild summer), iii)
Arid (dry, hot all year), iv) Tropical (hot and wet year
round), v) Mediterranean (mild winter, dry hot summer),
and vi) Mountains or Tundra (very cold year round)
(Wikipedia, 2018) [42]
.
8. Evolution is a continuous process but there is no
example that a species evolves from another species to
match with the environment
Evolution occurs by the effects of environment. However,
though evolution is a continuous process and at present it is
occurring rapidly (WBE, 1992, p.406) [46]
; but there is no
4. International Journal of Botany Studies
31
example that a species evolves from another species to
match with the environment. Darwin was unable to show
that a species changes to another one to matching with the
new environment (Cockrum and McCauley, 1965 and
Morris, 2017) [48, 49]
. However, it is claimed that the white
moth (Biston betularia) (Fig.1b) has been evolved to the
black moth (B. carbonaria) (Fig.1a) to match with the
environment in the industrial area in England. It is the best
and a dramatic example (Kettlewell, 1959) [50]
.
Fig 1: (a) Black moth could not see easily in black bark, but (1. b)
white moth could seen easily
Fig 2: Black moth and white moth interbreeds
Oppositely, the white moth (Biston betularia) was evolved
to the black moth (B. carbonaria). It is a fluctuation in the
abundances of the white moths and the black moths due to
predation by the birds. To support it, a few arguments are
placed here:
1. In England, before the “Industrial revolution”, trees
were often covered with the white lichens. As a result,
the white moths could hide themselves easily and were
hardly detected on the bark of trees. But the black
moths could not hide themselves and those were easily
detected by the predatory birds. So, the birds had eaten
the black moth voraciously. But during the worst years
of the “Industrial Revolution”, the air was very sooty
and the bark of the tree was black, because of soot.
Hence, the dark moths are hardly identified; whereas,
the white moths are easily observed by the predatory
birds. Therefore, bird ate the white moths voraciously.
Thus, the black moths became more abundant than the
white moths (Purves and Orians, 1987, p.1033) [22]
. So,
the white moths were not modified to black moths.
Rather that was the fluctuation of abundances of white
moths and black moths due to predation by the birds.
2. When industrial melanism began to reverse due to
enactment of the “Clean Air Legislation” in 1956, the
frequency of black moth was dropped from a high level
of 94% in 1960 to a low one of 19% only in 1995
(Johnson, 2003, p.269, 275). Again, the white moths are
still common in the unpolluted areas in the Western and
the Northern Great Britain (Smith, 1990, p.300) [23]
.
Therefore, the entire populations of white moths were
not modified into black moths. As, the “Modern
concept of evolution is that an individual does not
evolve; rather the entire population of a particular
species evolves (Ritchie and Carola, 1983,p.505) [52]
”;
so the white moths were never evolved into black
moths.
3. A species very rarely interbreed with the other species,
but never produces fertile offspring. Whereas, Macken
(1976 p.205) declared that the black moths interbreed
(Fig.2) with the white moths and produce fertile
offspring, which proved that the black moths and the
white moths belong to the same species i.e. white moths
were not evolved into black moths.
Therefore, though evolution is a continuous process but
there is no example that a species evolves from another
species to match with the environment.
9. Strong document about the no effect of environment
on the evolution is that seven theories of evolution are
formulated without the effects of environment on the
evolution
When Mendel’s scientific work was rediscovered in 1900, it
was viewed as an antagonistic concept to Darwin’s theory.
Consequently, during the early part of the 19th century, the
popularity of Darwin’s theory continued to decline and it
was an antagonistic period of evolution (Dodson, 1960;
Hickman, 1984) [54, 55]
. Furthermore, history suggests that
Darwinian paradigm will in turn be modified or even
replaced by other, but the form will be new and when it will
emerge is unknown to us (Parves and Orians, 1987, p.19).
So, many biologists called for search a theory for new
biology. For example, Mae-Wan Ho has called for search of
a theory for new biology (Ho, 1987, 1988 and Craw and
page, 1988, p.184) [67, 57, 15]
. As a result, 7 theories of
evolution are formulated without the effects of environment
on the evolution. Those theories are based on the pure
genetics and those theories are placed briefly:
9.1.) Modern synthetic theory emerged around the middle of
the 20th
century. This theory is based on the pure genetics
(Gardner et al., 1991 p.583) [56]
; “This theory is on the based
conceptual separation between the organism and its
environment (Ho, 1988, pp. and 125) [67]
”. Moreover, the
sociobiology theory is based on the synthetic theory
(Saunders, 1988, pp.1, and p.277) [59]
.Therefore, it could be
argued easily that sociobiology is also based on the
theoretical separation between a organism and its
environment.
9.2) Four theories of evolution are formulated without the
effects of environment on the evolution. Those theories are:
i) the punctuated equilibrium theory, ii) the shifting balance
theory, iii) the allopatric speciation theory, and iv) the
species selection theory. Those theories advocate that new
species evolves in a small and isolated population by the
effects of genetic drift (Ahad, 2017). Therefore, those four
theories of evolution are formulated without the effects of
environment on the evolution.
9.3) The “Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution”
advocates that the rate of evolution is completely
determined by the force of mutations. For this reason, this
theory is sometimes called the non-Darwinian theory of
evolution (Gardner et al., 1991, p.586) [56]
.
5. International Journal of Botany Studies
32
Thus, the “Neutral theory” is based upon the pure genetics
and avoids the effects of environments on evolution.
Hence, it is proved that the seven theories of evolution are
formulated without the effects of environment on the
evolution.
10. The processes of evolution of organisms and their
geographical distributions is based on the assumptions
(beliefs) of Darwin but not experimental
The processes of evolution of organisms and their
geographical distributions are based on the
assumptions/beliefs of Darwin but not experimental. It’s
document is that “Darwin and his followers believed that
living organisms were dispersed away from the places of
their origins and successively evolved to match with the
climate/environments, until a barrier appear and thus their
geographical distributions occur (Darlington, 1957;
Simpson, 1980; Mayr, 1976 and Ghiselin, 1986) [7, 8, 9, 10]
.”
Additionally, it is authenticated that Darwin applied
unscientific idea ‘I believe’ and similar theme 372 times in
the “Origin of Species” and 264 times in the “Descent of
Man” (Ahad, 2014,p.1) [16]
” to explain how living organisms
evolved and their geographical distributions occurred.
However, “Believe is not science, as believe in God is not
science (Ahad, 2014, p.1 and Ahad, 2018, p.112) [16, 20]
.
11. Darwin was very doubtful about the geographical
distribution of living organisms
Darwin was very doubtful about the processes of
geographical distribution of living organisms. Because,
Darwin’s (1859) acknowledged: “Turning to geographical
distribution, the difficulties encountered on the theory of
descend with modification are grave enough (Origin of
Species, p.373)”. [So,] “I think, explain all the facts in
regard to insular productions. I shall no remarks confine
myself to the mare question of dispersal, but shall consider
some other facts, which bear on the truth of the two theories
of independent creation and of descent with modifications
(Origin of Species, p.315)”.
12. Many biologists directly reject Darwin’s theory,
which indirectly indicates that climate, has no effect on
the evolution
Many biologists directly reject Darwin’s theory, which
indirectly indicates that climate has no effect on the
evolution. For example: “Indeed, much of reason for the
instant success of Darwin’s theory is that it was cut off from
the very fabric of Victorian era or the English society. The
symbol of natural selection was derived from the dominant
socioeconomic ideology of the Victorian era, now rejected
by nearly all humanity. The mechanistic conception of life,
which it inspires, is equally outmoded and inappropriate.
Why should one still cling to this metaphor when it can
serve no other purposes than to support those injustices,
which gave it birth (Ho, 1988, p. 117) [57]
.” Similarly, Ruse
(1981, p. 828) [61]
, Ho and Fox (1988, p.2) [57]
, Gould and
Eldredge (1977, p.122) and Johnson (1991 p.84) [64]
, also
directly reject the Darwin’s theory. Their confirmations
indicate that climate has no effects on the evolution.
13. Conclusions
It is proved in the introduction: “As the evolution of living
organisms (even human) and their geographical
distributions are interrelated and vice versa. So, if, it is
proved that living organisms did not evolve to match with
the environment; then their geographical distributions would
be automatically opposite Darwin’s theory.” But It is
proved in the entire article that living organisms not evolve
to match with the climate; so, the “Geographical distribution
is opposite to Darwin’s theory.” Croizat’s views and Gaia
theory also opposes the Darwinian views, which is strongly
support to the present conclusion. Again, Starr and Taggart
(1989, p.22); Castro and Hubner (1997, p.16) and Weisz and
Keogh (1982, p.15) confirmed that any theory and it its
evidences might be overturned at any time by the findings
of new evidences. Consequently, the conclusion “Living
organisms (even human) evolve to match with the climate or
not and geographical distribution (Biogeography) opposite
to Darwin’s theory,” is genuine.
14. Acknowledgements
The author is very thankful to Prof. Dr. Md. Abdullah Baqui
(Dept. of Zoology, Jahangir Nagar University, Dhaka) and
Prof. TMT Iqbal (Dept. of horticulture, Hajee Mohammad
Danesh Science & Technology University, Bangladesh) for
their suggestion for preparing the manuscript and English
correction. The author is sincerely appreciative for the great
help of the Google and “Research Ggate (RG
),
“Academia.edu” and “Scribd” for the data used in this
paper. The author is also grateful to the writers, and the
publishers which are mentioned in the reference section for
using their information in this article.
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