GelombanG dan optika discusses key concepts in optics including:
1. The nature of light as both waves and particles. Light exhibits properties of waves like interference and diffraction as well as particle properties demonstrated by the photon model.
2. The interaction of light with materials including reflection, refraction, and total internal reflection. Reflection and refraction follow Snell's laws which relate the angle of incidence and refraction based on the refractive indices of the materials.
3. Image formation using plane mirrors, convex and concave spherical mirrors which can be analyzed using ray diagrams and mirror equations. The characteristics and magnification of images depend on the type of mirror and position of the object.
This paper presents a technique to create panoramic video in real-time by stitching together video frames from multiple webcams. The system has two stages: an initialization stage and a real-time stage. In the initialization stage, features are detected and matched between webcam frames to compute a perspective matrix describing their geometric relationship. In the real-time stage, frames are registered and blended using the perspective matrix to display the combined wide field of view in real-time. The technique was demonstrated using two ordinary webcams and allows for inexpensive panoramic video without specialized hardware.
Modul perfect score sbp physics spm 2014 skemaCikgu Pejal
This document provides information about a Physics Perfect Score module for a residential school in Malaysia. It contains two sections: Section A consists of multiple choice questions to test student understanding of concepts by topic, while Section B contains constructed response and quantitative problem solving questions for reinforcement. The document outlines a 10 hour implementation plan for the module that includes a diagnostic test, analysis of scores, group work by topic, and enhancement activities. It also lists panel members and provides sample questions, answers, and concepts for several physics topics covered in Sections A and B.
This document discusses solitons in optical fiber communication. It begins with an introduction to solitons as pulses that maintain their shape despite dispersion and nonlinearities. The history of discovering solitons in fiber optics is described, including key experiments in the 1980s and 1990s that demonstrated their use for long-distance, high-capacity data transmission. The document outlines how solitons form in fibers due to a balance between dispersion and the Kerr effect. It describes the properties and equations that characterize fundamental and higher-order soliton pulses. Parameters like dispersion length and peak power are also defined. Finally, the document discusses optimizing soliton width and spacing for high bit rates.
1. The document discusses light and optical instruments, including the properties of light, reflection, refraction, formation of shadows using mirrors and lenses, and everyday optical devices.
2. Key points about light include that it travels in straight lines, can be reflected, refracted, undergoes interference and diffraction, and travels at 3x10^8 m/s in a vacuum.
3. Shadow formation using flat, concave, and convex mirrors and lenses is explained using ray diagrams. Equations for determining image distance and magnification are provided.
4. Everyday optical instruments like cameras, magnifying glasses, microscopes, and telescopes are briefly mentioned.
1. The document discusses optics and electromagnetics waves, including the laws of reflection and refraction of light, and properties of lenses and mirrors. Reflection follows the law that the incident, reflected, and normal lines are in the same plane, with the incident and reflection angles being equal. Refraction follows Snell's law, with the ratio of sines of the incident and refracted angles being a constant called the index of refraction.
2. Concave and convex mirrors and lenses are described. Concave mirrors can form real or virtual images, depending on the position of the object. Convex mirrors always form virtual images. Lenses follow principal rays to determine image characteristics.
3. Total
The document discusses optics and electromagnetics waves. It covers the topics of reflection, refraction, lenses, and mirrors. Key points include:
- Reflection follows the law that the incident, reflected, and normal lines all lie in the same plane, with the incident angle equaling the reflection angle.
- Refraction follows Snell's law, with the ratio of sines of the incident and refracted angles staying constant depending on the medium. Total internal reflection can occur when the incident angle exceeds the critical angle.
- Lenses are classified as converging or diverging based on whether they focus or spread light. Their focal lengths and image properties can be determined using lens formulas that involve the
This paper presents a technique to create panoramic video in real-time by stitching together video frames from multiple webcams. The system has two stages: an initialization stage and a real-time stage. In the initialization stage, features are detected and matched between webcam frames to compute a perspective matrix describing their geometric relationship. In the real-time stage, frames are registered and blended using the perspective matrix to display the combined wide field of view in real-time. The technique was demonstrated using two ordinary webcams and allows for inexpensive panoramic video without specialized hardware.
Modul perfect score sbp physics spm 2014 skemaCikgu Pejal
This document provides information about a Physics Perfect Score module for a residential school in Malaysia. It contains two sections: Section A consists of multiple choice questions to test student understanding of concepts by topic, while Section B contains constructed response and quantitative problem solving questions for reinforcement. The document outlines a 10 hour implementation plan for the module that includes a diagnostic test, analysis of scores, group work by topic, and enhancement activities. It also lists panel members and provides sample questions, answers, and concepts for several physics topics covered in Sections A and B.
This document discusses solitons in optical fiber communication. It begins with an introduction to solitons as pulses that maintain their shape despite dispersion and nonlinearities. The history of discovering solitons in fiber optics is described, including key experiments in the 1980s and 1990s that demonstrated their use for long-distance, high-capacity data transmission. The document outlines how solitons form in fibers due to a balance between dispersion and the Kerr effect. It describes the properties and equations that characterize fundamental and higher-order soliton pulses. Parameters like dispersion length and peak power are also defined. Finally, the document discusses optimizing soliton width and spacing for high bit rates.
1. The document discusses light and optical instruments, including the properties of light, reflection, refraction, formation of shadows using mirrors and lenses, and everyday optical devices.
2. Key points about light include that it travels in straight lines, can be reflected, refracted, undergoes interference and diffraction, and travels at 3x10^8 m/s in a vacuum.
3. Shadow formation using flat, concave, and convex mirrors and lenses is explained using ray diagrams. Equations for determining image distance and magnification are provided.
4. Everyday optical instruments like cameras, magnifying glasses, microscopes, and telescopes are briefly mentioned.
1. The document discusses optics and electromagnetics waves, including the laws of reflection and refraction of light, and properties of lenses and mirrors. Reflection follows the law that the incident, reflected, and normal lines are in the same plane, with the incident and reflection angles being equal. Refraction follows Snell's law, with the ratio of sines of the incident and refracted angles being a constant called the index of refraction.
2. Concave and convex mirrors and lenses are described. Concave mirrors can form real or virtual images, depending on the position of the object. Convex mirrors always form virtual images. Lenses follow principal rays to determine image characteristics.
3. Total
The document discusses optics and electromagnetics waves. It covers the topics of reflection, refraction, lenses, and mirrors. Key points include:
- Reflection follows the law that the incident, reflected, and normal lines all lie in the same plane, with the incident angle equaling the reflection angle.
- Refraction follows Snell's law, with the ratio of sines of the incident and refracted angles staying constant depending on the medium. Total internal reflection can occur when the incident angle exceeds the critical angle.
- Lenses are classified as converging or diverging based on whether they focus or spread light. Their focal lengths and image properties can be determined using lens formulas that involve the
The document discusses optics and electromagnetics waves. It covers the laws of reflection and refraction, including the reflection and refraction of light by mirrors and lenses. Several examples are provided on determining image formation and properties using the lens and mirror formulas. Reflection is discussed for flat, concave, and convex mirrors. Refraction addresses Snell's law, total internal reflection, and refraction through parallel planes and spherical surfaces. Lens types and their focal properties are also outlined. Exercises at the end provide problems to calculate variables like image distance, magnification, and focal length.
This document discusses reflection and refraction at surfaces and curved surfaces. It begins by explaining the fundamentals of reflection, refraction, and total internal reflection. It then discusses the laws of reflection and refraction. Specific examples of reflection and refraction are provided for plane mirrors, convex mirrors, concave mirrors, and refraction through lenses and the cornea. Clinical applications of reflection and refraction in the eye and optical instruments are described.
Dr Md Anisur Rahman Optics basics conceptsAnisur Rahman
1) The document discusses key concepts in optics, including geometrical optics, physical optics, and quantum optics.
2) Geometrical optics deals with light rays and concepts like reflection and refraction. Physical optics examines light as waves and phenomena like interference and diffraction. Quantum optics views light as particles.
3) Images formed by concave mirrors depend on the object's location relative to the mirror's center of curvature and focal point. If beyond the center, the image is real, inverted, and smaller.
1) The document discusses key concepts in optics, including geometrical optics, physical optics, and quantum optics.
2) Geometrical optics deals with light rays and concepts like reflection and refraction. Physical optics examines light as waves and topics such as interference and diffraction. Quantum optics views light as particles.
3) Images formed by a concave mirror depend on the object's location relative to the mirror's center of curvature and focal point. If beyond the center, the image is real, inverted, and smaller.
This document provides examples and problems to demonstrate the application of optical laws, including reflection, refraction, and image formation using mirrors and lenses. It begins by reintroducing key optical concepts like reflection laws, mirror ray tracing, refraction laws, Snell's law, and lens equations. Several sample problems are then worked through step-by-step involving calculating focal lengths, image locations and characteristics, critical angles, and more for various mirror and lens configurations. Diagrams accompany most problems to illustrate optical principles and solutions.
This document discusses electromagnetic waves and light. It begins by explaining the nature and properties of electromagnetic waves, including their speed in a vacuum and relationship between wavelength and frequency. It then discusses the electromagnetic spectrum and uses examples to show how to calculate the wavelength range of visible light. Other topics covered include the speed of light as predicted by Maxwell, wave fronts and rays, reflection and refraction of light, spherical mirrors and image formation, lenses, and the thin lens equation. Diagrams and examples are provided to illustrate key concepts and relationships like Snell's law, total internal reflection, dispersion of light through prisms, and image formation using mirrors and lenses.
This document summarizes key properties of light and reflection:
1) Light propagates as an electromagnetic wave that does not require a medium and travels in straight lines at a very fast speed. Objects are visible because they reflect light into our eyes.
2) Reflection follows the law that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Reflection can be specular from smooth surfaces or diffuse from rough surfaces. Mirrors use the principle of reflection.
3) Plane mirrors form virtual upright images that are the same size and as far behind the mirror as the object is in front. The image is laterally reversed left to right. Spherical mirrors can also form images.
Laboratory session in Physics II subject for September 2016-January 2017 semester in Yachay Tech University (Ecuador). Topic covered: optics, lenses, convergence, divergence, eye, abnormality
Based on Bruna Regalado's work
1. The document discusses reflection of light from plane and curved mirrors. It defines key terms used to describe reflection such as focal length, radius of curvature, and magnification.
2. Rules for image formation by curved mirrors are presented, including the location, size, and nature of the image for different positions of the object in front of concave and convex mirrors.
3. Examples with solutions are provided to illustrate concepts such as reflection angles, number of images formed by inclined mirrors, and speeds of moving mirrors and images.
The document defines key terms related to the reflection of light such as normal, angle of incidence, and angle of reflection. It states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection and uses this principle in calculations and measurements. Examples are provided to demonstrate calculating angles of incidence and reflection from diagrams of light rays reflecting off plane mirrors.
Light refracts and reflects when moving between materials of different densities. Refraction causes light to bend when entering a denser medium, following Snell's law. Total internal reflection occurs when light hits a boundary at an angle greater than the critical angle, causing all light to reflect inside the denser medium rather than passing through.
Waves can transfer energy from one place to another without actual motion of an object or particle. There are two main types of waves: transverse waves where particle motion is perpendicular to propagation, and longitudinal waves where particle motion is parallel. Key wave properties include wavelength, frequency, period, amplitude, and speed. Electromagnetic waves include visible light and other radiations that travel at the speed of light. Reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and polarization are important wave behaviors. Lenses and mirrors can form real or virtual images by reflecting or refracting light according to the laws of reflection and refraction.
This document summarizes a seminar on X-ray crystallography presented by Mounik Rout. The seminar covered the basics of X-ray crystallography including production of X-rays, Bragg's law, instrumentation used, and applications. Different X-ray diffraction methods like powder crystal analysis and rotating crystal method were discussed. The seminar provided an introduction to how X-ray crystallography can be used to determine the 3D structure of crystals and its wide applications in fields like pharmaceuticals and materials science.
Lens Focal Lenght Thin Report by Fildia PutriIndy Puteri
This document summarizes an experiment to determine the focal length of convex and concave lenses. In the experiment, the focal lengths of lenses with known theoretical values were measured using an optical bench setup. Distances between the lens and object and lens and image were recorded to graph the relationship between 1/s and 1/s' and determine the experimental focal length. The experiment involved two activities - the first determined the focal length of a convex lens and the second of a concave lens. Results from the graph plots were then compared to the theoretical focal lengths of the lenses. The experiment allowed students to observe lens properties and relationships that are important for applications like eyeglasses and microscopes.
This document provides information about optical components and their properties. It discusses plane and spherical surfaces, Snell's law, and thin lenses. The key points are:
1) It defines optical terms like object and image conventions, focal length conventions, and radius of curvature conventions.
2) It explains how to model optical components like plane and spherical surfaces, thin lenses, and thick lenses using matrix methods. The matrix for a single component can be derived and components can be combined by multiplying their matrices.
3) Examples are given for calculating properties of simple lens systems like a thin lens in air using matrices and lensmaker's equation. Ray tracing is also demonstrated through matrix methods.
The document discusses the reflection and refraction of light. It defines reflection as light rays bouncing off a surface, while refraction is the bending of light rays when passing from one medium to another of different density. The key laws and concepts covered include:
- The law of reflection, where the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection
- Refractive index, which indicates how much a medium bends light
- Total internal reflection, which occurs when light travels from a dense to less dense medium at an angle greater than the critical angle
Several examples and applications are provided, such as plane mirrors, mirages, fiber optics, and lenses. Convex lenses form real images while concave lenses form virtual, upright,
This document discusses several optical instruments:
1. It defines the index of refraction and describes how to calculate it for different media.
2. It explains the properties and ray diagrams of converging and diverging lenses.
3. It describes how eyeglasses are used to correct vision problems like nearsightedness and farsightedness by calculating the needed lens power.
4. Other optical devices covered include magnifying glasses, microscopes, telescopes, and opera glasses, explaining how their lenses produce enlarged virtual images. Ray diagrams illustrate the image formation for different states of eye accommodation.
This document discusses concepts related to light, optics, and color. It begins by outlining students' prior knowledge and misconceptions about light. The key teaching challenges are explained as helping students understand light propagation and virtual images. A general model of radiation is presented involving a source, medium, and detector. Concepts such as refraction, dispersion, reflection, total internal reflection, lenses, and the eye are defined. Real and virtual images are distinguished. Color is discussed as involving either additive or subtractive properties. References for further support and resources are provided.
This document discusses concepts related to light, optics, and color. It begins by outlining students' prior knowledge and misconceptions about light. The key teaching challenges are explained as helping students understand light propagation and virtual images. A general model of radiation is presented involving a source, medium, and detector. Concepts such as refraction, dispersion, reflection, total internal reflection, lenses, and the eye are defined. Real and virtual images are distinguished. Color is discussed as involving either additive or subtractive properties. References for further teaching support are provided.
To Study Principles of Microscopy: Light Microscope, Phase Contrast Microsco...Om Prakash
To Study Principles of Microscopy: Light Microscope, Phase Contrast Microscope & Electron Microscope
ByOm Prakash
June 13, 2022
Write a Comment
on To Study Principles of Microscopy: Light Microscope, Phase Contrast Microscope & Electron Microscope
Aim: To study principles of Microscopy: Light Microscope, Phase Contrast Microscope & Electron Microscope
Table of Contents
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND:
Light Microscopy
History:
SIMPLE MICROSCOPE
Principles of Microscopy:
THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
Phase Contrast Microscope
Electron Microscopes
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM)
Also Read
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND:
Light Microscopy
The light microscope is an instrument designed for the study of cells and tissues. It comprises of lenses that produce a magnified image of the object under study. The light microscope is considered to be a simple important invention that has contributed to the advancement of biological research.
History:
The ancient Greeks and Romans knew the use of Glass and quartz lenses. In the 14th century, spectacles and lenses were used to magnify objects. Galileo had constructed a microscope at the same time (1610). It was employed for the study of the arrangement of the compound eye of insects. Anton Von Leeuwenhoek (1674), the father of biology was the first to use the microscope for biological studies. His microscope has consisted of a single lens with a higher power of magnification. The compound microscope was constructed by Robert Hooke (1665) and is the forerunner of the present-day compound microscope.
SIMPLE MICROSCOPE
The simple microscope distinguishes between two points that are less than 0.1mm apart when placed at a normal viewing distance of 25cm. The two points appear as one and the eye fails to resolve or distinguish them as two distinct points. Another limitation of the human eye is that it cannot resolve any image less than 5µm.
A simple microscope consists of a single convex lens or a combination of lenses that functions as a convex lens. A convex lens magnifies the objects and also helps to produce a magnified image of a near object which appears to be at the distance of distinct vision.
The magnification obtained with a convex lens can be easily calculated by the formula
M = 25/f + 1
Where f= focal length, 25 is the distance of distinct vision in cm.
Principles of Microscopy:
1. Resolving power: It is defined as the capacity of the microscope to distinguish images of two pointed objects lying very close together. If two points are at a distance of more than 0.2 µm, they will appear as two points in the microscope.
2. Limit of resolution: It is defined as the minimum distance at which two objects appear as two distinct objects or entities. It can be calculated as:
Limit of Resolution: 0.61λ/NA = 0.61λ/n Sin θ
Where 0.61 is the constant representing the minimum detectable difference in contrast λ = wavelength of illumination
NA = Numerical aperture, light gathering capa
GelombanG dan optika discusses key concepts in optics including:
1. The nature of light as both waves and particles. Light exhibits properties of waves like interference and diffraction as well as particle properties demonstrated by the photon model.
2. Reflection, refraction, and total internal reflection of light. Reflection follows the law that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Refraction is governed by Snell's law.
3. Image formation using plane mirrors, concave mirrors, and convex mirrors which can be analyzed using ray diagrams and mirror equations. Characteristics like magnification are determined.
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang usaha, daya, dan energi. Usaha adalah perubahan energi potensial atau kinetik sebagai fungsi waktu. Daya adalah usaha yang dilakukan dalam satu satuan waktu. Ada tiga jenis energi yaitu potensial, kinetik, dan mekanik yang merupakan penjumlahan energi potensial dan kinetik. Contoh perhitungan energi mekanik untuk benda yang jatuh diberikan.
The document discusses optics and electromagnetics waves. It covers the laws of reflection and refraction, including the reflection and refraction of light by mirrors and lenses. Several examples are provided on determining image formation and properties using the lens and mirror formulas. Reflection is discussed for flat, concave, and convex mirrors. Refraction addresses Snell's law, total internal reflection, and refraction through parallel planes and spherical surfaces. Lens types and their focal properties are also outlined. Exercises at the end provide problems to calculate variables like image distance, magnification, and focal length.
This document discusses reflection and refraction at surfaces and curved surfaces. It begins by explaining the fundamentals of reflection, refraction, and total internal reflection. It then discusses the laws of reflection and refraction. Specific examples of reflection and refraction are provided for plane mirrors, convex mirrors, concave mirrors, and refraction through lenses and the cornea. Clinical applications of reflection and refraction in the eye and optical instruments are described.
Dr Md Anisur Rahman Optics basics conceptsAnisur Rahman
1) The document discusses key concepts in optics, including geometrical optics, physical optics, and quantum optics.
2) Geometrical optics deals with light rays and concepts like reflection and refraction. Physical optics examines light as waves and phenomena like interference and diffraction. Quantum optics views light as particles.
3) Images formed by concave mirrors depend on the object's location relative to the mirror's center of curvature and focal point. If beyond the center, the image is real, inverted, and smaller.
1) The document discusses key concepts in optics, including geometrical optics, physical optics, and quantum optics.
2) Geometrical optics deals with light rays and concepts like reflection and refraction. Physical optics examines light as waves and topics such as interference and diffraction. Quantum optics views light as particles.
3) Images formed by a concave mirror depend on the object's location relative to the mirror's center of curvature and focal point. If beyond the center, the image is real, inverted, and smaller.
This document provides examples and problems to demonstrate the application of optical laws, including reflection, refraction, and image formation using mirrors and lenses. It begins by reintroducing key optical concepts like reflection laws, mirror ray tracing, refraction laws, Snell's law, and lens equations. Several sample problems are then worked through step-by-step involving calculating focal lengths, image locations and characteristics, critical angles, and more for various mirror and lens configurations. Diagrams accompany most problems to illustrate optical principles and solutions.
This document discusses electromagnetic waves and light. It begins by explaining the nature and properties of electromagnetic waves, including their speed in a vacuum and relationship between wavelength and frequency. It then discusses the electromagnetic spectrum and uses examples to show how to calculate the wavelength range of visible light. Other topics covered include the speed of light as predicted by Maxwell, wave fronts and rays, reflection and refraction of light, spherical mirrors and image formation, lenses, and the thin lens equation. Diagrams and examples are provided to illustrate key concepts and relationships like Snell's law, total internal reflection, dispersion of light through prisms, and image formation using mirrors and lenses.
This document summarizes key properties of light and reflection:
1) Light propagates as an electromagnetic wave that does not require a medium and travels in straight lines at a very fast speed. Objects are visible because they reflect light into our eyes.
2) Reflection follows the law that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Reflection can be specular from smooth surfaces or diffuse from rough surfaces. Mirrors use the principle of reflection.
3) Plane mirrors form virtual upright images that are the same size and as far behind the mirror as the object is in front. The image is laterally reversed left to right. Spherical mirrors can also form images.
Laboratory session in Physics II subject for September 2016-January 2017 semester in Yachay Tech University (Ecuador). Topic covered: optics, lenses, convergence, divergence, eye, abnormality
Based on Bruna Regalado's work
1. The document discusses reflection of light from plane and curved mirrors. It defines key terms used to describe reflection such as focal length, radius of curvature, and magnification.
2. Rules for image formation by curved mirrors are presented, including the location, size, and nature of the image for different positions of the object in front of concave and convex mirrors.
3. Examples with solutions are provided to illustrate concepts such as reflection angles, number of images formed by inclined mirrors, and speeds of moving mirrors and images.
The document defines key terms related to the reflection of light such as normal, angle of incidence, and angle of reflection. It states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection and uses this principle in calculations and measurements. Examples are provided to demonstrate calculating angles of incidence and reflection from diagrams of light rays reflecting off plane mirrors.
Light refracts and reflects when moving between materials of different densities. Refraction causes light to bend when entering a denser medium, following Snell's law. Total internal reflection occurs when light hits a boundary at an angle greater than the critical angle, causing all light to reflect inside the denser medium rather than passing through.
Waves can transfer energy from one place to another without actual motion of an object or particle. There are two main types of waves: transverse waves where particle motion is perpendicular to propagation, and longitudinal waves where particle motion is parallel. Key wave properties include wavelength, frequency, period, amplitude, and speed. Electromagnetic waves include visible light and other radiations that travel at the speed of light. Reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and polarization are important wave behaviors. Lenses and mirrors can form real or virtual images by reflecting or refracting light according to the laws of reflection and refraction.
This document summarizes a seminar on X-ray crystallography presented by Mounik Rout. The seminar covered the basics of X-ray crystallography including production of X-rays, Bragg's law, instrumentation used, and applications. Different X-ray diffraction methods like powder crystal analysis and rotating crystal method were discussed. The seminar provided an introduction to how X-ray crystallography can be used to determine the 3D structure of crystals and its wide applications in fields like pharmaceuticals and materials science.
Lens Focal Lenght Thin Report by Fildia PutriIndy Puteri
This document summarizes an experiment to determine the focal length of convex and concave lenses. In the experiment, the focal lengths of lenses with known theoretical values were measured using an optical bench setup. Distances between the lens and object and lens and image were recorded to graph the relationship between 1/s and 1/s' and determine the experimental focal length. The experiment involved two activities - the first determined the focal length of a convex lens and the second of a concave lens. Results from the graph plots were then compared to the theoretical focal lengths of the lenses. The experiment allowed students to observe lens properties and relationships that are important for applications like eyeglasses and microscopes.
This document provides information about optical components and their properties. It discusses plane and spherical surfaces, Snell's law, and thin lenses. The key points are:
1) It defines optical terms like object and image conventions, focal length conventions, and radius of curvature conventions.
2) It explains how to model optical components like plane and spherical surfaces, thin lenses, and thick lenses using matrix methods. The matrix for a single component can be derived and components can be combined by multiplying their matrices.
3) Examples are given for calculating properties of simple lens systems like a thin lens in air using matrices and lensmaker's equation. Ray tracing is also demonstrated through matrix methods.
The document discusses the reflection and refraction of light. It defines reflection as light rays bouncing off a surface, while refraction is the bending of light rays when passing from one medium to another of different density. The key laws and concepts covered include:
- The law of reflection, where the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection
- Refractive index, which indicates how much a medium bends light
- Total internal reflection, which occurs when light travels from a dense to less dense medium at an angle greater than the critical angle
Several examples and applications are provided, such as plane mirrors, mirages, fiber optics, and lenses. Convex lenses form real images while concave lenses form virtual, upright,
This document discusses several optical instruments:
1. It defines the index of refraction and describes how to calculate it for different media.
2. It explains the properties and ray diagrams of converging and diverging lenses.
3. It describes how eyeglasses are used to correct vision problems like nearsightedness and farsightedness by calculating the needed lens power.
4. Other optical devices covered include magnifying glasses, microscopes, telescopes, and opera glasses, explaining how their lenses produce enlarged virtual images. Ray diagrams illustrate the image formation for different states of eye accommodation.
This document discusses concepts related to light, optics, and color. It begins by outlining students' prior knowledge and misconceptions about light. The key teaching challenges are explained as helping students understand light propagation and virtual images. A general model of radiation is presented involving a source, medium, and detector. Concepts such as refraction, dispersion, reflection, total internal reflection, lenses, and the eye are defined. Real and virtual images are distinguished. Color is discussed as involving either additive or subtractive properties. References for further support and resources are provided.
This document discusses concepts related to light, optics, and color. It begins by outlining students' prior knowledge and misconceptions about light. The key teaching challenges are explained as helping students understand light propagation and virtual images. A general model of radiation is presented involving a source, medium, and detector. Concepts such as refraction, dispersion, reflection, total internal reflection, lenses, and the eye are defined. Real and virtual images are distinguished. Color is discussed as involving either additive or subtractive properties. References for further teaching support are provided.
To Study Principles of Microscopy: Light Microscope, Phase Contrast Microsco...Om Prakash
To Study Principles of Microscopy: Light Microscope, Phase Contrast Microscope & Electron Microscope
ByOm Prakash
June 13, 2022
Write a Comment
on To Study Principles of Microscopy: Light Microscope, Phase Contrast Microscope & Electron Microscope
Aim: To study principles of Microscopy: Light Microscope, Phase Contrast Microscope & Electron Microscope
Table of Contents
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND:
Light Microscopy
History:
SIMPLE MICROSCOPE
Principles of Microscopy:
THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
Phase Contrast Microscope
Electron Microscopes
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM)
Also Read
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND:
Light Microscopy
The light microscope is an instrument designed for the study of cells and tissues. It comprises of lenses that produce a magnified image of the object under study. The light microscope is considered to be a simple important invention that has contributed to the advancement of biological research.
History:
The ancient Greeks and Romans knew the use of Glass and quartz lenses. In the 14th century, spectacles and lenses were used to magnify objects. Galileo had constructed a microscope at the same time (1610). It was employed for the study of the arrangement of the compound eye of insects. Anton Von Leeuwenhoek (1674), the father of biology was the first to use the microscope for biological studies. His microscope has consisted of a single lens with a higher power of magnification. The compound microscope was constructed by Robert Hooke (1665) and is the forerunner of the present-day compound microscope.
SIMPLE MICROSCOPE
The simple microscope distinguishes between two points that are less than 0.1mm apart when placed at a normal viewing distance of 25cm. The two points appear as one and the eye fails to resolve or distinguish them as two distinct points. Another limitation of the human eye is that it cannot resolve any image less than 5µm.
A simple microscope consists of a single convex lens or a combination of lenses that functions as a convex lens. A convex lens magnifies the objects and also helps to produce a magnified image of a near object which appears to be at the distance of distinct vision.
The magnification obtained with a convex lens can be easily calculated by the formula
M = 25/f + 1
Where f= focal length, 25 is the distance of distinct vision in cm.
Principles of Microscopy:
1. Resolving power: It is defined as the capacity of the microscope to distinguish images of two pointed objects lying very close together. If two points are at a distance of more than 0.2 µm, they will appear as two points in the microscope.
2. Limit of resolution: It is defined as the minimum distance at which two objects appear as two distinct objects or entities. It can be calculated as:
Limit of Resolution: 0.61λ/NA = 0.61λ/n Sin θ
Where 0.61 is the constant representing the minimum detectable difference in contrast λ = wavelength of illumination
NA = Numerical aperture, light gathering capa
GelombanG dan optika discusses key concepts in optics including:
1. The nature of light as both waves and particles. Light exhibits properties of waves like interference and diffraction as well as particle properties demonstrated by the photon model.
2. Reflection, refraction, and total internal reflection of light. Reflection follows the law that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Refraction is governed by Snell's law.
3. Image formation using plane mirrors, concave mirrors, and convex mirrors which can be analyzed using ray diagrams and mirror equations. Characteristics like magnification are determined.
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang usaha, daya, dan energi. Usaha adalah perubahan energi potensial atau kinetik sebagai fungsi waktu. Daya adalah usaha yang dilakukan dalam satu satuan waktu. Ada tiga jenis energi yaitu potensial, kinetik, dan mekanik yang merupakan penjumlahan energi potensial dan kinetik. Contoh perhitungan energi mekanik untuk benda yang jatuh diberikan.
Dokumen ini membahas tentang diet yang sesuai dengan golongan darah seseorang. Terdapat empat golongan darah utama yaitu A, B, AB, dan O, yang masing-masing memiliki antibodi terhadap golongan darah lain. Golongan darah dipengaruhi secara genetik dan berhubungan dengan sistem kekebalan tubuh. Jenis makanan yang dikonsumsi dapat mempengaruhi sistem kekebalan jika mengandung antigen yang tidak sesuai dengan golong
1. Usaha (W) adalah perubahan energi yang dilakukan atau energi yang berubah tiap satuan waktu (P). Contoh perhitungan usaha seseorang mendorong mobil 50N sejauh 100m dalam 25 detik adalah 200 joule.
2. Energi adalah kemampuan untuk melakukan usaha, yang terdiri atas energi potensial (Ep), kinetik (Ek), dan mekanik (Em). Ep dipengaruhi massa, gravitasi, dan ketinggian, sedangkan Ek dip
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang sistem kardiovaskular dan komposisi darah. Darah terdiri atas plasma dan elemen sel darah seperti eritrosit. Eritrosit berperan mengangkut oksigen dan memiliki siklus hidup selama 120 hari di sumsum tulang. Gangguan pada produksi darah dapat menyebabkan anemia.
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang sistem peredaran darah, meliputi komponen darah seperti plasma, eritrosit, leukosit, dan trombosit; fungsi darah; golongan darah; proses pembekuan darah; serta beberapa kelainan pada sistem peredaran darah seperti anemia dan leukemia.
Adaptasi morfologi adalah bentuk adaptasi pada makhluk hidup yang terlihat dari bentuk tubuh dan organ eksternalnya seperti paruh, kaki, dan mulut yang disesuaikan dengan lingkungan dan cara makanannya. Contohnya adalah paruh burung elang yang runcing untuk memburu mangsa daging dan paruh bebek yang berbentuk sisir untuk menyaring makanan dari air dan lumpur. Adaptasi ini membantu kelangsungan hidup makhluk.
Sistem ekskresi manusia terdiri dari ginjal, hati, kulit, dan paru-paru yang berfungsi mengeluarkan limbah metabolisme tubuh melalui urine, urea, keringat, dan karbon dioksida. Ginjal berperan menghasilkan urine melalui proses penyaringan, penyerapan kembali, dan pengeluaran zat. Penyakit sistem ekskresi seperti batu ginjal, diabetes, nefritis, dan gagal ginjal dapat disebabkan virus, bakteri
Eratosthenes, seorang ilmuwan Yunani kuno, mampu mengukur keliling bumi dengan menggunakan pengamatan sederhana di dua kota yang berjarak jauh. Ia mengukur sudut matahari di Alexandria dan Syene pada hari pertama musim panas dan menghitung jarak antara kedua kota tersebut."
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang klasifikasi materi ke dalam unsur, senyawa, dan campuran. Unsur adalah zat tunggal yang tidak dapat diuraikan lagi menjadi zat lain, sedangkan senyawa terbentuk dari gabungan beberapa unsur dengan sifat yang berbeda dari unsur penyusunnya. Rumus kimia digunakan untuk menuliskan senyawa.
Eratosthenes, seorang ilmuwan Yunani kuno, mampu mengukur keliling bumi dengan melakukan pengukuran sederhana di dua kota yang berjarak jauh, Syene dan Alexandria, pada hari pertama musim panas."
This presentation was provided by Racquel Jemison, Ph.D., Christina MacLaughlin, Ph.D., and Paulomi Majumder. Ph.D., all of the American Chemical Society, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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This presentation was provided by Rebecca Benner, Ph.D., of the American Society of Anesthesiologists, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
Level 3 NCEA - NZ: A Nation In the Making 1872 - 1900 SML.pptHenry Hollis
The History of NZ 1870-1900.
Making of a Nation.
From the NZ Wars to Liberals,
Richard Seddon, George Grey,
Social Laboratory, New Zealand,
Confiscations, Kotahitanga, Kingitanga, Parliament, Suffrage, Repudiation, Economic Change, Agriculture, Gold Mining, Timber, Flax, Sheep, Dairying,
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
3. A. Nature of Light (sifat dasar cahaya)
Sifat cahaya ada dua, yaitu:
1. Cahaya sebagai gelombang (waves)
2. Cahaya sebagai partikel (particles)
4. 1. Emission of Light (Pancaran Cahaya)
Elektron
Cahaya dipancarkan
Light is emited
Inti
Excited state
Keadaan
tereksitasi
Lower energy
level
Tingkat energi
Lebih rendah
Lowest energy level
Tingkat terendah
+
5. 2. Electromagnetic Waves (gelombang
Elektromagnetik)
Cahaya polikromatik (polychromatic light)
adalah cahaya yang terdiri dari berbagai
panjang gelombang dan frekuensi.
contoh : cahaya matahari (sunshine)
cahaya monokramatik (monochromatic light)
adalah cahaya yang hanya terdiri dari satu
panjang gelombang dan frekuensi.
contoh : laser
6. Hubungan panjang gelombang dan frekuensi
gelombang elektromagnetik (EMG),
dirumuskan:
fcv λ==
7. Dengan:
v = c = light speed (laju cahaya)
= 3 x 108
m/s
λ = wavelength/panjang gelombang (m)
f = frequency/frekuensi (Hz)
8. 3. Photon (foton)
adalah paket-paket energi cahaya atau
energi yang dibangkitkan oleh gerakan
muatan-muatan listrik (radiasi
elektromagnetik)
Foton merupakan partikel-partikel yang
tidak bermuatan listrik dan tidak
bermassa,tetapi mempunyai energi dan
momentum.
9. Besarnya energi
sebuah foton
dirumuskan:
Dengan :
E = photon energy (J)
h = Planck’s constant
= 6,63 x 10-34
Js
f = frequency (Hz)
1 eV = 1,6 x 10-19
J
hfE =
10. Contoh soal
Calculate the amount of photon emitted by a 100 watt
lamp in 2 second, if the light that radiated by the lamp
has wavelength of 600 nm!
Diket :
P = 100 watt t = 2 s
λ = 600 nm = 600 x 10-9
m
c = 3 x 108
m/s
h = 6,63 x 10-34
Js
Ditanya: n
11. b. Opaque Subtances (bahan tak tembus
cahaya)
light ray
Sinar cahaya
Mirror
Cermin
12. 4. Interaction of Light with substances
(interaksi cahaya dengan bahan)
a. Transparent Subtstances (bahan tembus
cahaya)
lens
13. c. Translucent Substances (bahan buram)
- meneruskan
- memantulkan
- menyerap
- menghamburkan
contoh : air keruh
14. 5. Interference, Diffraction, and
Polarization (interferensi, difraksi, dan
polarisasi)
a. Interference (Interferensi)
adalah sebuah peristiwa yang terjadi
ketika dua buah gelombang bertemu
pada saat bergerak dalam medium yang
sama.
Interferensi gelombang ada 2 yaitu:
interferensi konstruktif dan destruktif
15. b. Difraction (difraksi)
Pembelokan atau penyebaran gelombang cahaya ketika
cahaya tersebut dilewatkan melalui celah sempit.
contoh : difraksi sinar – x oleh kisi kristal padat
c. Polarization
proses pengubahan cahaya tak terpolarisasi menjadi
cahaya terpolarisasi.
Proses polarisasi:
- transmisi
- pemantulan
- pembiasan
- hamburan menggunakan polaroid filter.
16. 6. The development of Theories of Light
(Perkembangan Teori-teori Cahaya)
a. Impuls Theory of Light (teori impuls
cahaya)
b. Corpuscular Theory (teori Korpuskuler)
c. Waves Theory (teory gelombang)
d. Theory of Electromagnetic Waves (teori
gelombang elektromagnetik)
e. Quantum Theory (teori kuantum)
17. B. Reflection of Light (Pemantulan Cahaya)
1. Stremam of Ligth (Berkas cahaya)
Source of light
Sumber cahaya
Waves front
Muka gelombang
Rays/sinar
18. Kinds of stream of ligth (jenis-jenis berkas
cahaya)
Parallel/sejajar
Diverging
Menyebar
Converging
mengumpul
20. 3. The Law of Light Reflection (Hukum
Pemantulan cahaya)
I R
θi θR
N
I = incident ray
sinar datang
R = reflected ray
sinar pantul
21. The Law of light reflection:
a. Incident ray, reflected ray, and the
normal line cut at one point and lie on
one straight plane.
b. The angle of incidence (θi) is equal to the
angle reflection (θR)
θI = θR
22. 4. Reflection of Light on Plane Mirrors
(Pemantulan pada Cermin Datar)
a. The Characteristics of Image on Plane
Mirrors (Sifat-sifat Bayangan pada
Cermin Datar)
1) Cannot catched by screen (virtual image)
(bayangan maya)
2) Upright and face invertedly to the object
(tegak dan menghadap berlawanan arah
terhadap bendanya)
23. 3) The image is equal in size as the object
(bayangan sama besar dengan bendanya)
4) The image distance to the mirror is equal
to the object distance to the mirror (jarak
bayangan ke cermin sama dengan jarak
benda ke cermin)
S S’
24. b. Drawing Image Formation in Plane
Mirrors with Ray Diagram (melukis
pembentukan bayangan pada cermin
datar dengan diagram sinar)
c. The Sum of Image on Plane Mirror
(jumlah bayangan pada cermin
datar)
mn −=
α
0
360
25. Contoh
Two plane mirrors form an angle of
90o
of each. If an object is placed
between both mirrors, determine the
sum of image formed!
26. 5. Reflection in Curved Mirrors
(Pemantulan pada cermin Lengkung)
a. The Anatomy of Concave and
Convex Mirror (anatomi cermin
cekung dan cermin cembung)
O
FM
O
F M
R R
Concave mirror Convex mirror
27. b. Reflection in Concave Mirrors
(Pemantulan Pada Cermin Cekung)
28. 1) Special Rays in Convave Mirrors (sinar-
sinar istimewa pada cermin cekung)
a) The incident ray parallel to the principal
axis will be reflected passing through the
focal point.
O
FM
+
29. b) The incident ray passing through the focal
point will be reflected parallel to the
principal axis.
O
FM
+
30. c) The incident ray passing through the
mirror’s center of curvature will be
reflected again through the same point.
OFM
+
31. 2) Drawing Image Formation in Concave Mirrors
with Ray Diagrams (melukis pembentukan
bayangan pada cermin cekung dengan
diagram sinar)
3) Spherical Aberration (Aberasi Sferis)
FM
32. c. Reflection in Convex Mirror
(Pemantulan pada Cermin
Cembung)
F M
33. 1) Special Rays in convex Mirrors
(Sinar-sinar Istimewa pada
Cermin Cembung)
a) The incident ray parallel to the
principal axis will be reflected as
if it comes from the focal point.
F MO
34. 2) The incident ray that seems to
wards the focal point will be
reflected parallel to the principal
axis.
F M
35. c) The incident ray that seems to
wards the mirror’s center of
curvature will be reflected as if it
comes from that point.
F M
36. 2) Drawing Image Formation in
Convex Mirrors with Ray
Diagram (Melukis
Pembentukkan Bayangan pada
Cermin Cembung dengan
Diagram Sinar)
37. d. Esbach’s Theorem (Dalil
Esbach)
OFM
III II I IV
+
CONCAVE MIRRORS
O F M
IV I II III
-
CONVEX MIRRORS
38. The image characteristics of concave and
convex mirrors can be determined based on
Esbach’s theorem according to the rules as
follows:
1. R + R’ = 5
2. All images in front of the mirrors are real and
inverted.
3. All images behind the mirrors are virtual and
upright.
4. R’ > R (then the image is magnified)
5. R’ < R (then the image is reduced)
39. e. The Curved Mirror Equation
(Persamaan Cermin Lengkung)
'
112
'
111
ssR
atau
ssf
+=
+=
40. Where:
f = mirror focal length (panjang
fokus cermin)
S = object distance to the mirror
(jarak benda ke cermin)
S’= image distance to the mirror
(jarak bayangan ke cermin)
R = mirror’s radius of vurvature
(jari-jari cermin)
= 2f
41. Note (catatan)
In the curved mirror equation, there
are rules of mark, those are:
f and R is positive (+) for concave
mirrors
f and R is negative (-) for convex mirrors
S is positive (+) if the object is in front
of the mirror and s is negative (-) if the
object lies behind the mirror.
S’ is positive (+) if the image lies is in
front of the mirror and s’ is negative (-)
if the image lies behind the mirror.
42. Linear magnification is defined
as the ratio of image height (h’)
with object height (h), this
magnification is formulated by
the following equation.
s
s
h
h
M
'' −
==
43. Where:
M = linear magnification
(perbesaran linier)
h’ = image height (tinggi
bayangan)
h = object height (tinggi benda)
44. Sample Problem
1. A convex mirror has focal
length of 20 cm. If an object lies
10 cm in front of the mirror,
determine:
a. Image distance to the mirror
b. Image linier magnification.
45. 2. An object of 2 cm in height
stands upright in front of a
concave mirror which has the
focal length 10 cm. If the object
distance to the mirror 15 cm,
ditermine:
a. Image magnification
b. Image height
46. f. Problem Solving of Two Mirrors
which Face Each Other
(Penyelesaian Masalah Dua
Buah Cermin yang saling
Berhadapan)
Secara matematis jarak antar
cermin dirumuskan:
2
'
1 ssd +=
47. Where:
d = distance between mirror (jarak
antar cermin)
s1’ = first image distance to the
first mirror (jarak bayangan
pertama ke cermin pertama)
S2 = first image distance to the
second mirror (jarak
bayangan pertama ke cermin
ke dua)
48. The final image resulthan from
the curved mirror system that
face each other has the total
magnification as follows.
2
'
2
1
'
1
21
s
s
x
s
s
xMMMtot ==
49. Refraction of Light
(Pembiasan Cahaya)
1. The Definition of Light
Refraction (Pengertian
Pembiasan Cahaya)
Pembiasan cahaya adalah:
peristiwa pembelokan arah
cahaya ketika meliwati bidang
batas diantara dua medium
yang berbeda.
50. Pada Pembiasan cahaya terjadi:
Perubahan arah
Perubahan kecepatan
Perubahan panjang gelombang
Frekuensi dan fase gelombang
tetap
51. 2. The Law of Refraction (Snell’s Law)
1. Snell’s I law:
“The incident ray, refracted ray and
normal line all lie on one plane”
2. Snell’s II law:
“If the incident ray travels from a less
dense to a denser medium, then it
bends (refracts) towards the normal
line, and if the incident ray travels from
a denser to a less dense medium then it
bends (refracts) away from the normal
line.
53. Secara matematis dirumuskan:
2211 sinsin θθ nn =
Where:
n1 = refractive index of medium 1
n2 = refractive index of medium 2
Θ1 = angle of incidence
Θ2 = angle of refraction
54. 3. Refractive Index (Indeks Bias)
1. Absolute refractive index
v
c
n =
Where:
n = absolute refractive index
c = light speed in air
= 3 x 108
m/s
v = light speed in medium (m/s)
56. Generally, for two medium, the
Snell’s law equation is:
21
2
1
1
2
2211
sin
sin
sinsin
n
n
n
or
nn
==
=
θ
θ
θθ
57. When light travels a certain
medium to another medium and
is refracted, then it has different
speed in the two medium.
Therefore, holds the following
eqution.
21
2
1
1
2
2
1
n
n
n
v
v
===
λ
λ
58. Sample Problem
A stream of light travels from air to a
glass with the angle of incidence 60o
,
if nair = 1 and nglass = √3, determine the
angle of light refraction!
The speed of light in air 3 x 108
m/s
and its frequency 6 x 1014
Hz,
determine:
a. Light speed in water (n = 1,33)
b. The change of wavelength in water and
in air
59. Scientific Activity
(Kegiatan Ilmiah)
Refraction of Light in Planparallel Glass
( Pembiasan cahaya pada kaca Planparalel)
Refraction of Light in Prism
(Pembiasan Cahaya pada Prisma)
61. Total reflection can occur if the following two
conditions are complied, those are, light
travels from a denser to a less dense medium
and the light angle of incidence is larger than
the critical angle.
1
2
21
sin
90sinsin
n
n
nn
k
o
k
=
=
θ
θ
62. Where :
n1 = refractive index of medium 1 (denser
medium)
n2 = refractive index of medium 2 (less dense
medium)
θk = critical angle
63. Reflection of Light in Planparallel Glass
(Pembiasan pada Kaca Planparallel)
N1 N2
d
n1
n2> n1
n1
θ1
θ2
t
θ1’
θ2’
64. The magnitude of light displacement complies
the following equation:
( )
2
21
cos
sin
θ
θθ −
=
d
t
65. Where:
t = displacement of light
d = planparallel glass thickness
θ1= angle of incidence
θ2= angle of refraction
66. Refraction of Light in Prism
(Pembiasan Cahaya pada
Prisma)
N1
N2
β
θ1
θ2 θ3
θ4
D
67. Based on the figure above, then the
refraction in prism the following
equations:
βθθ
θθβ
−+=
+=
41
32
D
and
Where:
β = angle of refrator
θ1 = first angle of
incidence
θ2 = first angle
Of refraction
D = deviation angle
θ3 = second angle of
Incidence
θ4 = second angle of
refraction
68. If θ1 = θ4, then:
βθ −= 12mD
Dm = angle of minimum deviation
69. Because at the moment of minimum
deviation θ1 = θ4, then θ2= θ3, so that θ1= ½
(β + Dm), and β = 2θ2 = 2θ3
Then, Snell’s law equation:
( ) ββ 2
1
2
1
sinsin pmm nDn =+
Where :
nm = refractive index of medium
np = refractive index of pris
70. Specifically for β ≤ 150
, then holds the
following equation :
β
−= 1
m
p
m
n
n
D
71. Sample problem
The ray of light shown in Figure 1 is
incident upon a 600
-600
-600
glass prism, n
= 1,5
θ1=450
θ2 θ1’
θ2’
600
600
600
P Q
72. a. Using Snell’s law of refraction,
determine the angle θ2, the nearest
degree.
b. Using elementary geometri, determine
the value of θ1’
c. Determine θ2’
73. A light hits one surface of a thick glass
by angle of incidence 600
. If the
refraction index of glass 1,5, then
calculate the angle formed by the light
coming out from the glass to the normal
line!
74. Refraction of Light in Curved Plane
(Pembiasan Cahaya pada Bidang Lengkung)
Light refraction in curved plane
s
S’
n1 n2
75. Mathematically, the image formation
in transparent curved plane complies
the following equation:
R
nn
s
n
s
n 12
,
21 −
=+
Where:
n1 = refractive index of medium 1
n2 = refractive index of medium 2
S = object distance to the curved plane surface
S’ = image distance to the curved plane surface
R = radius of curvature
76. While the magnification of image
formed can be ditermined by the
following equation:
2
1''
n
n
x
s
s
h
h
M ==
Where:
M = image magnification
h’ = image height
h = object height
77. The value of R, s and s’ from the
above equtions comply the following
rules:
R positive (+) if the surface of plane is
convex and R negative (-) if the surface
of plane is concave.
S positive (+) for real object and s
negatif (-) for virtual object.
S’ positive (+) for real image and s’
negatif (-) for virtual image.
78. Object focal points in curved plane
F1
f1
n1 n2
S’ = ∼
79. Based on the figure above, for s = f1,
then s’= ~, therefore the object focal
length (f1) can be determined as
follows:
12
1
1
1
12
1
121
1221
,
nn
Rn
f
thenfs
because
nn
Rn
s
R
nn
s
n
R
nnn
s
n
−
=
=
−
=
−
=
−
=
∝
+
Where:
f1 = object focal
length