The document provides an overview of key concepts in legislative politics and campaign strategies. It discusses participation rates in elections and who tends to vote. It also covers party identification, realignment, and interest groups. Additionally, the document outlines important elements of developing campaign strategies such as determining a theme, understanding your audience based on voting behavior, opinions, geography and demographics, and methods of message delivery. Targeting priority areas based on past election results and allocating resources effectively is also emphasized.

1. Legislative Politics
POLS 4211 Chap. 4, 5, 6
1

2. Participation
• The most important question a candidate wants
answered – how many votes do I need to win!
• Who Cares?
– However VAP is figured…turnout is low
• Reasons vary
– Not govt mandated but public choice
– Cynical about politics
» Negative ads, media & scandals
– Registration rules vary & election dates (Oregon allows phone
voting – naked voting)
– 40% of nonvoters Don’t Care about politics
– JKF, Jr. and George
2

3. Participation - 2
• Percentage reporting participation:
– Had interest in political campaign – 84%
– Voted in presidential elections – 49%
– Tried to persuade others about vote choice – 29%
– Attended party meetings – 6%
– Worked in campaign – 3%
• Since 1952 only the turnout rate dropped …more than
10% points
• Puzzle = 1996 presidential turnout rate was lower than
before the Civil War and this decline runs counter to the
rise in educational level of the electorate
3

4. Who Votes?
• Those excluded are:
– Jailed inmates (> 2 million in 2000)
• Only 2 states allow them to vote
– Convicted felons (>1.4 million in 2000)
• Barred from voting in 14 states
• May ask for pardon/reinstatement of rights
– Undocumented aliens (> 14 million in 2000)
• CA and NY have proposals to allow aliens voting
4

5. Who Votes - 2
• Age Highly correlated with propensity to vote
– (18-29) Vote or Die!
– As age increases, so does the proportion of persons voting
(unless they are very old & infirm)
• Education
– Probably the best correlation…more education = more
likely to vote
– Blacks & whites of same education vote at same rates!
• Gender
– Females, since 1992, have voted at a higher percentage than
men
– Generally attributed to increasing levels of education and
employment
5

6. Who Votes - 3
• Income
– Higher incomes tend to participate more…of
course this largely corresponds to occupation and
those with higher-status jobs are more likely to
vote
• Race
– Blacks were about 10% points below whites in
1992 & 94 but more recently have closed the gap to
within 4% pts (remember education factor)
– Hispanics are not yet participating at rates similar
to females & blacks but history teaches that over
time this will change
6

7. GOTV
• Get Out The Vote
– To increase turnout, Congress in 1993 passed the Motor-
Voter Law
• Permitted registration by mail, driver’s license and encouraging
registration at other facilities (Malls)
– Increased over 3.5 million registered voters for 1996
election
– Represented only 1.8% of all registered voters that yr
– But the % who actually voted declined by over 5% from
1992
– The 1st election since 1972 when the franchise was extended
to 18-21s that voter registration rose while turnout declined
– Also, seemed to increase GOP voters…NOT expected.
7

8. Developing Campaign Strategies
Issue Voting - Do Issues Matter?
– The Rational Voter?
• Do voters think ideologically?
– Look at Original Dilemma & Equality
– (See Note)
– Varies but is often relatively low
– Provides a lens
• Most US citizens are moderates or report not knowing whether
they are liberal or conservative
– Single Issue Groups (PIGs)
• National Rifle Assn
– Claimed credit for defeating #’s Dems in 1990s
– Some vote according to their paramount issue!
– Single best positive factor = Strong Economy
8

9. Party Identification
– An informal and subjective affiliation with a political party that most people
acquire in childhood
• One of the most important in POLS
– It signifies a voter’s sense of psychological attachment to a party –
which is NOT the same thing as voting for the party in any given
election.
– Voting is a behavior; identification is a state of mind
• For example, millions of southerners voted for Eisenhower in 1952 & 1956
but continued to consider themselves Democrats
– More people identify with one of the 2 major parties than reject a party
attachment
– The number of GOP & Dems combined far exceeds the independents in
every year
– The number of Dems consistently exceeds that of the GOP
– The number of Dems has shrunk over time, to the benefit of both the
GOP and independents, and the 3 groups are now almost equal in size
9

10. Party Identification
• Party identification is the single best predictor of how
people will vote!
• Unlike candidates and issues, which come and go, party
ID is a long-term element in voting choice.
• The strength of party ID is also important in predicting
participation and political interest.
• Strong Rep/Dem participate more actively than other
groups and are generally better informed about political
issues
• Pure Independents are just the opposite; they vote at the
lowest rates and have the lowest levels of interest and
awareness of any of the categories of party ID
10

11. Party Alignment
• Critical Elections/Periods – 1 party yields preeminence or major voting
groups alter the shape of the parties’ coalitions, or both
• E.g.
– Civil War
– 1890s
– New Deal
– Contract with America – 1990s
• Other changes w/o underlying party realignment
– Wilson 1913-1919
– Johnson Great Society 1964-1968
– Post Watergate 1974
– Reagan early 1980s
– GOP revolution 1994-1995
• National Mood
– Wilson & Johnson 1916 & 1968
– Kennedy & Carter 1979
– Bush & Cleveland 2004 & 1892
11

12. Re-Alignment
• Election that dramatically changes the voters’ partisan
identification and persists through several subsequent elections
– Believed to occur every 36 years
• 1860-1894: A Rough Balance. The GOP won 8 of 10 presidential elections
– Johnson may be considered Union party and Cleveland won in 1884 & 1892
• 1896-1930: election of 1896 helped solidify a GOP majority in industrial
America and forged a link between the GOP and business. GOP dominated
national politics – controlling the presidency, the Senate, and the House –
almost continuously from 1896 until the Wall Street crash of 1929.
• 1932-1990s: formed the “Roosevelt coalition” = along with democratic
voters in the solid south came urban workers in the North, middle-class
liberals, Catholics, Jews, labor and new European ethnic voters.
• GOP had better success with Presidents and 1994 gained control of
Congress for the first time in 40 years. They retained control after the 1996
election – the 1st time they took both houses in successive election since
Herbert Hoover was elected in 1928. GOP took Congress again in 1998, but
Democrats gained five house seats. Not since 1934 had a president’s party
won seats in a midterm election.
12

13. De-Alignment
• Instead of a full realignment, we seem to be in a period of
electoral dealignment, in which party loyalties have become
less important to voters as they cast their ballots.
• As a cartoon in the New York Times suggested – John Kerry
locks the door to a store…The New Deal is “out of business”
• The Solid South consistently votes Republican
– The DOJ attempts to increase majority black districts helped give
additional districts to GOP (paradox of representation)
• Several third parties have tried but…
– Congressional polls at an all-time low
– Talk of creating 3rd party has been popular since 90s
13

14. Congressional Party Platforms
• 1994 Contract With America
– Enact during 1st 100 days (FDRs 100 days)
– Balanced budget amendment
– Presidential line-item veto
– Internal House reform
– Term limits
– Crime proposals
– Welfare reform
– Business regulation
– Tax cuts
• FEW were enacted … some of the GOP retired
14

15. Congressional Party Platforms
• Six for ’06
- Enact during 1st 100 hours (Pelosi)
1- Minimum wage increase
2- Stem cell research development
3- Health care
4- National security
5- Education
6- Energy
15

16. Miller & Stokes
• Studied links between voters’ attitudes &
members voting
– Constituency attitudes correlated differently according
to the kind of policy
• Foreign Affairs negatively correlated
• Welfare/Social moderate
• Civil Rights high
16

17. Issue Uptake – Tracy Sulkin
• Legislative responsiveness process of
– Learning issue saliency during campaign
• Influences their congressional agenda
– Influences the intensity for issues
– Influences their public policy interests
» Focus…committee choices, etc.
17

18. Terms
• Party Identification
– An informal and subjective affiliation with a political party that most people acquire in
childhood
• Political Socialization
– The process by which we develop our political attitudes, beliefs, and values
• Interest Group
– A collection of people who share a common interest or attitude and seek to influence
government for specific ends. Interest groups usually work within the framework of
government and try to achieve their goals through tactics such as lobbying.
• Lobbyist
– A person who is employed by and acts for an organized interest group or corporation to try
to influence policy decisions and positions in the executive and legislative branches.
• Lobbying
– Engaging in activities aimed at influencing public officials, especially legislators, and the
policies they enact.
• Issue Network
– Relationships among interest groups congressional committees and subcommittees, and
the government agencies that share a common policy concern.
18

19. Terms
• Party Dealignment
– Weakening of partisan preferences that points to a rejection of both major parties and a
rise in the number of independents
• Party Realignment (36 years)
– An election that dramatically changes the voters’ partisan identification
• Interest Group
– A collection of people who share a common interest or attitude and seek to influence
government for specific ends. Interest groups usually work within the framework of
government and try to achieve their goals through tactics such as lobbying.
• Lobbyist
– A person who is employed by and acts for an organized interest group or corporation to try
to influence policy decisions and positions in the executive and legislative branches.
• Lobbying
– Engaging in activities aimed at influencing public officials, especially legislators, and the
policies they enact.
• Issue Network
– Relationships among interest groups congressional committees and subcommittees, and
the government agencies that share a common policy concern.
19

20. Campaign Strategy
• Campaigns are a communications process!
• The straightforward method of winning?
– Hardwork…& repetitive, persuasive
communication with your likely supporters!
• Components of communication (interrelated)
– Theme
– Audience
– Delivery
– Timing
– Resources
20

21. Campaign Strategy - 2
• Theme – the most important element
– What is the single, most important message to be
communicated to the electorate
• It’s the economy stupid!
• Read my lips, no new taxes!
– It’s a mistake to confuse the laundry list of the
candidate’s positions on various issues with the
fundamental theme that should define a campaign.
21

22. Theme, cont.
– 2 main factors should determine theme
• Policy issues that concern voters
• Personal characteristics and reputation of the candidate
– Are most voters in the district renters or military
• Then relate personal characteristics/reputation to match
the voters want a.k.a. Are you one of them?
– 1980 Kennedy vs. Carter
• Kennedy chose “leadership” with his picture on full-
page ads to contrast his persona to Carter’s lackluster
image
– Backfired – people contrasted Kennedy to Chappaquidick to
Carter’s high moral standard
» Remember Watergate era
22

23. Theme, 3
• Remember, the proposed theme should also be
evaluated in the context of the audience to
which it will be addressed – the voters in your
district. You CAN’T sell wrinkle cream to
teenagers, not even very good wrinkle cream.
23

24. Audience
• Your communication must convince your
audience and motivate them to vote for YOU
• Strategy must consider the following 4
variables
– Voting behavior
– Voter opinions
– Geography
– Demographics
24

25. Audience - 2
• Voting behavior
– Targeting – defining the most likely audience for
your campaign
• Narrowing the audience for your campaign
• Concentrate your limited resources where they will do
the most good…which is produce the most votes
– Again…Even for the smallest campaign, the secret
to success is repetitive, persuasive communication
with your likely supporters, NOT casual contact
with the entire universe of adults!
– Study past voting behavior/patterns = party patterns
25

26. Audience - 3
• Voter Opinions
• Evaluate the opinions of the electorate
– Emphasize the candidate’s priority issues that most
closely match the key concerns of the targeted
electorate
26

27. Audience - 4
• Geography
– May limit possible campaign styles
• Distance between homes
– Urban vs. rural resident campaign styles
» Door to door canvass
» Security systems in high-rise bldgs?
– Will define main travel an assembly routes
• May reach many voters with relatively few volunteers by leafleting
bus, subway, or railway stations
– Also must consider differences among neighborhoods or
communities within district
• Some may be concerned about economic development … specific
industry vs. another concerned about job growth
27

28. Audience - 5
• Delivery - 2 basic methods
– Direct personal communication
• By the candidate, surrogates, or volunteers
– Non-direct or mediated
• Radio, TV, newspapers, brochures, billboards, staged
‘events’, paid advertising,
• The important thing to remember is that all the
methods chosen for delivering your campaign
message should reinforce one another.
28

29. Audience - 6
• Resources: people, money and time
– Rule 1: resources are always limited and needs are always
unlimited!
– Good Housekeeping Seal of approval
• Endorsements of key individuals
• Support of movers & shakers
• General recruits
– Prior campaign experience a plus +
– The greatest assets that volunteers bring to a campaign are
their enthusiasm and their commitment.
– Time is usually measured by counting the number of days
until the election.
29

30. Targeting Your Audience
• Obtaining Election Results
• Selecting Comparison Races
• Targeting Priority Areas
• Percent-of-Effort Targeting
– Identifies the likely % of your total vote that will come
from each subdivision so that you can allocate the
appropriate resources to each area
– Divide # votes cast in single ward for candidate by # votes
cast in entire district for candidate will = ward’s % of vote
– List the wards in descending order of their average percent-
of-effort to assign a priority ranking to each
30

31. Targeting Your Audience - 2
• Fine-Tuning the Results
– Consider several factors before the final priority
ranking
• Is there a large concentration of union members or active
community organization or industry?
• Are there media outlets in an area that may affect
voters?
• Is there a strong PIG or single issue PIG?
• Is the opponent’s home ward popularity so strong that
you should concede those votes or coversely, is
dissatisfaction so high in a particular area that you may
make unusual gains
31

32. Targeting Your Audience - 3
• Precinct Targeting
– Size
– Turnout
– Performance
– Persuadability
• Ranking Precincts in Priority Order
• Targeting Primary Elections
• Identifying Individual Voters
32

33. Being There
• Foggy Bottom:
– Few wanted to go to new Capitol
– It was a part-time job, members averaged less than
5 years and returned to private life
– Congressional pay was low
• During 1800s
– Pay increased and membership became more
attractive
• 1850s
– Roughly one-half of all House members retired or
were defeated at each election
33

34. Being There - 2
• By 1900
– Roughly one-quarter of all House members retired
or were defeated at each election
– Pendleton Act
• Civil Service Reform
• PUAD begins
• By 1930s
– Govt services increased dramatically along with
influence/regulation
34

35. Being There - 3
• By 1950s
– being a member became a full-time job and long
term career
– They began to exploit the natural advantages that
come with incumbency
• Name recognition
• Service to citizens back home (claiming advantage)
• Campaign funding
• Nearly unlimited access to the media
• Franking privilege
– 1954 = 44 million pieces of mail sent home
– 2004 = increased by over 1000%
35

36. Being There - 4
• By 1970
– The number had fallen to barely a tenth
• Even in 1994 congressional elections, when the
GOP won the House majority for the 1st time in
40 years, 90% of House incumbents who ran
for reelection won!
36

37. Being There - 5
• Many vie for the chance now and enjoy the
fruits of government retirement ($165,200 – 2007)
• Revolving Door: employment cycle in which individuals
who work for governmental agencies that regulate
interest eventually end up working for interest groups or
businesses with the same policy concern
• “In the short rum, everybody plays and nearly
everybody wins. Yet the institution bleeds from
435 separate cuts.” Political Scientist Richard
F. Fenno, Jr.
37

38. Legislators & Representativeness
• How alike are officials to their constituents?
– Some characteristics are more recognizable than
others
• Difficult to ‘see’ wealth
• Difficult to ‘see’ ideology
– Most officials are white, anglo-saxon, protestant,
males (WASPs)
• Most are more educated and wealthy than their
constituents
• No specific personality types have been polled or tested
• Criminals = about the average for the population
38

39. Legislators & Representativeness - 2
• Wealthy
– Top 1% of income
• Av household = $42,600
• Females (Jeannette Rankin 1916 Montana)
– 199 been elected (vs. 115 A. Americans)
– 17% total in 110th Congress
• Age (now highest in history)
– House = 56
– Senate = 62
39

40. Legislators & Representativeness - 3
• Race
– Minority representation (total = 16%)
– A. Americans 8.2%
– Latino 5.6%
– Asain/Pac 1.7%
– Native am 1 house member
• Most AA are representing districts with over
50% AA VAP
• Future note relates to difference in how we
determine race
40

41. Legislators & Representativeness - 4
• Religion
– 1 atheist
– Most are Catholic or Protestant
– 7% Jewish (2.6% of population)
– 1 Muslim and 2 Buddhists
• Many say they attend a church or synagogue
weekly
• Tammy Baldwin D-Wis became the first lesbian representative
whose sexual orientation was known before her initial election
41

42. Legislators & Representativeness - 5
• Totals add up to more than 535 because some of the officials have more
than one occupation group…they determine background info
• Business, banking (largest group)
• Lawyers = 162 Rep & 58 Senators (41%)
– Real Estate and Insurance
• Public Service
– 272 were state legislators
– 116 were previously on D.C. staff
• Many were interns
– 9 were Governors
42

43. Diversity
• Most of the officials are wealthy and over one-
third are millionaires.
• Old customs die hard…Appropriations
Committee, Chairman Robert Byrd still
addressed committee members as “Gentlemen”
even though some committee members were
females
• A.Americans have done the best approaching
9% membership vs. females approaching 17%
43

44. Representing
• Hanna Finichel Pitkins two styles
– Substantive: consciously acting for constituents
even if not one of them
– Descriptive or symbolic: One of them
• Sometimes more superficial
• Believed that many perceive of one of their
own in more positive terms even if they do not
represent their interests
– they tend to remember their names
– Provides a sense of pride
44

45. Speaker Sam Rayburn
• “New members were to go along in order to get
along, and to be seen and not heard.”
• The norms were simple such as the norm of
seniority
• The Senate, especially, was considered the
worlds best men’s club
– Perks were many
• Personal media consultants, mass communications
hardware, exercise center with personal trainer, etc.
• With seniority, committee chairs were available and
added perks
– Additional staff, etc.
45

46. Herbert B. Asher – 7 norms
1. Friendly relationships are desirable
- Norm of seniority
1. The important work of the House should be done in
committees, not on the floor
2. Learning the procedural rules of the House is essential
3. Members should not personally criticize a colleague on the
House floor
- Norm of courtesy
1. Member should be prepared to trade votes
2. Members should be specialists
- Norm of specialization
1. Freshmen should serve apprenticeships
- Norm of apprenticeship
46

47. New Norms
• Equally simple as old norms.
– More impatient & more professional staff work
• New members are no longer willing to wait their turn to speak or
introduce legislation and now have enough staff to make their
opinions known on just about any issue at just about any point in
the legislative process
– Norm of courtesy still lives
– New congressional career allows little time for the
following old norms
• Specialization
• Seniority
• Apprenticeship
– Members take care of their electoral concerns 1st!
47

48. Bringing Home The Bacon
• It’s not pork if it’s for my state!
• Earmarks
– Special spending projects that are set aside on
behalf of individual members of congress for their
constituents
• Earmarks help increase the incumbency advantage and
may provide a carrot and stick approach for party
members
48

49. Schedule
• There is not enough time except for individuals
who do not have a life!
– No specific verifiable measure of “hours/week”
• Senate averages 3 coms & 7 subcoms
• House averages 2 coms & 4 subcoms
– Mix of constituent contact and constituent
legislative needs (bills/regulations)
– Most legislators desire to spend more time on
legislative affairs
• See Table 5-2
49

50. Schedule - 2
• Staff professionalism
– Maintains office
– Maintains officials schedule
– Acts as stand-in/proxy when possible
– Handles constituent services as much as possible
– Often EA is professional personal friend with
management experience
• Some hires are DC professionals and others are merit –
supporter hires
50

51. Staff Functions
• Staff Functions
– Most aides are
• Young, well-educated, transient
– Served less than 4 years
• Salaries above US average but low, especially for DC
– A.A. = Chief of Staff
– LA = Legislative Assistant
– PA = Press Assistant
– Someone generally handles interns and interns are
spread among various depts
51

52. Staff Functions - 2
• Most of the Congress members have about
one-third + of their office staff in their home
district
– Generally, home districts costs are less
• Helps to have staff who are well-known in the area and
they may have home within commuting distance
– Helps create appearance of Home connectedness
• Many franchise businesses MUST have office in the
community as mandated by the governing authority
– Why do we need a GA Power office in every city?
– Post Office locations = politics
» Sugar Hill GA
52

53. Staff
• House = $1.2 million
– 18 full-time & 4 part-time but usually av. 15
• Senate = $ based on state’s population and
distance from DC
– 13 to 71 staff but average 30 to 35
– 3 separate accounts & Interns
• Administrative
• Clerical (varies according to state population)
• Legislative assistants
• Internships – different system
53

54. Internships
• See appendix B
– Internships, the OJT for students, provides
opportunity for students to get experience and
legislators cheap labor
– The Washington Center attempts to fill the
clearninghouse void by contracting with many DC
agencies, etc.
• Several obstacles exist such as the varied qualifications
and background checks of agencies
• Studying in Washington: Academic Internships
in the Nation’s capital. Stephen E. Frantzich
54

55. Soaking & Poking in DC
• Author’s 5 observations:
1 - No central clearinghouse exists
• Look often and broadly
– Be persistent, patient and determined
2 - Research the offices and pick an area you like
3 - Target your congress members or close neighbors
4 - Intern placements are plentiful … remember #1
5 - Work may be drudgery (gopher) but can be
rewarding intellectually
• Remember, many interns return to work full-
time in DC after graduation
55

56. Staying in Touch
• Direct Mail (the frank)
– Includes all US Postal mail
• Print and media postage
• Abused over the last 2 decades
– Mailings increased during election years and just prior to an
election cycle
– Congress implemented franking rules after
media/public complaints
• Limits (next slide)
56

57. Franking Limitations
– Mail “must be related to the official business,
activities and duties of members”
– Prohibits mail for a “matter which specifically
solicits political support for the sender or any other
person or any political party, or a vote or financial
assistance for any candidate for any political office
– Prohibits mass mailings (500+ pieces) 60 days
(Senate) or 90 days (House) before primary, runoff,
general election
• Result…considerable amount of mail is sent few months
before election cycle
57

58. Franking Limits - 2
– Linked mailing costs to office expenses
• General staff prepares mail, folding, etc.
– Caps placed
• Senate = 1 piece for each address in state
• House = 3 pieces for each address in district
• Curb advertising features such as personal references or
pictures
– Internet communication
• Senate loosely applies restrictions
• House … no restrictions
– Internet, blogs, etc. will become more important
and little “legal” limitation will be available
58

59. Feeding the local press
• Most local news organizations do not have a
DC bureau and depend on AP/UPI for info
• Congress members often have Press Secretary
– Schedules media events, media mailings, press
discussions and provides 1st person discussions
– May provide “actualities” prepared statements (on
tape or digital format) via audio/video studio
• Excerpts often used by local media especially on slow
news day…ready made and easy to use
– Some special news actuality may be presented in person by
local PIG or interested individual
• Some just want the official on video but overall the
officials tended to be treated well by the press
59

60. Other Communication Methods
• In-Person
– Contradiction
• Constituents want to be in-touch with their official but also demand
she vote (be present) for most votes in Congress
• Congress members make frequent commutes home
– Obviously, some expected more than others
• New Jersey, Maryland much more than say Hawaii, Alaska
• Safe seats and they may stay in D.C
– More senior members tend to make fewer commutes!
• If family stays in state, more commutes
• If anti-Washington, better make more commutes and don’t be
caught enjoying the D.C. life!
• Some maintain their club memberships…at home
• Wealth brings power and most would like a 2nd / 3rd home
– Keeping up with the Joneses
60

61. “Casework is all profit”
• Constituency services
– Ombudsperson: review of specific constituent problem to
provide information or solve
– Oversight: the process of reviewing agencies’ operations to
determine whether they are carrying out policies as
Congress intended
• Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946
– Recognized the need for staff for communications
– Most common reason for constituency comm?
• Express opinions and obtain issue information
• Govt Jobs…letter of recommendations
• They are a magnet for request of ANY problem
– They have perceived POWER and INFLUENCE
61

62. Terms
• Constituent
– The residents of a congressional district or state
• Delegate role
– An official who is expected to represent the views of her constituents even
when personally holding different views
• Trustee role
– An official who is expected to vote independently based on her judgment of the
circumstances
• Seniority rule
– A legislative practice that assigns the chair of a committee or subcommittee to
the member of the majority party with the longest continuous service on the
committee
• Oversight
– The process of reviewing agencies’ operations to determine whether they are
carrying out policies as Congress intended
• Ombudsperson
– The process of reviewing a specific constituent’s problem for information or
solution
62

63. Historic Trees
Since the early 1900s, over one hundred memorial and
historic trees have been planted with the majority still
living on the United States Capitol Grounds. Three
trees, Loblolly Pine, Pin Oak, and a White Oak were
planted memorializing the state of Georgia or
Georgians. Name the individuals who either planted
the trees or whom they memorialized. (April 24, 1912:
Senator Augustus O. Bacon of Georgia- Pin Oak…
removed from Capitol Grounds; November 13, 1963,
State of Georgia sponsored by Senator Richard B.
Russell – Loblolly Pine; November 18, 1963
representative Carl Vinson – White Oak.
63

64. Leaders & Parties in Congress
• Majority makers
– The 42 (D) freshmen who helped make history
– N. Pelosi, 01/04/07: highest ranking female ever
• Seen with her grandchildren
– Remember John Robert’s children and son who was not ‘still’
» Public relates to “family”
» Think of the “Big Guy” ads of Mark Taylor
• Made sure to discuss how to get reelected and maintain
their majority in Congress
• Another example of the Dual Nature of Congress
– GOP discussed “team work” to lead to future majority
64

65. Nietzsche “wherever I found the living, there I found the will to ___”
It is usually thought of as one of mankind’s less attractive
characteristics, along with violence and aggression, with
which it is often confused. Most people do not like to
admit that they want it, which is why they never get it,
and those who do have it go to endless lengths to mask
the fact. Some politicians, like the late Lyndon b.
Johnson, openly relish it’s trappings, but the
contemporary American style is to pretend that one has
none. To confess that one has it, is to make oneself
responsible for using it, and safety lies in an artfully
contrived pose of impotence, behind which one can do
exactly as one pleases.
65

66. Madam Speaker
• It would do no violence to the truth to call the
Speaker of the House the second most
powerful office holder in the U.S. Government,
surpassed only by the President. In fact, the
Presidential Succession Act of 1947 places the
Speaker second in line in succession to the
Presidency, behind only the Vice-President,
whose assumption to that office is required by
the Constitution.
66

67. Line Of Succession
1. Speaker of the House
2. Senate: President Pro Tempore
3. Secretary of State 14. Secretary of Education
4. Secretary of the Treasury 15. Sec. Veterans Affairs
5. Secretary of Defense 16. Homeland Security
6. Attorney General
7. Secretary of the Interior
8. Secretary of Agriculture
9. Secretary of Commerce
10. Secretary of Labor
11. Secretary of Health & Welfare
12. Secretary of Housing and Urban Development
13. Secretary of Transportation
67

68. Speakers in History
The first Speaker was Frederick A. C. Muhlenberg, He
served during both the First and Third Congresses,
April 1, 1789, to March 3, 1791, and December 2,
1793, to March 3, 1795.
• Georgians
• Howell G. Cobb: speaker, 31st Congress, December
22, 1849, to March 3, 1851.
• Charles F. Crisp: speaker 52nd and 53rd Congress from
December 8, 1891, to March 3, 1895.
• Newt Gringrich: speaker, 104th and 105th Congress
from 1995-1999.
68

69. Speaker who became President
• James K. Polk, Tennessee: Speaker 24th and 25th
Congresses from December 7, 1835, March 3,
1839. Former Governor of Tennessee.
69

70. Selecting A Speaker (does not have to be a House member)
In the early days the Speaker was elected by ballot, but
since 1839 all have been chosen by roll call or voice
vote. The election of the Speaker is traditionally the
first order of business upon the convening of a new
Congress.
The choosing of the Speaker has undergone a few
significant changes over the past 200 years. Only
relatively senior Members with 20-plus years of
experience have been elected Speaker in this century.
From 1789 to 1896, each new Speaker averaged only
seven years of experience in Congress. Once elected,
a Speaker is customarily re-elected as long as his
party remains in the majority and he retains his
Congressional seat.
70

71. Selecting A Speaker - 2
Although the election officially occurs on the
floor of the house, modern-day Speakers are
actually decided upon when the majority party
meets in caucus on the eve of a new Congress.
Despite the forgone conclusion of the contest,
the minority party also nominates its candidate
who, upon losing, becomes minority leader.
Since the 1930s, service in the lesser party
leadership posts, such as majority and minority
whip, majority and minority leader, have
become stepping stones to the Speakership.
71

72. Selecting A Speaker - 3
The stability of the two party system in the modern era
has led to a period of unbroken lines of succession in
the leadership tracks of both parties. This has not
always been the case, however. In 1855, more than
130 separate votes were required over a period of two
months before a Speaker was finally chosen. In 1859,
only four years later, the House balloted 44 times
before choosing a first-term new Jersey Congressman
for the Speakership-and he was defeated for re-
election to the House after that one term!
72

73. Powers & Duties
The constitution makes but scant reference to the office
prescribing in Article I, Section 2 that “the House of
Representatives shall chuse (sic) their speaker.” While
the powers and duties of the Speaker are spelled out to
some degree in the Rules of the House, the effectiveness
of any particular Speaker has depended upon a great
many intangibles: the speaker’s own personal dynamism,
the size of his majority in the House, his relationship with
the executive branch, his ability to “get things done.”
Men of greatly differing styles and temperaments have
served as Speaker. Freshmen, septuagenarians, dictators,
tyrants, moderates, Southerners, Northerners, former
Presidents, Vice-Presidents (and would-be Presidents)
have all, at one time or another, served in the Speaker’s
chair. 73

74. Powers & Duties - 2
In the modern era, the many duties of the Speaker include
presiding at the sessions of the House, announcing the
order of business, putting questions to a vote, reporting
the vote and deciding points of order. He appoints the
chairmen of the Committee of the Whole and members
of select and conference committees. He chooses
Speakers pro tem and refers bills and reports to the
appropriate committees and calendars. Although he is
not constitutionally required to be an elected Member
of the House, this de facto requirement assures that the
Speaker also enjoys the privileges of ordinary House
Members. He may, therefore, after stepping down from
the Chair, vote and participate in debate on the floor.
74

75. Powers & Duties - 3
Perhaps the duties of the Speaker were put most idealistically by the
first “great” Speaker, Henry Clay, back in 1823. It was up to the
Speaker to be prompt and impartial in deciding questions of order,
to display “patience, good temper and courtesy” to every Member,
and to make “the best arrangement and distribution of the talent of
the House”, in carrying out the country’s business. Finally, Clay
noted, the Speaker must “remain cool and unshaken amidst all the
storms of debate, carefully guarding the preservation of the
permanent laws and rules of the House from being sacrificed to
temporary passions, prejudices or interests.” But in fact the
Speakership today is a partisan office. As Floyd Riddick,
Parliamentarian Emeritus of the U.S. Senate, has commented,
“tradition and unwritten law require that the Speaker apply the
rules of the House consistently, yet in the twilight zone a large area
exists where he may exercise great discrimination and where he
has many opportunities to apply the rules to his party’s
advantage.”
75

76. Speaker is a Triple Personality
1- Being a Member of the House
As a Member of the House she has the right to cast
a vote on all questions, unlike the President of
the Senate who has no vote except in the case of
a tie. Usually, however, the Speaker does not
exercise his right to vote except to break a tie or
when she desires to make her position known
on a measure before the House. As a Member,
she also has the right to leave the Chair and
participate in debate on the House floor as the
elected Representative of her district.
76

77. Personality #2 – Presiding Officer
As presiding officer, the Speaker interprets the
rules that the House has adopted for guidance. In
this matter she is customarily bound by
precedents, created by prior decisions of the
Chair. Appeals are usually in order from
decisions of the Chair, but seldom occur. When
they are taken, the Chair is usually sustained. The
Speaker’s power of recognition is partially
limited by House rules and conventions that fix
the time for considerations of various classes of
bills.
77

78. Presiding Officer #3
She has discretion in choosing the Members she
will recognize to make motions to suspend the
rules on days when such motions are in order.
The rules of the House may be suspended by
two-thirds vote on the first and third Mondays
of the month, the Tuesdays immediately
following those days, and the last six days of
the session.
78

79. Personality #4 – Party Leader
As a party leader, the Speaker had certain
additional powers prior to 1910: to appoint all
standing committees and to name their chairs;
to select members of the Rules Committee; and
from 1858 to serve as its chairperson. Her
political power evolved gradually during the
nineteenth century and peaked under the
leadership of former Speaker Joseph Cannon.
79

80. Limiting the Speaker
In 1910, the House cut back some of the
Speaker’s power. They removed him from the
Rules Committee, stripped him of his power to
appoint the standing House committees and
their chairmen and restricted his former right of
recognition. These actions were not directed so
much against the principle of leadership as
against the concentration of power in the hands
of a single individual.
80

81. Speaker Gingrich 1995-1999
• 3 factors explain Gingrich’s influence
– Most recognized him as the leader of the party’s
emergence as the majority party & they owed him
• He was a political leader of a grassroots movement not like many of the
previous Speakers who were legislative leaders
– Broad commitment to the GOP agenda
• Especially the Contract With America & the economy (spending reductions
& balancing the budget)
– Belief in the need to continue to succeed
• They remembered the past and didn’t want to repeat it
– 9 points (except term limits) passed within 100
days!
81

82. Gingrich Confrontational Style
• As a National leader pushed Newt into
limelight
– Media focused on Newt
– Media played Clinton vs. Gingrich
• Styles, not ideology, was prominent
– Clinton = “I feel your pain” compassion and ability to relate
emotionally to the public vs. Gingrich “professorial” … “let me
explain it to you this way” educational style
» Public doesn’t want to be “educated” even though they
need it
– Pushed downsizing govt by confronting Clinton
with reduced budget…Govt closed and GOP
viewed as extremist and cold-hearted
82

83. Professor Ethics?
1996 confrontation methods became election issue
– Dec. 12, 1996: Newt admitted to
inaccurate/incomplete info. about solicitation of
tax-deductible contribution
– Became 1st speaker formally disciplined for ethical
wrongdoing
– Additional miscues such as continued focus on
Clinton’s affair (while having marital problems of
his own) led to his decision to retire
83

84. Coach Dennis Hastert 1999-2007
• Chief Deputy whip (appropriations chair Robert Livingston, LA
resigned because of adulterous affair)
• Was more low profile and supportive of others
• Still maintained hierarchical structure
– Work through Tom DeLay (tx) & Roy Blunt (mo)
– Removed Christopher Smith (nj) from Veterans
affairs chair and committee for speaking out
against GOP budget for veterans
• Lost position when GOP lost status in 2007
84

85. Nancy Pelosi
• Thank you President Bush and GOP
– 6 for ‘06 in 1st 100 hours
– Father was Baltimore Mayor & 8 yr. US Rep.
• “Favor File” list of favors fulfilled
• Grandmother
• 1st elected 1987 at 47
• Became minority whip in 107th congress (2001-2003)
– Gephardt stepped down as min. leader when Dems failed to
gain seats in 2002 election
– Nancy won Minority Leader position with ease
85

86. “The Velvet Hammer”
• Though many believed the Dems succeeded in
passing their ‘package’ through the House,
much criticism was expressed that even though
Pelosi vowed bipartisanship, the GOP was not
invited
– Much of the package failed to pass Senate
– Some perceive it a Dem. failure
• They hold both houses of congress!
• Her leadership style is top-down
86

87. Why are leaders stronger during some eras than others?
• Conditional Party Govt Theory
– Each party is internally united in its policy
preferences and usually the majority party finds
passage of its policy relatively easy
• Pivotal Voter Theory
– If each party is so united, then why do we find the
majority party in such disarray and in need of
“pivotal” votes
87

88. Leadership theories - 2
• Party leaders are agents of rank-and-file
members
• Members want to accomplish goals of
– Reelection
• Maintain “power” status within government
– Making good policy (MAD)
• Look at accomplishments of party platforms
– The Progressives
– The New Deal
– The Great Society
– The Contract With America
88

89. Specific theories (Box 6.1)
• Conditional Party Govt. Theory
– The power of congressional leaders hinges on the degree of
homogeneity within the majority party concerning policy
and on the extent of interparty conflict between Democrats
and Republicans
– With both conditions in play, rank-and-file party members
are supportive of changes that strengthen their party leaders,
such as the Speaker. Thus, a cohesive majority party can
pass legislation without any support from the minority party
– Conversely, when parties’ policy goals are fragmented,
partisan lawmakers have little incentive to give their leaders
more authority. They ma use their power against the
political and policy interests of many in the rank-and-file
89

90. Pivotal Voter Theory
• Suggests that policy outcomes on the floor rarely
diverge from what is acceptable to the pivotal voter –
the voter who casts the 218th vote in the House
• Rarely does everyone in the majority party support a
particular policy. Why, then, should majority
members change their policy views to back a party
position with which they disagree? Instead, they will
join with members of the other party to form the
winning coalition. According to this theory, these
pivotal voters determine chamber outcomes
90

91. Pivotal Voter Theory, continued
3. If each party is internally united in its policy
preferences, as the conditional party
government theory states, there will beno
difference between what the majority party
wants and what the chamber membership will
agree to.
4. Simply observing party leaders engaged in
frenetic activity-often seeking pivotal vote-
does not mean they can skew legislative
outcomes beyond what is acceptable to a
majority of the entire membership.
91

92. 110th Congress
SPEAKER
N a n c y P e lo s i
M A J O R IT Y L E A D E R T y p e n a m e h e re M IN O R IT Y L E A D E R
S te n y H . H o y e r (M d ) T y p e t it le h e re J o h n B o e h n e r (O h )
92

93. Other House Officers - Totals
See Figure 6-1
• Dems
– 223 Dem members
• Dem Caucus
– Chm. Rahm Emanuel (Ill)
» Vice Chm. John Larson (Conn)
• GOP
– 202 Rep members
• GOP Conerence
– Chm. Adam Putnam (Fl)
» Vice Chm. Kay Granger (Tx)
93

94. Other House Officers - Dems
See Figure 6-1
• Speaker Nancy Pelosi (Ca)
• Comm on Rules Chm Louise Slaughter (NY)
– Majority Leader: Steny H. Hoyer (Md)
– Demmocratic Steering & Policy comm Co-Chm. Rosa De
Lauro (Conn) & George Miller (Ca)
• Majority Whip: James Clyburn (S.C.)
• Democratic campaign comm. Chair Chris Van Hollen
(Md)
94

95. Other House Officers - GOP
See Figure 6-1
• Minority Leader John Boehner (Ohio)
• GOP Steering Comm Chm. John Boehner
• GOP Policy Comm. Chm. Thaddeus McCotter (Ca)
– Minority Whip: Roy Blunt (Mo)
• GOP Campaign Comm. Chm. Tom Cole (Ok)
95

96. Other House Officers
• Majority & Minority leader(s) (sometimes called floor leader)
– Helps plan party strategy
– Confers with other party leaders
– Helps keep party members in line
• Party whips (term comes from whipper-in, the huntsman who keeps
the hounds bunched in a pack during a foxhunt)
– They assist floor leaders
• Serve as liaisons between leadership and rank-&-file
• Inform members when important bills will come up for vote
• Prepare summaries of the bills
• Do vote counts for the leadership
– Take the temperature of various factional groups within the party
• Exert pressure (sometimes mild and sometimes heavy)
• Try to ensure maximum attendance on the floor especially for
critical votes
96

97. Elected Officers of Congress
• At the beginning of each Session of Congress
both bodies, by Majority vote, elect the officers
whose responsibility it is to keep the House
and Senate operating smoothly. These persons
are not Members of the Congress. The House
elects – Clerk of the House, Sergeant at Arms,
the Doorkeeper, Postmaster
97

98. Elected Officers of the House
• Clerk of the House
– This office has a broad range of legislative and
administrative duties;
• Presiding at the opening of each new Congress, pending
the election of the Speaker
• Receiving the credentials of Members
• Compiling the Official Role of representatives-elect
• Taking all votes and certifying passage of bills
• Processing all legislation
• Maintaining, printing & distributing documents relating
to the legislative activity
• Receives all official communications during recess or
adjournment periods
98

99. Elected Officers of the House - 2
• Clerk of the House, cont.
• A number of internal budgeting, disbursing, accounting
and housekeeping responsibilities are also assigned to
the Clerk. This officer is assisted by the Offices of
Finance, Supply Service, Equipment Service, and
Records and Registration.
99

100. Elected Officers of the House - 3
• Sergeant at Arms of the House
– This office enforces the rules of the House and
maintains decorum during sessions.
• In charge of the Mace
– Symbol of legislative power and authority
• Major Responsibility = Maintains the general security of
the House buildings and Capitol
– Alternates with the Senate Sergeant at Arms as Chairperson of
the Capitol Police Board and the Capitol Guide Board.
• Another Major Responsibility is management of the
House bank which disburses Members’ salaries and
travel expenses
100

101. Elected Officers of the House - 4
• Doorkeeper of the House
• Supervises the doormen stationed at each entrance to the
House floor & House gallery
• Supervises the pages
• Operates the Document Room which provides copies of
House bills, laws, committee reports, and other
documents to the Members, media and public
• Under his jurisdiction are the staff members serving the
media galleries and the Members’ cloakrooms
• He also distributes authorized publications such as the
Congressional Directory and copies of the U.S. Codes ot
the Members & their staffs
101

102. Elected Officers of the House - 5
• Doorkeeper of the House, cont.
• Physical arrangement for joint sessions and joint
meetings of the Congress, announcements of messages
from the President and the Senate, announcement of the
arrival of the President when he addresses Congress in
person, escorting dignitaries visiting the Capitol – those
are the tasks the public sees the Doorkeeper performing.
102

103. Elected Officers of the House - 6
• Postmaster of the House
• Primary duty of the Postmaster is to provide mail pickup
and delivery service to the House wing of the Capitol,
the House office buildings and the House annexes. Four
post offices are under his jurisdiction and provide the
usual counter service.
• Also provides a mail security system which scans every
piece of incoming mail.
103

104. Elected Officers of the Senate
• Secretary of the Senate
– Primary duty of this officer is for the legislative
administration of the Senate
• He is custodian of the Senate Seal
• Administers oaths of office
• Certifies passage of legislation, ratification of treaties and
confirmation or rejection of Presidential nominations
• He is assisted in his legislative administration by a wide variety of
experts, including the Parliamentarian, Legislative Clerk, Office of
Classified National Security Information, Journal Clerk, Disbursing
Officer, Senate Librarian, Senate historian and official reporters
• He is a member of the Federal Election Commission, the Federal
Council on the Arts and Humanities and serves as Executive
Secretary to the Commission on Arts and Antiquities of the Senate
104

105. Elected Officers of the Senate - 2
• Sergeant at Arms of the Senate
– Primary responsibility is to enforce the Senate rules
and maintain decorum
• Supervises
– Mail & computer systems
– Senate post offices
– Press galleries, service department, recording studio, telephone
services, janitorial services
• rotates with House Se. Arms as Chairman of the Capitol
Police Board and Capitol Guide Board
• He is protocol officer of the Senate
– Announcement of the arrival of the President or dignitaries
105

106. Elected Officers of the Senate - 3
• Secretaries to the Majority and the Minority
– Similar duties – primarily to supervise the majority
and minority cloakroom
– Obtain pair votes as requested
– Brief Senators on votes and issues under
consideration
– Poll the Senators at the request of the Leadership
– Generally, serve the Senators of their party
106

107. Pages
• Practice of employing pages was primarily as
messengers…and has evolved since the origin of the
Federal government in 1789
• House pages are under the supervision of the
Doorkeeper; Senate pages of the Sergeant at Arms.
• They deliver documents and messages and run errands
for the members.
• Visitors are intrigued by the bench pages who sit on
the rostrum steps and assist the members during the
session. Others are assigned to the Cloakroom, the
Speaker’s office, and the Senate majority and
Minority Leaders
107

108. Pages - 2
– Until 1971, only males were employed as pages.
– The first Senate female pages were appointed in
May 1971 by Senators Jacob Javits of New York
and Charles Percy of Illinois
– Former Speaker Carl Albert of Oklahoma
appointed the first official female House page in
1973
– Pages are selected by the Senators or
Representatives whose seniority permits this
privilege. The “patron” agrees to be responsible for
the safety and conduct of pages he or she appoints.
108

109. Pages - 3
• Senate pages may be between the ages of 14-
17
– House pages 16-18 or who are juniors or seniors in
high school
– They must maintain at least a C average and be of
good character
– They live in rooming houses or with relatives
– They attend the Capitol Page school which has
been located in the Library of Congress
• They attend 4 or 5 45 minute classes, five days a week
beginning at 6:45am and continuing until 9:45 am
109

110. Pages - 4
• The four year high school is nationally accredited
• The curriculum is college preparatory
– Most of the students go on to college
» They have a basketball team, yearbook, school paper,
student counsel and social and extra-curricular activities
• Numerous government officials began their careers as
Congressional pages
110

111. Senate leaders
• The Majority Leader of the Senate is the closet
counterpart of the Speaker of the House,
although the Framers of the Constitution
apparently did not foresee such a development
– The Constitution’s only references to leadership
posts in the Senate are contained in two passages of
Article I, Section 3. One passage provides that the
Vice President “shall be President of the Senate,
but shall have no vote, unless they be equally
divided” (Clause 4).
111

112. Senate leaders - 2
– The other passage provides that the “Senate shall
choose…a President Pro Tempore, in the absence
of the V. President, or when he shall exercise the
office of the President of the United States” (Clause
5).
– With few exceptions, the Senate has been reluctant
to place substantial political power in these offices.
It has instead entrusted power to the majority and
minority leaders
112

113. Senate leaders - 3
– Historical studies attempting to explain the
Senate’s attitude toward these top offices have
stressed the unwillingness of Senators to delegate
power either to a non-member (the Vice President),
or to a Member (the President Pro Tempore) who
may preside only at times of the Vice President’s
absence. If the Vice President and president pro
Tempore are of different political parties, which
has often been the case, the Vice President is able
to neutralize the authority the President Pro
Tempore by merely assuming the chair.
Consequently the Senate has vested the real
leadership in its party floor leaders
113

114. Senate leaders - 4
– Selection:
• Emergence of readily recognizable floor leaders in the
Senate did not occur until 1911-1913. Designation of
these positions was the culmination of an increasing
party influence in the chamber which began around
1890. Before that time, leadership in the Senate was
usually vested in powerful individuals or small factions
of Senators.
• In the early years of the twentieth century each paty
elected its own chairman for the party caucus, but no
Senator was elected to be the Majority or Minority
Leader as we know these offices today.
114

115. Senate leaders - 5
– Selection, cont
• The Majority and Minority Leader today are elected bya
majority vote of all the Senators in their respective
parties. The practice has been to choose the leaders for a
2 year term at the beginning of each Congress. After the
parties have held their elections, the selection is made
known through the press or by announcement to the
Senate
115

116. Senate leaders - 6
– The Majority Leader is the elected spokesman on
the Senate floor for the majority party. The office is
a political one and was not created by the rules of
the Senate even though the rules do confer certain
powers on the Majority Leader
– The Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946 and
1970, and more recent amendments to the Senate
rules, have given certain unique authorities ot the
Majority Leader
116

117. Senate leaders - 7
– The Majority Leader is responsible for the enactment of his
party’s legislative program. His role is an integral part of
the effective functioning of the machinery of the Senate.
The Majority Leader must keep himself informed on
national and international problems in addition to pending
legislative matters.
– On the floor of the Senate he is charged by his party
members to deal with all procedural questions in
consultation with them and his party’s policy-making
bodies. In turn, he must keep his party colleagues informed
as to proposed action on pending measures. In more recent
years, the Majority Leader also has been responsible for the
scheduling of legislation.
117

118. Senate leaders - 8
– The Majority Leader (currently Democratic) is ex-
officio chairman of all of the Party’s policy making
and organizational bodies – that is, the Democratic
conference, the Democratic Policy Committee, and
the Democratic Steering Committee.
– The Majority Leader almost invariably:
• Offers motions to recess or adjourn from day to day
• Calls up the sine die adjournment resolution and other
resolutions relating to adjournment, including
resolutions and motions to adjourn for period of several
days
• (Next)
118

119. Senate leaders - 9
– cont, The Majority Leader almost invariably:
• Makes motions to proceed to the consideration of all
proposed legislation (bills and resolutions)
• Proffers routine requests to accommodate the Senate,
including orders to permit standing committees to meet
while the Senate is in session, notwithstanding the
provisions of the rule.
• These are the parliamentary means which enable the
Senate to conduct its day-to-day business
119

120. Senate leaders - 10
– Through the years, the Majority Leader has made
the motions to recess or adjourn from day to day,
until it is now assumed to be virtually his
prerogative.
120

121. Senate leaders - 11
– The Majority Leader keeps in close touch with the Minority
Leader as to proposed legislation to be brought up, the
procedure to be followed, and the legislative contests to be
staged.
– In earlier years, even in the 20th century, chairmen of
committees usually submitted motions to proceed to the
consideration of bills reported by their own committees. At
the present time, however, nearly all such motions are made
by the Majority leader himself.
– In summary, the Senate floor leader performs six basic
functions of leadership (next)
121

122. Senate leaders - 12
– In summary, the Senate floor leader performs 6
basic functions of leadership
1. Is, or has the potential for being, the principal force in
organizing the party
2. Principal force in organizing the party
3. Promoting attendance on the floor
4. Collecting and distributing information
5. Persuading other Senators to unite on policy questions
6. Providing liaison with the White House
122

123. Terms
• Speaker
– The presiding officer in the House of Representatives, formally elected by the
House but actually selected by the majority party
• Majority Leader
– The legislative leader selected by the majority party who helps plan party strategy,
confers with other party leaders, and tries to keep member of the party in line
• Minority leader
– The legislative leader selected by the minority party as spokesperson for the
opposition
• Whip
– Party leader who is the liaison between the leadership and the rank-and-file in the
legislature
• Closed rule
– A House procedural rule that prohibits any amendments to bills or provides that
only members of the committee reporting the bill may offer amendments
• Open rule
– A House procedural rule that permits floor amendments within the overall time
allocated to the bill
123

124. Terms
• Blue Dog Democrats
– Democrats who are fiscally conservative
• New Dems
– Moderate Democrats
• Pairing
– The voluntary arrangement that allows members to go on record without
voting or affecting the final tabulation. When members cannot vote in
person, it allows them to still be recorded on an issue.
• President Pro Tempore
– Officer of the Senate selected by the majority party to act as chair in the
absence of the vice president
• Hold
– A procedural practice in the Senate whereby a senator temporarily blocks
the consideration of a bill or nomination
• Caucus
– A meeting of the members of a party in a legislative chamber to select
party leaders and to develop party policy. Called conference by the GOP.
124