The document provides a history of the development of digital computers and the internet. It discusses early calculating machines developed in the 17th-18th centuries by figures like Pascal and Leibniz. In the 19th-20th centuries, important developments included Babbage's Analytical Engine concept, Zuse's mechanical computers, and the electronic computers developed by Atanasoff, Turing, and von Neumann. The internet evolved from ARPANET in the 1960s and packet switching/TCP/IP protocols allowed different networks to connect as the internet in the 1970s-1980s. Today billions of devices are connected through vast global networks that underpin the information society.

1. The Technology of the
Information Society
LL.210: Information Technology Law
10 September 20151 Lecture One

2. Origins of Digital Computers
 Earliest computing
devices were
designed to aid
numeric
computation
 Abacus, first
developed in
Babylonia over
5,000 years ago
10 September 2015 2Lecture One

3. Early Calculating Machines
 William Schickard
(1592–1635), “speeding
clock” first mechanical
calculator.
 Blaise Pascal (1623–
1662), “Pascaline” first
machine that could add
and subtract directly.
 G. W. F. Leibniz (1646–
1716), “Stepped
Reckoner,” full-featured
calculator, (“Leibniz
wheel” for multiplication)
Schickard Speeding Clock (1623)
10 September 2015 3Lecture One
Leibniz Stepped Reckoner (1694)
“Pascaline” (1645)

4. Joseph Jacquard (1752 –1834)
 Programmed by
punched cards. The
Jacquard loom was
an automatic
weaving loom
developed by
Joseph Jacquard in
1804. To allow
complex patterns to
be repeated.
The Jacquard (Punched Card) Loom (1806)
10 September 2015 4Lecture One

5. Charles Babbage (1791–1871)
 First true pioneer of
modern digital
computing machines
 Built two prototype
calculating machines
 (1) Difference
Engine
 (2) Analytical Engine
10 September 2015 5Lecture One

6. Charles Babbage
 Charles Babbage (1791-1871) developed the
idea of a programmable computer.
 He was explicitly inspired by Jacquard’s use
of punch cards to control a machine.
 Unfortunately the only way to build it was
using rods and gears and it was never made
to work.
10 September 2015 6Lecture One

7. Analytical Engine
 A programmable, general
purpose calculating machine
 Used loops of Jacquard's
punched cards to control an
automatic calculator, which could
make decisions based on the
results of previous computations.
 A model built to Babbage’s
designs may be seen in the
Science Museum, unfortunately
due to the complexity of the
machine and a lack of funding
Babbage never got past the
design stage.
 If built it would have been the
first general purpose computer.
10 September 2015 7Lecture One

8. Difference Engine
 Automated both the
computation of tables
and their printing
 Employed the method of
differences to calculate
polynomials
 Special-purpose
calculating machine
 Not a general purpose
machine like the
Analytical Engine. More
like the “Stepped
Reckoner”
10 September 2015 8Lecture One

9. Konrad Zuse (1910–1995)
 Designed the “Z” series
of automatic general-
purpose computing
machines
 Electro-mechanical
devices
 Binary internal encoding
 Z3 (1941) was
programmed using
punched 35mm film
Z1 (1938)
Konrad Zuse
10 September 2015 9Lecture One

10. John V. Atanasoff (1903–1995)
 Built the ABC machine
with Clifford Berry in
1939
 First electronic digital
computing machine (i.e.
the first real modern
Computer)
 Special-purpose: solving
simultaneous equations
 Not fully automatic
John V. Atanasoff
ABC Computer
10 September 2015 10Lecture One

11. Alan M. Turing (1912–1954)
 Led the WWII research
group that broke the
code for the Enigma
machine
 Proposed a simple
abstract universal
machine model for
defining computability
 This is the “Church-
Turing hypothesis” for
Artificial Intelligence.
Alan Turing
10 September 2015 11Lecture One

12. Turing and Colossus
 An electronic
computing machine
constructed by
Tommy Flowers of
the GPO and used
by Bletchley Park to
decrypt German
coded messages
10 September 2015 12Lecture One

13. Colossus
10 September 2015 13Lecture One

14. John Von Neumann (1903–1954)
 Prepared a draft for an
automatic programmable
device (later called
EDVAC)
 Developed the “stored
program” concept.
 Publishes these ideas
(with Goldstine and Burks)
in1946
 Designed the IAS (Institute
for Advanced Studies)
machine which became
operational in 1951
10 September 2015 14Lecture One

15.  First commercial
general-purpose
computer system
 Delivered in 1951
 Used to forecast the
1952 presidential
election.
 With a sample of just
1% of the voting
population it correctly
predicted that Dwight
Eisenhower would
win.
Univac I
10 September 2015 15Lecture One

16. IBM System/360
 Built using solid-state
circuitry
 Family of computer
systems with
backward
compatibility
 Established the
standard for
mainframes for
decades
10 September 2015 16Lecture One

17. DEC PDP series
 First “minicomputers”
 Offered mainframe
performance at a
fraction of the cost.
 Introduced the
unibus architecture
for CPU
interconnections.
 More importantly
hosted the first ever
videogame
“Spacewar” in 1961.10 September 2015 17Lecture One

18. Cray Supercomputer
 Developed by Seymour
Cray and built in 1975
 Had a processing power
far in excess of any
other computer at the
time
 Remained a relatively
high performance
computer until the price
crashes of the 1990’s
made chips and memory
extremely cheap,
making “super-
computers” available to
the masses.10 September 2015 18Lecture One

19. Desktop and Portable Computers
 Microprocessors
 All-in-one designs,
performance/price
tradeoffs.
 Aimed at mass
audiences.
 Personal computers
 Workstations
10 September 2015 19Lecture One

20. Apple
Developed in the family garage, Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs with
the First Apple Computer:
10 September 2015 20Lecture One

21. Microsoft
10 September 2015 21Lecture One

22. Comparison Shopping
How do they rate in cost and performance?
Year Name Performance (adds
per second)
Memory (KB) Price $ Performance
($ per adds)
1951 Univac I 1,900 48 1,000,000 526.32
1964 IBM S/360 500,000 64 1,000,000 2
1965 PDP-8 330,000 4 16,000 0.05
1976 Cray 1 166,000,000 32,768 4,000,000 0.024
1981 IBM PC 240,000 256 3,000 0.012
1991 HP 9000/750 50,000,000 16,384 7,400 0.00015
2004 Alienware
Area-51
240,000,000 4,096,000 6,500 0.000027
2010 Roadrunner 1,456,000,000,000 103,600,000 133,000,000 0.000091
10 September 201522 Lecture One

23. Today’s Price/Performance
 Over 1 Billion adds per second costs less than
$1000
 Supercomputers now measured in petaflops
(that is one quadrillion calculations per second)
 Memory is measured in Gigabytes….not
Kilobytes
 Magnetic Storage is measured in Terabytes, not
Megabytes or Kilobytes
 Communications speeds are measured in
Megabits per second, not Kilobits or even lower
10 September 201523 Lecture One

24. How a Computer Works
10 September 2015Lecture One24
 Data is reduced to binary
notation
 Binary simply is a series of “0” and
“1”
 Any “informational” data can be
reduced to binary
 Text
 Images
 Movies
 Sounds
 Communications

25. Describing Information in Binary
10 September 2015Lecture One25
128 watts 64 watts 32 watts 16 watts 8 watts 4 watts 2 watts 1 watt
Switch 1 Switch 2 Switch 3 Switch 4 Switch 5 Switch 6 Switch 7 Switch 8
Anything which is by form informational can be described in binary format.
Example: Plaintext: “Long live the Queen”
ASCII Text:
“01001100 01101111 01101110 01100111 00100000 01101100
01101001 01110110 01100101 00100000 01110100 01101000
01100101 00100000 01010001 01110101 01100101 01100101
01101110”

26. Binary Processing
10 September 2015Lecture One26
Hard Drive Ram Memory
Input
CPU
Output

27. Binary Processing Power
10 September 2015Lecture One27
 The power of the CPU is in its processing of Bits
 A Bit is a Binary Digit (i.e. a 1 or a 0)
 As we have seen modern CPUs can process billions of bits per second
(BpS)
 And Bits can be anything informational
 The modern General Purpose Machine (computer) can:
 Record, play and store music an other sounds
 Record, play and store images and moving images
 Create, record and store documents
 Create, record, store and process data in vast quantities
 Create, store and play games
 Make telephone calls
 Send telemessages such as email and IM.
 Access remotely servers containing or facilitating any of the
above.
 Transfer data remotely allowing for financial transactions or
transfers of files to take place
 And many many more...

28. Computers and the Modern World
10 September 2015Lecture One28
 Computers now surround us and continually
interact with us.
 Computers:
 Manage all our personal data
 Run our transportation systems
 Manage our financial institutions
 Control and carry our media and entertainment
sources
 Provide the backbone of our primary
communications systems
 Provide state of the art healthcare
 Manage humble appliances like toasters and
washing machines

29. The Information Society
10 September 2015Lecture One29
 The GDP of most western economies is underpinned by
informational products rather than goods. This reflects the move from
the industrial society to the information society.
Date Society Type Typical Contributor to GDP
Pre 1750 Agrarian Farming, Production of essentials
(e.g. arrows, ploughs etc).
1750-1939 Industrial Production of goods. Steel, Coal
Extraction, Ships, Vehicles, Cotton
etc.
1945-1985 Post-Industrial Service Economy. Banking,
Insurance, Personal Services,
Healthcare etc.
1985-
Present
Informational Data and data products: Software,
Financial Services, Advertising,
Entertainment, Data Services.

30. 10 September 2015Lecture One30
Time for a Break

31. Introducing the Internet
10 September 2015Lecture One31
 The idea of a network of linked
computers was first suggested by
psychologist JCR Licklider in 1960 in his
paper Man-Computer Symbiosis.
 “It seems reasonable to envision, for a time
10 or 15 years hence, a ‘thinking center’
that will incorporate the functions of
present-day libraries together with
anticipated advances in information storage
and retrieval…The picture readily enlarges
itself into a network of such centers,
connected to one another by wide-band
communication lines and to individual users
by leased-wire services. In such a system,
the speed of the computers would be
balanced, and the cost of the gigantic
memories and the sophisticated programs
would be divided by the number of users”
J.C.R. Licklider

32. Sputnik Calling
10 September 2015Lecture One32
 In 1957 the Soviet Union had put
Sputnik 1 into orbit.
 This caused President Eisenhower
to create a body to allow the US to
catch up with Soviet Science.
 It was called the Department of
Defense Advanced Projects Research
Agency or DARPA.
 It had several projects ongoing in
the 1960s.
 One was for a telecommunications
system which could withstand a
nuclear assault (packet switched
communications).
 Another was for a more efficient way
to use Mainframe Computers.
Sputnik 1

33. Licklider and DARPA
10 September 2015Lecture One33
 In 1962 Licklider was appointed to DARPA as
Project Director of DARPAs Information Processing
Techniques Office or IPTO.
 Their job was to build a communications system for
computers: it would be called the Advanced Research
Projects Agency Network or ARPANET.
 This would allow researchers in remote parts of the
country to use mainframe computers in places such as
MIT and UCLA.

34. ARPANET
10 September 2015Lecture One34
 Problem 1
 Each computer used a different operating system (no MS
Windows in the 1960s)
 Solution use a minicomputer as a “translator”.
 Problem 2
 Sending data by telephone line was fragile. A single
piece of lost data could mean sending everything again
and lines would be “tied up” for long periods.
 Solution “Packet Switching”
 Problem 3
 The Intelligence was at the ends of the network not in the
centre.
 Solution End-to-end architecture.

35. Packet Switching
10 September 2015Lecture One35

36. End to End
10 September 2015Lecture One36

37. Then in December 1969
10 September 2015Lecture One37

38. After ARPANET
10 September 2015Lecture One38
 People started building their own
networks
 ALOHANET – Hawaii
 SATNET – international (using
satellites)
 CYCLADES – France
 In 1972 Bob Kahn suggested
joining them all together to create
an inter-network or internet.
 He asked Vint Cerf to help and
together they created TCP/IP
 This is the heart of the modern internet.
Bob Kahn
Vint Cerf

39. The Internet (for dummies)
10 September 2015Lecture One39

40. Four Rules of TCP/IP
10 September 2015Lecture One40
 Each distinct network would have to stand on its own and
no internal changes could be required to any such
network to connect it to the internet;
 Communications would be on a best effort basis. If a
packet didn’t make it to the final destination, it would
shortly be retransmitted from the source;
 Black boxes would be used to connect the networks
(these would later be called gateways and routers).
There would be no information retained by the black
boxes about the individual flows of packets passing
through them, thereby keeping them simple and avoiding
complicated adaptation and recovery from various failure
modes; and
 There would be no global control at the operations level.

41. TCP/IP control
10 September 2015Lecture One41
 These systems designed in the 1970s still control the
internet today.
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) splits data into
packets and then places it into a “digital envelope”
 IP (Internet Protocol) then addresses these packets and
sends them
 These envelopes are carried using end-to-end and
packet switching principles developed for ARPANET

42. Alastair and Barbara
10 September 2015Lecture One42
 The easiest way to imagine this working is to think of traditional postal
communications.
 If Alistair wants to send a message to Barbara he will write his message on a
piece of paper and then place in inside an envelope before sealing the
envelope and addressing it. He then places the envelope in the care of the
Royal Mail who carry the envelope to Barbara. She then opens the envelope
and reads the message.
 TCP/IP works in a similar fashion, except in place of a single envelope the
message is split into “packets” before being sent.
 Thus if we were to use TCP/IP technology to send the simple message
“Meet me at 2pm” from Alistair to Barbara, the following operations would
take place.
 Firstly TCP would split the message into packets and numbers each packet [Meet]1
[me at]2 [2pm]3. Then it places each packet into a digital envelope before passing
these envelopes on to the IP protocol. IP would then address the envelopes before
sending them out across the network.
 The network acts like the Royal Mail and carries these envelopes to their
destination. Upon arrival TCP opens the envelopes, checks all packets have been
delivered safely and reassembles the message.
 This digital envelope is valuable as it allows the system to carry a variety of digital
products such as sounds, images, text or raw data without having to differentiate
between them in the same way the Royal Mail will carry photographs, letters,
magazines or computer games on CD without needing to know what is inside the
envelope. This, in digital terms is known as Net Neutrality and is discussed in
greater depth below.

43. The Architecture of the Internet
10 September 2015Lecture One43

44. The Architecture of the Network
10 September 2015Lecture One44

45. IP Addresses
10 September 2015Lecture One45
 Are you anonymous online?
 Well no. People may think they are anonymous but they
are not.
 Any device (computer, phone, pda) connected to the network
needs to have an address where things are delivered to. This is
known as an IP address.
 It is a number like this (IPv4): 158.143.112.199
 Or like this (IPv6): 3FFE:FFFF:0100:F101:0210:A4FF:FDE3:9566
 Whichever form it is in it allows a single device to be
located, along with the time it was used.
 This is used to prosecute copyright infringement, computer
hacking, consumption of child abuse images, defamation and
hate speech and much much more...

46. Domain Names
10 September 2015Lecture One46
 Because humans can’t remember IP addresses we
overlay human readable addresses such as
lse.ac.uk and google.com.
 Are in the form of a second level and a top level
domain:
itlawweb.co.uk
tld sld
 These can be commercially very valuable
 Think Google.com
 Most valuable domain names are worth millions of pounds
 TEST: What do you think is the most expensive domain name sold?
 The domain name system is regulated by a number
of bodies including ICANN and Nominet

47. Domain Name Disputes
 Potential for trade mark infringement or passing off.
 Lets see: www.macdonalds.com
 Or www.apple.co.uk
 The Candyland tale – www.candyland.com
 Disputes began to arise over domain names
 More famous ones included
 bt.com; marksandspencer.co.uk
 panavision.com
 Kremen v Cohen (sex.com)
 Eventually dispute-resolution procedures were set
up
 ICANN UDRP
 Nominet DRS etc. 10 September 2015Lecture One47

48. End-to-end
 With end-to-end architecture the intelligence of the
network is at the edges:
 Only the host computer who originates the file and the
recipient of the file knows enough about the file to
manage its transmission.
 This is (almost) unique among telecommunications
technologies.
 Other technologies use an intelligent network with the
intelligence in the network and dumb terminals at either
end.
10 September 2015Lecture One48

49. Internet (TCP/IP) vs. Telephone Network
10 September 2015Lecture One49
vs

50. Net Neurtality
 A key aspect of end-to-end is the fourth rule of
TCP/IP:
 There would be no global control at the operations level.
 This is called net neutrality and it says you can do
anything on the internet so long as TCP/IP will carry
your data
 This has led to an explosion of creativity
 FTP, IM, email, the WWW, MUDs, Flash, VOIP, P2P,
Streaming Content
 One of the key arguments for the success of the internet
is that it allows (almost) anything to be done.
10 September 2015Lecture One50

51. The Challenge of Net Neutrality
 BUT now streaming technologies such as YouTube
are consuming massive amounts of network capacity
 A few sites and services make up about 60% of network data
transmissions
 YouTube, BBC (including iPlayer), Flickr, Facebook, Google,
MySpace, Rapidshare, Metacafe, BitTorrent etc.
 These sites make massive amounts of money but pay little
towards the upkeep of the network.
 Further different technologies have different latency tolerances:
 File downloads and web access high tolerence: streaming video and
VoIP low tolerences
 Some ISPs limit downloads or slow heavy users.
 Some are suggesting removing net neutrality
altogether
 See e.g. Google/Verizon Agreement 10 September 2015Lecture One51

52. The Challenge for IT Lawyers
But
 We can buy goods in our
dressing gowns
 We can buy goods from
overseas
 We can chat to people
anywhere in the world
 We can make friends anywhere
and exchange photos, mail or
video
 We can research without a
library
 We can address groups of
people much larger than we
ever imagined possible
 We can create new businesses
 Anyone can sell online fakes are hard
to spot (LVMH v eBay)
 Consumer protection laws do not reach
overseas
 Anyone anywhere can pretend to be
anyone and defraud you
 You and your “friends” can trade
movies, music and games in breach of
copyright
 One word - Wikipedia
 You can defame people more easily
and more widely than ever before
 And so can anyone else. Bank fraud
and ID fraud are high as are tax
evasion
 Again with the file sharing...10 September 2015Lecture One52
The Internet is very
liberating

53. The Social Aspect
 There are two ways to look at
these challenges.
 One is to assume the law must
respond to the technology.
 This is known as techno-determinism
and is common in the United States
 The other is to assume the
technology is a social tool and to
look to regulate people not things
 This is known as techno-neutrality and
is common in Europe
 We will look at both next week.
10 September 2015Lecture One53

54. Your XKCD for this week...
10 September 2015Lecture One54