LD April 21 2016

The Scaffolding Approach
To Writing TOK Essays
Helpingstudentsputall the wood behind the arrow
Derek Strothmann LD Project
April 14, 2016

2
IB alumna and White House aide Monique Dorsainvil:
The DP helped me develop strong critical thinking skills and
subsequently generate my own creative solutions. Theory of
Knowledge (TOK) and Creativity, Action, Service (CAS) helped
me foster a connection between classroom learning and my
community. (IB World 38)

3
Table of contents
Introduction 4
1. TheoryofKnowledgeintheIB 8
1.1 ScaffoldingacrosstheIB 8
1.2 Teachingandlearning TOKwiththe MYP unit planner 8
1.3TheAreasofKnowledge inTOK 11
1.4 TheWays ofKnowing ofTOK 11
1.5 TheTOK Framework 11
1.6 Personal Perspective 13
2. Essayresults& assessmentcriteria 14
3. Scaffoldingtheory:TheAustralianVygotskyans 15
3.1 Phase1 15
3.1.1 Buildingtheknowledgeofthefield 16
3.1.2 Surveysofthe fourscaffoldingphases 18
3.1.3 October2015 DP1 surveyinthe beginningphases 19
3.2 Phase2 - Modelinganddeconstructingthegenre 22
3.3 Phase3 - Scaffolding -Jointconstruction 23
4. Scaffoldingphase3 inpractice 25
4.1 Scaffoldinglessons 25
4.2 Scaffoldinglessonplan 27
4.3 ObservationofScaffoldinginaDP2Blesson 30
4.4 Check-induos 30
5. ScaffoldingSurveysof phases3&4 31
5.1 Inquirers:Askingknowledgequestions 31
5.2 TOK framework 32
5.3 Evidencebasedwriting:useofreal-lifesituations 33
5.4 Open-mindedness 34
5.5 AssessmentCriteria:Understandingthecriteriaofthe TOK
essay 35
5.6 Transferofknowledgeanddeeplearning 36
5.7 Design– Constructingessaysindependently 37
5.8 PlanningandstructuringTOK essays 38
5.9 I can compareand contrastthe TOK framework&
perspectives 39
5.10 Phasefour:Independentinquirers,critical thinkers,and
writers 40
5.11 Teacherscaffolding 41
Conclusion 42
Works cited 44
Appendix 45

4
Introduction
The goal of Language Acquisition in the Middle Years
Programme is to give the students the skills to write good
Theory of Knowledge essays
Margareth Harris, May, 2014
Maastricht World College MYP seminar leader and IB
moderator on English Language Acquisition
Why would a seminar on the Middle Years Programme on language
acquisition open with a statement on the Theory Of Knowledge
essay writing in the Diploma Programme?
Ms. Harris’ answered:
For deep learning - To transfer the interdisciplinary skills learned in
MYP to DP.
The TOK essay is a core course allowing students to convey their
deep learning in an interdisciplinary context, whereby students
develop into the IB profile. Students learn to inquire and create, to
become principled critical thinkers who can communicate their line
of thinking in order to evaluate complex knowledge questions.
TOK teachers are tasked with continued development so that deep
learning and transfer of skills is realized.
What is scaffolding?
Scaffolding concerns sequential learning of writing skills for a
particular genre. It assumes three phases that students go through,
before reaching the final phase of becoming independent writers.
Scaffolding focuses on the third phase of joint teacher-student
design, and construction, whereby the teacher supports and guides
the student in his writing. Scaffolding is a metaphor for the
temporary structure of teacher support; it is used to reinforce the
building of a permanent structure of the student’s own independent
writing.
Therefore, it is more than what is called ‘scaffolding‘ in MYP, where
students learn to use paragraphs. Central to this paper is a broader
scope - how do we turn students into critical thinkers and
independent communicators? This thesis will examine and evaluate
scaffolding as a teaching method used this year for TOK essay
writing.
Hence the following thesis question about TOK essay writing;
To what extent can scaffolding expedite the learning of Theory of
Knowledge essay writing to make students independent risk takers,
inquirers, and, communicators?

5
Why are TOK essays important?
First off, a passing grade of D is necessary for students for IB
graduation. All stakeholders, students, parents, teachers,
management, would also like better grade TOK results as they can
add points to the student’s college transcript.
Secondly, many universities prefer IB students, and many give
courses similar to IB’s TOK. Writing about the nature of knowledge
can be complex, as there are many ways of knowing and areas of
knowledge to choose from, making inquisitiveness, open-
mindedness, creativity, and deep, critical thinking a crucial tool to
have in one’s kit. The TOK skill-set is also crucial for university
essay writing, especially organizing and constructing arguments
and counter arguments before one commits pen to paper. In fact,
the skills shown in TOK essay writing is a major reason given by
universities for wanting IB students to matriculate at their
institution.
Lastly, though we cannot foresee the future, educational mavens
such as Howard Gardner, Sir Ken Robinson, and Tony Wagner, have
stated that synthetic or cross-discipline thinking is critical to today’s
mind where very few of us will work as experts in one field. Thus,
making and communicating connections and critical thinking across
disciplines is of utmost importance for tomorrow’s citizens.
After all, excellent TOK essay writers can creatively communicate
their inquisitiveness, open-mindedness, and critical analyses. This
complex task contains interdisciplinary thinking because students
are asked to analyze two areas of knowledge. Tony Wagner called
collaboration, communication and critical thinking, three of today’s
key skills. Psychologist Howard Gardner also sees the importance of
interdisciplinary knowledge in today’s rapidly changing world. His
opinion on is that interdisciplinary thinking is crucial arrow in the
quiver of one’s skillset:
Given the import of the issues that require interdisciplinary
work, much effort will be devoted in coming years to nurturing
of the interdisciplinary mind and to the delineation of
experiences at school or the workplace that at least convey the
power of interdisciplinary thinking. The Theory of Knowledge,
offered during the final year of the International
Baccalaureate, represents one promising effort in this regard.
(Gardner 73)
As a TOK teacher, one aims to develop skills according to the IB
profile. Scaffolding means guiding students in planning and
organizing, so that they can reconcile different disciplines within
their essays. Another added value is the transfer of writing skills
learned early on in September in DP1 TOK can be applied later to

6
the Extended Essay. So skills that have been developed in MYP, or
“Tweetalig Onderwijs” (TTO), continue to develop along the
language continuum and across the core curriculum (TOK, CAS, and
EE).
Therefore, writing independently is the ultimate goal; IB students
should go to university able to question and evaluate knowledge
statements so that writing lucid essays are part and parcel of their
intellectual tool-kit.
Why scaffolding as a project?
Supporting our DP students become independent writers ready for
university, capable of independent thinking is paramount. Student
surveys done over the past two years indicate that not just written
feedback is after the first draft is important, but that further support
of the essay writing process would help the students enjoy and
learn even more efficiently. Furthermore, one hopes to help weaker,
less involved students, ones who may not ask for needed help with
structuring their essays, from the get-go of the writing process.
In the first two years of my teaching, support and feedback has been
given after the first draft was written. Therefore, there is a student
need for more guidance to ensure proper preparation, planning and
structuring before giving first draft feedback. Doing this should
increase both the teacher’s efficiency, and, the student’s feeling of
support and affirmation that they are on the right path. Also,
transfer of skills from the solid basis TTO and MYP should be taken
advantage of; one cannot start too soon with reiterating and
transferring essay skills to DP in TOK.
Therefore, scaffolding should provide support and help for weaker
students from the beginning of the learning process.
In the end, all students should be able to write well structured
essays with an introduction, body paragraphs to back up and
support claims and counterclaims. This should all lead to the
writing of lucid conclusions and insightful essays.
Scaffolding in the learning process
Scaffolding is the third phase in the process of the learning and
teaching cycle, originating from the ‘genre’ movement of the 1980’s
in Australia. Australia, a country with many immigrants and second
language learners, is confronted with many of the same issues of
language acquisition as the IB.
Scaffolding challenges by giving the students’ ever increasingly
difficult tasks with explicit teacher support.
Guidance continues until the student can master and complete the
task independently. According to Vygotsky’s theory of the proximal
zone, students need to be challenged with tasks within their ability,

7
in a social context within the so-called ‘proximal zone of
development’ to ensure meaningful deep learning.
Another word for scaffolding is joint construction. This is the phase
in which the teacher helps the student identify, affirm, and apply
concepts they have learned. This means encouragement by letting
students know when they are on the right track, when their
knowledge questions, claims, examples back up their critical
thinking.
In concrete terms, joint construction concerns planning and
organizing the essay, improving paragraphing to ensure a logical
flow, as well as word choice, linking phrases of addition,
disagreement and conclusion.
Most importantly, it is important to reach a sense of balance
between challenge and helping students achieve independence.
This means an approach whereby both teacher and student know
that the support and scaffolding will be taken away at a certain
point.
Illustration (Gibbons 17)
Methods
This project is a longitudinal study from 2015-2016, using
observations and surveys to ascertain to what extent the scaffolding
approach to teaching and learning has added educational value.
IB exam results will only be available after this paper has been
written, so results fall outside the scope of this paper.

8
1. Theory of Knowledge in the IB
1.1 Scaffolding across the IB
Experience has shown that more than a third of the DP1 students do
not plan and structure their first draft of the TOK essay. After apt
reflection on the seminars I have taken part in, staff meetings, and
research, I believe that the continuation and elaboration of
scaffolding, done in MYP, should be further continued in TOK.
Digging deep into Ms Harris’ statement on the link between MYP
and DP, I am going to use scaffolding to try to expedite the writing
process. This should help reach the stated goals of Ms. Harris on IB’s
goal of deep learning and transfer of MYP ATL skills to DP.
Let us start with a bottom’s up look at the IB programme, starting at
theory and educational practice of the Middle Year’s Programme.
Harris’s quote from a MYP English language acquisition seminar
reminds we teachers that the goal of the language acquisition is to
train students for Theory of Knowledge.
The MYP program’s focus on training students for tomorrow is as
follows;
1. 2 Planning for teaching and learning with the MYP unit
planner
- The key, related concepts and global contexts
- Statement of inquiry and inquiry questions
- Scaffolding to support students’ development along the
continuum
- Approach To Learning (Skills)
Above are the four foundations from the teacher’s guide of MYP.
The continuation of the third bullet of scaffolding into DP, to
support writing development, is the focus of this project.
Therefore, the transfer of a student’s skills from TTO or MYP will
continue to be supported by scaffolding in DP. Scaffolding means to
support the design and structure of student’s writing from the get-
go so that the genre, in this case, the TOK essay, are learned.
Writing a TOK essay takes a lot of effort and the ability to reconcile
differing claims and counterclaims, insights, and, perspectives.
Doing this in a logical way that leads to an evaluative conclusion on
a general statement on knowledge is quite a challenge.
Up till now, approximately a third of ISG students do not plan,
prepare or design their essay writing and use the ‘sit and rip it’
method whereby the whole essay is written without much structure
or reflection in one sitting. So sitting and ripping out the essay
entails letting the text spill out the night before the deadline. This

9
undo haste hurts the development of essay writing and results in
poor grades. It not only hinders the writer in conveying a well-
thought out and critical analysis, it causes poor marks too.
Further development and transfer of productive skills can take
place in TOK and the Extended Essay if time is taken to elaborate for
planning and organization. Skills we DP teachers can take for
granted. In practice, we TOK teachers see many students come
under time pressure and end up resorting to the sit and rip in
method, resulting in students’ completely missing their mark.
This leaves little room for applying and transferring design,
planning and essay construction skills learned in MYP and in DP
language courses. However time saving ‘sitting and ripping‘ the
essay might seem, it tends to leave little room for intellectual
involvement. This results in a lack of in-depth, and struggles to
make connections, preventing a well thought out and logically
flowing essay. One might say a lack of planning, design and
preparation is one factor hindering the conveyance of deep learning
and critical analysis of knowledge. Thus, improving students’
transfer of skills by scaffolding is the main goal of this LD project.
Moreover, one hopes this will increase involvement, and enjoyment
of TOK for all students.
Scaffolding is the joint construction phase in which the student
designs the paragraph structure of their essay, under guidance of
the teacher. The next and last phase is when the student becomes an
independent writer. Therefore, it is important to remember that the
goal is to remove the scaffolding for the final draft of the essay.
Therefore, the transfer of skills from MYP to DP is crucial in the eyes
of the IB. Essential is the transfer of inquiry skills in MYP to DP for
engaging in debate and discussion. For example, in each MYP unit,
students learn to ask to create a statement of inquiry using key
concepts such as connection, creativity, communication and culture.
Seeing that students have been trained in a multi-disciplinarian
thinking from MYP to DP2, one can attempt to transfer this skill to
investigate by asking questions of knowledge concepts in TOK:
So reusing what has been learned in a new context is what we tOK
teachers are trying to do with the scaffolding writing method, to
increase student understanding and efficiency.
But first back to basics - MYP Language Acquisition contains criteria
for evaluating and developing listening, visual, and, reading skills
are advanced. Of course, memorizing facts and internalizing
grammar rules are in the educative mix too. Moreover, productive
skills are developed in order to respond (orally and written) to
visual, written or spoken stimuli. Moving upwards along the
language continuum students learn to debate and produce
arguments. Therefore, reaching the highest level of the continuum

10
means being able to debate the facts and concepts previously
learned. In principle, MYP develops students who can express
opinions and debate claims and counterclaims in multiple
disciplines.
In an interdisciplinary meeting last September, there was a
discussion of what the goal of MYP was. In our staff meetings at the
ISG, many MYP teachers are in the quandary of how to ask the
students good inquiry questions. As a teacher of TOK, I jumped up
and insisted, it is not you who have to learn how to ask questions, at
the IB it is all about the students learning to ask good questions.
All this contributes to the critical skill of asking relevant questions
and answering them by using their critical thinking skills.
Therefore, the continuation of learning debating skills certainly
meets the International Baccalaureate core principles of DP. In DP
year 1, most students’ travel and experience model UN debates
and/or go on a weeklong art excursion for Creativity Action &
Service (CAS). A trip allows students to experience different cultural
and linguistic perspectives. Moving on to DP year 2, the importance
of understanding multiple perspectives to evaluate and solve
problems, increases, as TOK has become highly valued for entrance
to university.
Why would a MYP English language acquisition seminar start off
reminding the teachers that the goal of the course is to train
students to do well in Theory of knowledge?
After all, most MYP teachers do not teach TOK? The answer is that
the new MYP curriculum’s goal is for deep learning, allowing
students to become excellent debaters. It follows that good debaters
understand multiple disciplines and perspectives, which is also
critical in turning our students into good Theory of Knowledge
essay writers. MYP Language Acquisition develops listening, seeing
and reading skills, but also understanding concepts and debating
skills are in the mix too. Moreover, in DP, productive skills which
have been learned at MYP are needed to further develop. As the
student moves upwards along the language continuum they need to
learn to produce arguments in order to reach the higher more
proficient level. So being able to debate the facts and concepts has
been deeply learned, and, should be in the toolkit of DP students
who have advanced from MYP and TTO. The goal is thus to develop
students who can express opinions, and, to debate claims and
counterclaims in multiple disciplines. All this contributes to the
skill of asking relevant questions and answering them by using their
critical thinking skills.
Therefore, learning debating skills certainly meets the International
Baccalaureate core values in DP year 1.
The goal of the essay is to use interdisciplinary thinking and
multiple perspectives to clearly illuminate and evaluate how we
think. IB students cannot graduate without a passing grade for the

11
essay. The intrinsic goal of IB is to graduate lifelong learners who
are inquisitive, open-minded, critical thinkers. Therefore, ToK
stimulates students to continually keep asking themselves, “how do
we know what we know?” Students are asked to consider
prescribed titles, which are statements on knowledge, from multiple
perspectives in order to understand and evaluate them. In other
words, the challenge is to draw evaluate and draw conclusions by
comparing and contrasting different disciplines. To do this each
area of knowledge can be analyzed using the same ToK framework.
1.3 The Areas of Knowledge in TOK:
1. Arts
2. Religious knowledge systems
3. Maths
4. Natural science
5. Human science
6. History
7. Indigenous knowledge systems
8. Ethics
Ways of knowing (WOKs) interact within each area of knowledge,
and, are compared and contrasted with each knowledge area to see
how they work. One might venture to say that each Way of knowing
has its limitations, so that students need to be able to understand
how the WOKs below are used in the methodology in each of the
areas of knowledge.:
1.4 The Ways of Knowing TOK:
1. Imagination
2. Emotion
3. Intuition
4. Reason
5. Faith
6. Language
7. Memory
8. Sense Perception
1.5 TOK Framework
The areas of knowledge are examined using the framework below
in order understand how and why they are used to gain knowledge;
1. Scope and implications (Goals)
2. Methods
3. Historical development
4. Language & concepts
5. Personal perspective

12
Concretely, the ideal IB student evaluates one of six prescribed titles
within 1,600 words. A TOK essay has two parts. Part one is to
choose one of the six prescribed title and to formulate it as a
knowledge question. Secondly, one has to critically analyze the
question using at the ways of knowing and areas of knowledge.
By comparing and contrasting the areas of knowledge, one can
evaluate the prescribed title and show understanding of the nature
of knowledge. Make links and conceptual connections are therefore
crucial. A TOK essay is more complex than merely arguing for one
side, from one point of view. It requires dialogue, and, is a
discussion showing critical thinking on a general statement on
knowledge. A discussion entails showing different perspectives.
A typical prescribed title asks for inquiry into a general statement
on knowledge. Students need to use their inquisitiveness to turn
one of the prescribed titles into a knowledge question.
For example, below are 3 TOK prescribed titles to be evaluated in a
TOK essay:
1.There is a tradeoff between simplicity and accuracy in knowledge.
2. Knowledge develops according to Darwin’s theory as a metaphor.
3. To what extent is Darwin’s theory useful to describe how
knowledge develops in religious knowledge systems and natural
science. (IB 2015)
Therefore, students need to synthesize their knowledge and to look
for general laws, concepts, principles and rules of the knowledge
areas they analyze. On the other hand, it is important to avoid over-
simplistic and sloppy generalizations, incoherence, or irrelevant
comparisons.
During the two-year DP study students learn the importance of
using the TOK framework as a tool for analysis of knowledge
questions. The next step is to filter this framework through one’s
personal perspective, based on one’s background, sex, class, and,
nationality.

13
1.6 Personal perspective
The IB profile meets the TOK essay as follows:
Open-minded: One can be more convincing by understanding a
refutation of your argument’s claim, the so-called counterclaim.
Knowledgeable: One knows both sides to arguing a statement about
knowledge.
Inquirers: IB is not about asking the students questions, but having
the students themselves come up with good questions.
Knowledgeable: Students need to reconcile and synthesize ideas
from different areas of knowledge with their own personal
perspective.
Thinkers: Which concepts and criteria are relevant and worth using
for analyzing the prescribed title; they know how to formulate a
relevant knowledge questions.
Carer: Students show care for others and concern for other
perspectives. Students give opinions and feedback to each other and
incorporate it into their own essays. Page 73 As a Model UN
director, I see how powerful and enriching it is to have students
from different backgrounds problem solve together. They learn to
listen to other perspectives as well as give their own in speeches,
debates concerning their propositions. Most importantly, they deal
with disagreement and clashes in order to come to solutions to the
world’s problems. Our ISG students tend to do very well according
to the organizers, and the ISG is given an extra allotment of 4
delegates because they perform so well.
Principled: Students should become aware of the implications of
their own and others ways of knowing and actions.
Balanced: IB students have emotional balance, showing empathy
and understanding of how people come to know what they know.
Risk takers: Being open to and investigating other perspectives and
counterclaims contains risks - one risks the danger of having one’s
world view changed.
Communicators: Our students write cogent and lucid TOK essays.

14
2. Essay results & assessment criteria
Compared to other IB schools, the ISG results are slightly better
than the IB average.
Session A B C D E
2013 1 5 14 6 1
2014 1 8 18 7 0
2015 0 8 14 6 2
Essays are graded on their overall impression, holistically.
The following assessment criteria from 2016 the Theory of
knowledge guide is as follows:
1. Understanding knowledge questions
This aspect is concerned with the extent to which the essay
focuses on knowledge questions relevant to the prescribed
title, and with the depth and breadth of the understanding
demonstrated in the essay.
Knowledge questions addressed in the essay should be shown
to have a direct connection to the chosen prescribed title, or to
be important in relation to it.
Depth of understanding is often indicated by drawing
distinctions within WOKs and AOKs, or by connecting several
facets of knowledge questions to these.
Breadth of understanding is often indicated by making
comparisons between WOKs and AOKs...
Relevant questions to be considered include the following.
o Does the essay demonstrate understanding of knowledge
questions that are relevant to the prescribed title?
o Does the essay demonstrate an awareness of the connections
between knowledge questions, AOKs and WOKs?

15
o Does the student show an awareness of his or her own
perspective as a knower in relation to other perspectives,
such as those that may arise, for example, from academic
and philosophical traditions, culture or position in society
(gender, age, and so on)?
2. Quality of analysis of knowledge questions
o This aspect is concerned only with knowledge questions
that are relevant to the prescribed title.
o Relevant questions to be considered include the following.
o What is the quality of the inquiry into knowledge
questions?
o Are the main points in the essay justified?
o Are the arguments coherent and compelling?
o Have counterclaims been considered?
o Are the implications and underlying assumptions of
the essay’s argument identified?
o Are the arguments effectively evaluated?
(IB Theory of Knowledge Guide)
These criteria align with Howard Gardner’s skill of synthesizing
information for attaining deep knowledge. The writing process
entails critical thinking to select and filter out information to find
out what is relevant, using real-life examples and concepts that offer
insight and cogency in answering the knowledge question.
(Lagemaat 599)
3. Scaffolding theory: the Australian Vygotskyans
Pauline Gibbons, David Rose, and J.R. Martin are the Australian
Vygotskyans. As an immigrant country, Australia has been
confronted with the problem of integrating many young second
language learners. Lev Vygotsky was a Russian scientist who stated
that learning occurs within the proximal zone of development in
meaningful social contexts.
Up to now, the teachers’ role has been to help unpack the prescribed
titles, and to give one round of general feedback after the first draft
has been handed in. One might say that some students are being
asked to carry out essay organizing they are not quite ready for.
This means that more guided practice on essay writing is necessary.
The implications of scaffolding are clear as meaningful learning
occurs where;
At no time are students asked to carry out
alone a task with which they are not familiar,
yet at the same time they are constantly being
‘stretched’ in their language development and
expected to take responsibility for those tasks
they are capable of doing alone. (Gibbons 125)

16
For writing, Pauline Gibbons‘ pedagogy not only lets the students
discover and increase their language skills in a group, but to have
teacher guide them along in designing the essay. This constructive
phase is a critical one on the way to internalize writing procedures
of the essay genre. Also, it is the last phase before the final one of
independent writing. Others may claim that pure Vygotskyan
teaching can lack support, leaving many struggling, less motivated
and, or, less ‘involved’. (Rose & Martin 25) Therefore, scaffolding
aims to give the student explicit support, the so-called scaffolding,
within their level of proximal development.
Gibbon’s four phases of learning to write in a genre are as follows:
1. Building knowledge of the field.
2. Modeling and deconstructing the genre
3. Scaffolding - Joint construction
4. Independent writing
Scaffolding’s phases have been put into practice in the curriculum as
follows:
3.1 Phase 1. Building the knowledge of the field
Building the field is about learning about the essay genre.
Students learn how to put the content of their ideas within the
context of TOK. This first phase occurs for most students in the first
two terms of DP1, from September to March.
This start-up phase emphasizes understanding key terms and
concepts. P. Gibbons pg. 111
In this stage a start is made in understanding TOK terms such as
ways and areas of knowing, as well as the TOK framework.
Also, principles and rules of the essay genre are taught.
Concretely, this means that students are immediately shown the
assessment criteria of the TOK essay assessment. Furthermore,
students are given samples of average and excellent essays. In this
stage familiarity of writing the essay and its rules are clearly
defined.
Examples of essays are shown, upon which they can model their
own in a later phase. Observing and memorizing how a good essay
is modeled, with good introductions, body paragraphs support the
claims, counterclaims and perspectives of the arguments and lead to
a logical conclusion.
3.1.1 Surveys of the four scaffolding phases
Can-do questions are asked to find out whether students have
moved from one phase along the scaffolding continuum. The aim is
to see if and how the process toward achieving the final
independent phase is working. The idea is to learn in which phase
students are in. TOK strives to challenge, yet one does not want to

17
be too challenging and leave the students alone before they are able
to write independently. One wants challenged students who are
dealing with one level above their current comfort zone. So the
balance between challenged and excited students and frustrated
ones can be a fraught balance indeed. That is why the students have
been asked about their own view of their development.
Phase 1 building the field for TOK essays: DP1 October 2015
This survey was given to first year DP students after having written
their first essay.
Due to the difficulty of writing from two points of view and
understanding the genre of the essay, approximately one third of
the students can be struggling and frustrated. This can also be
exacerbated by the fact that there was no TOK day this year and
many lessons did not go through. Finally, one third of the DP1
students were only able to attend roughly half of the lessons due to
illness, complicating matters.
The next page concerns the 1rst phase of Building the field which
begins in DP1, and contains surveys given DP1 after 2 months of
instruction:

18
3.1.2 DP1 survey in the beginning phases: Building knowledge
of the field and modeling and deconstructing the genre
Illustration 3.1
The first step is that students need to learn how to problematize
statements on knowledge. First, can inquire well and ask good
knowledge questions? As per my feedback to a student who was
exploring the problem statement of whether there is such a thing as
a neutral question: An IB student needs to be an inquirer and to
turn statements into problems.
The main issue is asking general and neutral questions about
knowledge so that they can be discussed. This requires open-
mindedness, reflection, and inductive reasoning for critical thinking.
40% of the students struggle with asking general questions,
preferring to ask specific closed questions. Therefore,
understanding what a knowledge question is still a skill which is
needed to be learned in the beginning phases.

19
3.1.3 Survey of the beginning phases of scaffolding (continued)
Assessment using TOK criteria:
Understanding what is being asked of you is critical.
This year there was no TOK day, so students were introduced to the
criteria in class (page 13 of this paper).
As Einstein stated, asking good questions can be more important
than the answers.
Secondly, can they answer the knowledge question they have
posed? Repetition helps, but more than half the students still prefer
to ask specific questions with simple yes and no answers.
So the survey shows that beginning DP1 students still feel uncertain
about whether they can ask general questions about knowledge.
Illustration 3.1.3

20
Design of DP1 in the beginning modeling the field phase
Students were shown on the board two ways the TOK essay can be
structured. Giving models and examples fits the first two phases in
the scaffolding process and has lead to 75% of the students feeling
confident that they can design their own essay. In a general sense,
one might say students have the feeling that they can apply what
has been learnt in MYP and TTO.
Illustration 3.1.4

21
Design of DP1 in the modeling the field phase
Backing up general statements and claims with specific examples is
difficult; yet, as can be seen below, almost two-thirds of the DP1
students say they understand how to apply real-life examples when
writing.
Illustration 3.1.5
After learning basic TOK concepts at the start of DP1, two-thirds of
the students have become familiar with the TOK framework and
using examples to justify knowledge claims.

22
3.2 Phase 2. Modeling and deconstructing the genre
Planning and organizing the essay is shown in class to see how TOK
essays are written. Students continue to be given many essays to
peruse so that they can compare and contrast to see how others
approach writing the essay.
In this phase students start to get a feel for the genre of essay
writing, and, have the idea that they are going to evaluate
knowledge statements. To do this it is handy to gain the following
skills:
 Asking good and relevant knowledge questions
 Knowing how to use the TOK framework
 Using real life situations as examples to back up claims and
counterclaims
 Structuring the essay
It is not so that there is just one limited rule for structuring the
essay. Nonetheless, students need to have an idea of how an essay
can be structured, and, what it needs to contain. Namely, a TOK
essay needs to contain the following paragraphs:
 Introduction: (Knowledge question)
 Body (for analysis: it has real life situations to justify and affirm,
or, refute the various claims)
o Claim AOK 1
o Counterclaim AOK 1
o Claim AOK 2
o Counterclaim AOK 2
 Personal perspective
 Conclusion – Evaluates the knowledge question
Nevertheless, students are not given a simple formula that should
be dumbly followed; students are free to vary the essay structure
according to their wishes. The point is to let students be creative
once showing them the implicit rules and criteria they are expected
to meet. Thus, it is critical in this phase to show how each element
of the disparate paragraphs connect and can be constructed;
This means showing them support, examples, as well as asking
them to start thinking critically.
After all, there may be a few students who have internalized
scaffolding, and will be able to go immediately on to phase 4,
independent writing.
Students are asked to identify, analyze, and discuss real life
examples using the TOK framework. They also learn another area of
knowledge during this phase. After two years of TOK students have

23
analyzed the ways of knowing and framework of six out of the eight
available areas of knowledge.
A survey has not been specifically held in this phase.
However, the TOK newsletter and informal questions show that
most students have a pretty good idea of the TOK essay genre by the
end of February of the first DP1 year. Also, writing a second TOK
essay in April affords further essay practice and modeling of writing
skills.
3.3 Phase 3: Scaffolding - Joint construction
Scaffolding is the phase whereby the teachers support the student’s
efforts to design their own essays.
The students get the opportunity to practice 2 essays in their first
year of DP. Essay 1 is in September. Next, the second essay is in the
following April. It is hoped that the students are poised to become
independent writers at this point. The TOK essay needs to be
uploaded to the IB by March 15th of the May cohort. Moreover, the
IB guideline states that the teacher is only allowed to give general
feedback of the rough draft. Therefore, it is important that students
realize, identify and understand the knowledge issues implied by
the problem statements. So it is up to the students to propose their
choice of problem statement, knowledge questions, claims,
counterclaims, and, their own personal perspective.
The role of the teacher in this phase is to affirm that the students
understand how they have formulated knowledge terms, issues and
questions, as well as claims related to the prescribed title.
Moreover, students need to be reassured that they have identified
good knowledge claims in their essay proposals. These claims and
counterclaims are to be elaborated on and justified by the student
himself. Thus, teacher feedback is for ensuring that the student is on
the right track. After all, the student should get affirmation and
encouragement. Furthermore, once they know their work is logical
they can elaborate on their claims.
In DP2 the essay 3 is written in September and October, followed by
the last essay 4, in January and February. During all these essays
students have been given the chance to access the teacher for
understanding the prescribed titles, and structuring the essay. After
handing in the first draft, students get a round of general feedback.
They then complete the essay. For struggling TOK students, the IB
has come up with a compulsory preparation and planning
document. This document is supposed to help students structure
their essay. The idea of this paper is to take a step back and reflect
on the best way to approach the essay before writing it. So the
scaffolding document should help students come up with a
structure to fall back on. It should allow them to transfer their
writing knowledge gained from MYP, TTO, and from courses in

24
History, Sciences (writing lab reports), math explorations, essays
and texts from Language A and Language acquisition. Therefore,
scaffolding (and the activities in this paper – scaffolding form) is not
merely a fill-in exercise, but a way of activating prior knowledge.
This should expedite asking knowledge questions, making claims,
and counterclaims, as well as using real-life examples that go along
with answering them.
Joint construction with fellow students is another tool that is being
put in the mix. The main reason is that TOK is a course that is aided
greatly by discussing knowledge issues, questions and claims.
Talking with someone else gives one a
Lastly, TOK teachers make clear that if the student is willing to work
hard, that they will be supported and do well in TOK.
Building the Field surveys:
Finding out the phase the students are at after the first year of DP1
Illustration 3.3
Returning to Ms. Harris‘ statement on knowledge transfer and deep
learning within the IB, 25 out of 30 students affirmed that they can
transfer skills from the various courses within the DP.
The next step is to move on from an understanding of the TOK essay
genre towards independent essay writing by using the method of
joint construction – this method is to be used to help students
synthesize their perspective and knowledge into the essay. This
phase of scaffolding should allow students to put all the wood of
their IB knowledge behind the arrow in order to hit the mark.
May 2016 Cohort: DP1 June 2015 TOK Student Reflection Yes No Maybe
I can use the TOK framework to write TOK essays and give TOK presentations 26 1 2
I can reconcile claims and counterclaims and come to logical conclusions 27 1 1
Using real-life situations to support and analyze knowledge questions is something I can do 27 0 2
Planning and structuring essays in clear paragraphs is a skill I can do 22 2 5
I can use perspectives from the 4 areas of knowledge we studied this year: 1) indigenous knowledge systems, 2) ethics, 3) history, 4) arts 22 4 3
It is clear to me what the IB expects from me when writing TOK essays 20 6 3
It is clear to me what the IB expects for giving presentations 21 5 3
It is clear to me what I need to do to further improve my essay writing and/or presentations 16 9 4
I am able to transfer my skills from the sciences, EE, languages, economy, visual arts and history 25 1 4
I am able to compare and link different perspectives from different areas of knowledge in order to show "how we know what we know" 23 2 4

25
I can transfer skills from the sciences, Extended Essay, languages,
economy, visual arts, & history
Illustration 3.3.1
In conclusion - it takes time and practice to understand all this, yet
a vast majority students have taken great strides by the end of
DP1 and are ready to go on to phase three to phase four in DP2.
86%
4% 10%
Yes
No
Maybe

26
4. Scaffolding - Phase 3 in practice
Come graduation time students should be able to achieve the phase
of independence. Usually, there are one or two bright students in
every class who have the ability to independently write TOK essays
from the get-go. On the other hand, there are usually 5 or 6 students
in DP who continue to struggle with writing on their own,
especially, structuring their essays is a challenge.
These students need to take a step back to the second or third
phase.
4.1 Scaffolding lessons
To meet the requests of the students, more group work has been
conjured to ensure meaningful learning.
Specifically, guided learning was done for better understanding of
the prescribed titles, and looking for appropriate examples to back
up claims and counterclaims. Using the power of social context,
much of the planning and preparation took place in class this year
through scaffolding’s emphasis on the use of a social context.
On the next page is the new plan for TOK essay writing using both
teacher and student scaffolding.
Working together in duo and in groups is a way to have students
raise each other’s level. Collaboration, with fellow students can be
worthwhile for better understanding, and for gaining new
perspectives. This should also lead to open-mindedness so that one
can also learn the limits of one’s argument. Also, each student
should be able to give feedback and ask for more elaboration. This
supported practice allows thus for sharpening of one’s arguments
(Rose and Martin 14). Therefore, writing a TOK essay is a dynamic
process whereby each student can look at the justification of each
other’s claims, hopefully making them more insightful, cogent and
accomplished.

27
4.2 Scaffolding lesson plan
Scaffolding Essay Plan:
Sequence for independent TOK essay writing
(10% of term 2 grade)
Step 1. DIVERGENT THINKING
Kick-off Brainstorm Session:
Think out of the box to show how you know what you know!
STEP 2.
1. Choose one out of the six prescribed titles we discussed this
morning.
Discuss with your partner – Question each other using the TOK
framework….try to convince your partner your PT is the right one
2. Knowledge question: come up with a general question on the nature
of knowledge derived from the PT.
STEP 3.
Possible claims and counterclaims linked to the PT:
3 a.) Claim
3 b.) Counterclaim
STEP 4.
REAL LIFE SITUATION:
Think of 2 real life situations to back the
4 a.) claim(in 2 Areas of Knowledge)
4.b.) counterclaim (in 2 Areas of Knowledge)
STEP 5.
What do you need to know? – gather facts and relate to the RLS and PT
Can you back the claimand counterclaim with the RLS? Or does it
refute the claim(s)?

28
Step 6.
Check-in and report on your buddy’s TOK essay proposal in next
weeks’ class.
Show links to the AOKs/WOKs by usingthe TOK framework!
TOK FRAMEWORK:
 Implication of Scope and Application of PT
 Methods
 Historical Development
 Personal and shared perspective
 Language/conventions (measurements/metaphors)
Step 7. (homework)
CONVERGENT THINKING AND STRUCTURE: Putting it all together
Put your brilliant thoughts here, in the box of the TOK Framework
TOK Proposal Jan. 20: Structure your essay by paragraphing it:
 Introduction: 250 words w/ KQ, mention perspective and AOKs,
WoKs, as well as methods to be used. Make clear you understand
what the prescribed title beggars you to answer!
 First Claim: RLS of up to 250 words - link to AOK to back the claim
 First Counterclaim: RLS 100 – 150 words approximately, link to
same AOK
 Second Claim: RLS 250 words
 Second Counterclaim: 150 words
 Personal perspective: 150 to 250 words
 Conclusion: Answer the knowledge question by judging and
evaluation.
STEP 8.
Jan. 29th: FIRST DRAFT (1,600 word limit) in managebac
STEP 9.
Immediate general feedback from the teacher by February 1rst, the
student independently completes the construction of the final essay
STEP 10.
Final draft, February 15th: Upload to IB

29
In duo check: Affirm if focus of the knowledge question derived
from your chosen prescribed title is good.
Are each other’s claims and counterclaims meaningful, allowing one
to justify claims and answer the knowledge question?
Fill-in of the Scaffolding document: *paragraphing document in
class handout! 
Teacher and student feedback. The scaffolding document is a
paragraphing document which students fill in before writing their
rough draft. They get affirmation and a green light if it is good, or, if
not, go back to the drawing board to come up with an appropriate
essay plan. The essay paragraph planning document is in the
appendix.
IB preparation and planning document: Only four of the twenty-one
DP2 students completed the IB planning and preparation (PPD)
form for homework. It is quite abstract, so students tend to
complete it as a requirement right before the IB upload in February.
First Draft:
Teacher Feedback round
Final Draft:
Student writes final draft independently (only one general feedback
round is allowed) and is uploaded after being checked for
plagiarism and approved by the teachers and DP coordinator.

30
4.3 Observation of Scaffolding in a DP2B lesson
Examples of student group work lesson in which students try to
come up with fitting real-life situations to evaluate prescribed titles.
Students were split up into 6 groups of 3 or 4 students to analyze
each of the 6 prescribed titles. These check-in groups were
monitored by RUG English docent, and doctoral candidate on
scaffolding, Ms. Nienke Smit. Her impression after observing to 2
hours of lessons is as follows:
Wow, the comments and discussion and feedback
of your DP2 students was on a level of my master students.
Nevertheless, these lessons can be helpful, but, don’t forget to
take away the scaffolding!
I was also quite happy because the students went into depth and
showed breadth in their panel discussion of each prescribed title.
Particularly impressive was discussing Darwin’s usefeulness as a
metaphor. Students were able to connect deeply with the concept
linking the survival of religions, languages and behavior to real-life
situations. Students even thought of memes and linked the concept
of ‘going viral’ to the prescribed title.
The next step is for the students need to get their brilliant ideas and
examples on the essay page! hj
4.4 Check-in duos
Students check each other’s planning of the essay on the scaffolding
form. One interaction of a duo in DP2A has been videotaped.
This feedback round should help development of communication,
empathy and caring attributes.
My colleague, Ms. B. Capuano, mentioned that ‘the students seem to
like offering each other feedback’, which is also my impression.
So not only filling in the scaffolding form helps start the learning
process, but discussing in –duo with a fellow students seems to
activate the planning and organizational skills of many of our DP
students.
Therefore, it is helpful for the student’s to discuss each other’s essay
design and approach.
Specifically, have I understood the prescribed title been able to
come up with a knowledge question? Does answering my
knowledge question allow for evaluation of the prescribed title?
Have I come up with valid claims, counterclaims?
Can I back them up and justify my claims and counterclaims with
relevant examples from real life?
Lastly, check-in duo and group checks make the students
themselves responsible. These lessons can be seen as steps towards
the last phase, so that our students become independent writers.

31
5. Scaffolding Surveys of phase 3 & 4
At the start of writing the fourth and last essay most students were
in phase 3. The Final DP2 Survey of February 21, 2016, right after
uploading their IB TOK essay. This last survey has been held to see if
the scaffolding method used this year has worked. In other words;
Has the scaffolding approach aided the students to become
independent thinkers and writers?
Twenty-two out of the thirty-eight DP2 students, a significant portion,
took the time to answer the survey.
5.1 Inquirers: Asking knowledge questions
Illustration 5.1
Only one out of the respondents felt that they could not come up
with relevant questions about knowledge. So it is justified to
conclude that a vast majority can inquire into knowledge issues.

32
5.2 TOK framework
Critical thinking ability, and use of analysis of examples within the
TOK framework, was also surveyed.
Can the students analyze specific real-life examples within the TOK
framework? It means finding out the goals and implications,
methods, language conventions, and, historical conventions, of the
particular area of knowledge being examined.
Illustration 5.2
The results mean that up to a third of the students still needed
support and guidance to make sure that they have fully analyzed the
knowledge question in their TOK essay.
So the role of the teacher remains, even till the end of DP2, to affirm
to the students whether or not they have used the TOK framework
properly.

33
5.3 Evidence based writing: use of real-life situations
Relevant examples, contained in real-life situations, are used to
evaluate the problem statement. Therefore, finding examples to
answer the knowledge question and issues at hand is critical. After
all, the situations used back up or deny the claims and
counterclaims posed in the essay.
Students thus need the ability to come to general conclusions based
on specific examples. Fortunately, students said they are aware of
the inductive reasoning that goes into evaluating the knowledge
questions they concoct.
Illustration 5.3

34
5.4 Open-mindedness
Understanding and reconciling points of view besides one’s own is
essential for meeting the IB profile.
Can the student take on and use a different perspective other than
their own? This means looking at the strength of a counterclaim?
The TOK essay demands that the student come up with a dialogue
between competing claims; usually, the student needs not only to
understand their own personal perspectives, but also perspectives
from two different areas of knowledge. These perspectives are used
to come up with a logical analysis of the knowledge question. It is
therefore critical that students be able to inquire and understand
other perspectives in order to argue knowledge claims well.
Illustration 5.4

35
5.5 Assessment Criteria: Understanding the criteria of the TOK
essay
Illustration 5.5
Oddly, more of this cohort said that they understood the criteria
better after their first year than at the end of DP2!
The fact that there is no ‘correct’ answer to the problem statement
makes understanding TOK’s assessment difficult.
Students are given the assessment criteria on the first day of TOK,
yet still doubt their understanding of it till the end of their IB
careers.
Nevertheless, students understand the basis of the assessment; it all
comes back to asking good knowledge questions and the quality of
anlysis in answering them. Excellence is attained by writing in an
accomplished, analytical, and cogent manner.

36
5.6 Transfer of knowledge and deep learning
(with thanks to Ms. Harris)
Illustration 5.6
One might say that most students feel confident that they can apply
their skills to the core of the IB. This speaks to the interdisciplinary
nature of the whole of the IB, from MYP to DP. Lastly, it is
convincing in the sense that all teachers support students in being
able to approach and deal skillfully with the core of the IB. Students
mostly feel that they have learnt the skills needed to write the TOK
essay.
In other words – All students have an idea that they can work in an
interdisciplinary way. Also, We are all TOK, CAS, and EE teachers!

37
5.7 Design – Constructing essays independently
This year in DP2 I have really learned how to structure and
plan essays
DP2 student Ana-Mae Jonk
Illustration 5.7
This result boosts one’s confidence in the scaffolding approach to
learning. Scaffolding, with its emphasis on paragraphing, has bore
fruit in the sense that students feel that they have developed into
independent planners and designers of their essay. They are
starting to ‘own’ the writing process. Nevertheless, as can be seen
below in the next illustration, TOK essays are seen by some students
to be more difficult than your average essay.

38
5.8 Planning and structuring TOK essays
Illustration 5.8
Compared to the previous essay, students find that a TOK essay to
be a bit more of a challenge to plan and structure. Students have
mentioned that they find it most difficult to find counterclaims
because it is counter-intuitive to argue against your own claim.
Nonetheless, most understand that weighing claims against
counterclaims leads to stronger and more well-rounded
conclusions.

39
5.9 I can compare and contrast the TOK framework &
perspectives
TOK Framework: Using the framework remains difficult.
Illustration 5.9
Not one student said they could not use the TOK framework. Still,
writing a TOK essay containing a well-balanced view of all elements
of the TOK framework remains a challenge. As one student said,
‘can’t I just forget the TOK framework?’ Sorry, you can’t!
Nevertheless, one can see that students understand that they can
break down and analyze statements on knowledge.

40
5.10 Phase four: Independent inquirers, critical thinkers, and
writers
TOK is the course I liked the most in the IB programme
because it showed me how to apply the skills I have developed
at the ISG in the real world, at work and at university.
DP2 student Lieke Rolvers
Illustration 5.10
Almost two-third of the students call themselves independent
writers. Almost half were not quite sure they could write
independently, but felt that they are on their way to becoming
independent writers. Lastly, there were two students who still
definitely do not feel that they have achieved this phase yet.
Four students said they had filled the survey immediately, filling in
all the categories of Yes, No, and Maybe. After asking the students
which category these four felt that they fit into the ‘Yes’ category.
In conclusion, at the very least one can say that the students are
thinking about their approach to learning and essay writing.
ISG students are ready to sing their own song, as Walt Whitman
says, as in my perspective, IB students contain multitudes:
You shall not look through my eyes either,
nor take things from me,
you shall listen to all sides
and filter them from yourself
(Whitman - Song of Myself)

41
5.11 Teacher scaffolding
Illustration 5.11
Given the new approach to teaching, the vast majority of students
felt there was enough helpful teacher support to become
independent writers.
Therefore, the use scaffolding as a teacher method was effective.
However, this could also be the observer effect, as quite a few
students were interested and felt glad to take part in the survey so
that they could express their opinions. Moreover, there was at least
an emotional or affective result of surveying the students every few
months: students seem to enjoy being heard, increasing
involvement. Overall, TOK students conclude that the were
adequately supported by the TOK teachers.

42
Conclusion: Results and recommendations
IB Grade results will be available in July 2016 and fall outside the
scope of this ‘small’ research project. Nevertheless, one can expect
that with better planning and organization, and the support of
scaffolding, poor scores at the weak part of the spectrum, D and E of
the mark-scheme, will be reduced.
Was there too much support? One student said last year that there
was too much help. I must admit that sometimes we TOK teachers
can be a crutch and too eager to help. For the extremely bright and
creative students, scaffolding can be a very temporary phase indeed.
For weaker ones, teachers need to make sure the student is doing
the work, and not leaning on the teacher too much. In this sense we
have to remain generalists talking about the nature of the TOK
essay. Finding the right balance between struggle and challenge
brings me back to the words of Ms. N. Smit of Rijksuniversiteit
Groningen:
Scaffolding means temporary support, so you have to know when to
take the scaffolding away… “so remove unnecessary help once the
student has entered the last and permanent phase of independent
writing”.
Another takeaway from this project is that scaffolding can be a
useful method for building student confidence step-by-step, and,
taking a step back to activate MYP knowledge can be helpful.
IB students need to be able to inquire for themselves, so harking
back to statements of inquiry is useful; students are in a world
demanding that schools replace a learning approach based on rote
memorization and test taking with a more interdisciplinary one
(Wagner 111). So, however temporary scaffolding is, it is here to
stay. We TOK teachers are continuing to emphasize the gaining of
interdisciplinary skills such as asking questions in order to engage
in constructive debate. (Wagner 124)
Two ways to expedite learning to help build the field and model
TOK essay writing are as follows for DP1 students:
 Reinstate the TOK introduction day
 TOK conference in Maastricht. Participating would make our
students more TOK minded and involve them in group inquiry
and debate.
In conclusion, using scaffolding can help students put the wood
behind the arrow by activating and developing their writing skills.
It offers support so that the interdisciplinary skills can be put to
use, allowing students to focus on the target of writing essays with
good depth and breadth. Going by the surveys and feedback from
our students, students feel that scaffolding has helped them put

43
their IB education together in focus; it has indeed allowed them put
all the wood behind the arrow, making it easier for them focus on
and hit the target.

44
Works Cited
Editor. IB World. March 2016 issue 73
Editor. Online curriculum centre: IB 2015 Guides.
MYP Language Acquisition Guide
http://occ.ibo.org/ibis/occ/home/subjectHomeMYP.cfm?subject=langb
DP Theory of Knowledge Guide
https://ibpublishing.ibo.org/exist/rest/app/tsm.xql?doc=d_0_tok_gui_
1304_1_e&part=3&chapter=4
Gardner, Howard. 5 Minds for the Future. Boston: Harvard Business
School, 2008. Print.
Gibbons, Pauline. Scaffolding Language, Scaffolding Learning: Teaching
Second Language Learners in the Mainstream Classroom. Portsmouth:
Heinemann, 2015. Print.
Lagemaat, Richard. Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015. Print.
Editor. Online curriculum centre: IB 2015 Guides.
MYP Language Acquisition Guide
http://occ.ibo.org/ibis/occ/home/subjectHomeMYP.cfm?subject=langb
DP Theory of Knowledge Guide
https://ibpublishing.ibo.org/exist/rest/app/tsm.xql?doc=d_0_tok_gui_
1304_1_e&part=3&chapter=4. April 12, 2016
Scaffolded TOK essay planning template Theory of knowledge teacher
support material
http://xmltwo.ibo.org/publications/DP/Group0/d_0_tokxx_tsm_1305_
1/samples/essay_template. February 5, 2016
Rose, David, and Martin, J. Learning to write, reading to learn: genre,
knowledge and pedagogy in the Sydney school. Sheffield: Equinox
Publishers, 2012
Wagner, Tony, and Ted Dintersmith. Most Likely to Succeed: A New
Vision for Education to Prepare Our Kids for Today's Innovation
Economy. New York: Scribner, 2015. Print.
Whitman, Walt. Leaves of Grass: Song of Myself.
http://www.whitmanarchive.org/archive1/works/leaves/1882/text/81s
oms.html April 9, 2016

LD April 21 2016

More Related Content

What's hot

Similar to LD April 21 2016

LD April 21 2016