John Searle and the Ontology of Documents
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Forms part of a training course in ontology given in Buffalo in 2009. For details and accompanying video see http://ontology.buffalo.edu/smith/IntroOntology_Course.html
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Jan Krouzil PhD
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Agenda
Announcements
Part I What is meant by 'social reality’?
Part II Hermeneutic phenomenology
Keywords
Readings & supplementary sources
Part I
What is meant by 'social reality’? (1)
Conceptions of ‘social reality’
‘social realities’ are all around us
think of cocktail parties, football games, bar mitzvahs, political rallies, even nations
all made up of ‘social entities’
‘social entity’ can be defined in reference to ‘the separate existence of an organization that is perceived to exist by its members and the public at large as a given, i.e. something that exists before and outside of them.’
‘social realities’ are creations of not individual human minds, but
collectives of human minds
by their very nature, they are mostly founded on agreement (or contract)
What is meant by 'social reality’? (2)
humans are immersed both physically (somatically) and virtually in
a universe of ever changing ‘social realities’
they play a major role both in determining how humans live and how well they live
the social realm affects not only how humans relate to one another
but also how they interact with the rest of the biological and
physical realms
science, for example, is a complex social undertaking by which humans collectively seek to understand the physical, biological, and even the social realm itself
What is meant by 'social reality’? (3)
The constitution of the ‘social reality’
virtually all social entities are 'plastic’ - their properties change significantly over time, as a result of the purposive and unintentional behavior of the socially constructed individuals who make up a society
organizations, labor unions, universities, churches, and social identities all show a substantial degree of flexibility and fluidity over time, and this fact leads to a substantial degree of heterogeneity among groups of similar social organizations and institutions
the properties of a social entity or practice can change over time
they are not rigid, fixed, timeless; they are not bound into consistent and unchanging categories of entities
such as 'bureaucratic state', 'Islamic society', or 'leftist labor organization’
‘molecules of water preserve their physical characteristics no matter what. But in contrast to natural substances such as gold or water, social things can change their properties indefinitely.' (Little 2007)
What is meant by 'social reality’? (4)
the objects studied by social science include ‘social structure’
e.g., kinship structure, historical events, artistic and political movements, types of government, socio-economic classes, historical eras, technology, and the functioning of a market economy
if there is something like ‘social reality’ then all social
phenomena and thus all objects of social inquiry will be aspects
or parts of it
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Responsibility and PunishmentAristotle (384-322 BCE).docx
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Aristotle was a Macedonian citizen, who studied with Plato for twenty years.
He went on to found his own school (the Lyceum) to rival Plato’s Academy.
Unlike Plato, he sees empirical observation as vital to the pursuit of true knowledge.
We have no published works by Aristotle, only his lecture notes on many different subjects: nature, the soul, politics, logic, etc.
As the power of Athens faded, the might of Macedonia under Alexander the Great grew.
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The first “book” or chapter of the Nicomachean Ethics (NE) identifies happiness as the chief human good.
Happiness is not a product of money, social esteem, or pleasure, though each of these must be present.
Instead, happiness is “a rational activity of the soul in accordance with virtue.”
So that means …?
Human Happiness
Like his teacher, Plato, Aristotle takes for granted the idea that the ultimate purpose of human life is the attainment of happiness.
Unlike Plato, he thinks that ethics is not about constructing a theory but about identifying what types of action create a happy state.
Aristotle sees good action as produced by human capacities, which are traditionally referred to as virtues.
Aristotle recognizes two types of virtue: those of character (endurance, generosity, etc) and those of intellect (“prudence” or “practical wisdom”).
Human Rationality
As with many other ancient Greek thinkers, Aristotle sees a rational power as essential to the human person.
Our word “reason” comes to use through Latin and later French, and is the translation for the Greek word “logos,” which has a very broad meaning (word, conversation, speech, proportion, organization, etc).
One thing is clear: logos is recognized by A. as a uniquely human power.
The word “soul” is a translation of the Greek term “anima,” which simply means the power of movement and change in any living being.
So, the human being possesses a unique “rational power of the soul.”
Virtue
The English word “virtue” similarly reaches us through Latin and French; and means “power” (from the Latin for man, vir, as in “virile”).
The Greek word for virtue is arete, which can also be translated as “excellence” and is not limited to moral attributes (e.g. a knife can have a “virtuous” – excellent for cutting – blade).
Aristotle argues that every human power has its function, and this function can be performed at different degrees of excellence.
This is fairly obvious when it comes to physical skills (e.g. sprinting), but A. insists it is no less the case for social and mental skills.
Book II: Pleasure and Measure
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Like Plato in Republic, Aristotle argues that the ability to control our drive for pleasure is the start of moral training.
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‘Eruv’ is a Hebrew word meaning literally ‘mixture’ or ‘mingling’. An eruv is an urban region demarcated within a larger urban region by means of a boundary made up of telephone wires or similar markers. Through the creation of the eruv, the smaller region is turned symbolically (halachically = according to Jewish law) into a private domain. So long as they remain within the boundaries of the eruv, Orthodox Jews may engage in activities that would otherwise be prohibited on the Sabbath, such as pushing prams or wheelchairs, or carrying walking sticks. There are eruvim in many towns and university campuses throughout the world. There are five eruvim in Chicago, five in Brooklyn, twenty three in Queens and Long Island, and at least three in Manhattan. The US Supreme Court is (like most other major US Federal Government buildings) located within the eruv of Washington DC. In many cases, not all of those living within or near the area of an actual or proposed eruv will themselves be Orthodox Jews, and this has sometimes led to protests against eruv creation. For further details see http://ontology.buffalo.edu/smith/articles/eruv.pdf
The Division of Deontic Labor
Contemporary philosophy of collective agency, as illustrated by the work of Searle, Bratman, Gilbert, Pettit and others, focuses predominantly on small groups of agents sharing common goals. In his groundbreaking paper “Massively Shared Agency” of 2014, Scott Shapiro shows the limits of this approach when dealing with the large groups of agents that form industrial corporations, armies, or systems of law enforcement. Such groups will involve alienated or uncommitted participants pursuing motives of their own. And as Shapiro shows, they can manifest shared agency only when the actions of all participants are coordinated through authority structures organized hierarchically. Here I wish to focus on that dimension of massively shared agency that has to do with the transmission of authority. I will show that while such transmission almost always involves communication through speech (or through the digital counterparts of speech), transmission of this sort is too transient,
and falls short of creating the type of enduring intermeshing of plans and intentions that is required for the imposition of hierarchical authority structures across large organizations. To create and maintain the needed hierarchical authority structures what is required are complexes of intermeshed documents. Such documents provide for what we can think of as a division of deontic labor, allowing plans, orders, and obligations to be meshed together over time.
Presented at the conference on Truth, Image and Normativity, Cagliari, Sardinia, October 23, 2014
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Increasingly, biological and clinical scientists are using ontologies to serve integration and coordination of research across diverse organisms and scientific fields. Ontologies, in this context, are logically organized collections of terms defined in such a way that they can be used consistently across multiple disciplines to describe clinical and experimental data. Ontologies are used in aging research to unify experimental results from a broad range of fields including genetics, proteomics, (stem) cell biology, oncology, model organism biology, psychogerontology, and many more. We will explore against this background questions such as the following: What is aging? What is premature aging? And more specifically: Is aging a disease?
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There is blind chess but there is no blind poker. This is because to play poker essentially involves the use of cards and chips (or representations of or proxies for cards and chips). A game of chess, in contrast, may involve only the exchange of speech acts. We draw initial conclusions for the ontology of poker from this distinction.
Talk presented on March 14, 2014
For video presentation see http://www.youtube.com/edit?video_id=PgwpR9NPKzw
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The Philosophome: An Exercise in the Ontology of the Humanities
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For background links see: http://philosophome.org/
We describe the methodology of omics disciplines in biology, and consider how analogous methods might be applied in humanities disciplines, focusing specifically on philosophy. We conclude by outlining a possible strategy for a research center in humanomics, identifying possible sources of data in the philosophical domain.
IAO-Intel: An Ontology of Information Artifacts in the Intelligence Domain
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which the content formulated with their aid will be available to computational reasoning.
Presented at the 2013 STIDS (Semantic Technology for Intelligence, Defense and Security) conference: http://stids.c4i.gmu.edu/
Science of Emerging Social Media
Talk presented at the conference on the Philosophy of Emerging Media, Boston University, October 26-27, 2013
If you try to find information about a gene or a molecule or a restaurant or a sports team or a politician on the web, it’s likely that some ontology will be involved in your search. An ontology is (briefly put) a semantically organized consensus representation of the types of entities in a given domain and of the relations between these entities – it is something like a large graph of the way some part of the world is structured. So important have ontologies become to organizations such as the BBC or the New York Times, that there is a running joke in the Semantic Web community to the effect that the Columbia School of Journalism is about to be renamed the Columbia School of Journalism and Ontology. I will attempt to draw conclusions from these phenomena concerning the ways in which social interactions are being influenced, and to some degree also transformed, by digital media.
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What is meant by 'social reality’? (1)
Conceptions of ‘social reality’
‘social realities’ are all around us
think of cocktail parties, football games, bar mitzvahs, political rallies, even nations
all made up of ‘social entities’
‘social entity’ can be defined in reference to ‘the separate existence of an organization that is perceived to exist by its members and the public at large as a given, i.e. something that exists before and outside of them.’
‘social realities’ are creations of not individual human minds, but
collectives of human minds
by their very nature, they are mostly founded on agreement (or contract)
What is meant by 'social reality’? (2)
humans are immersed both physically (somatically) and virtually in
a universe of ever changing ‘social realities’
they play a major role both in determining how humans live and how well they live
the social realm affects not only how humans relate to one another
but also how they interact with the rest of the biological and
physical realms
science, for example, is a complex social undertaking by which humans collectively seek to understand the physical, biological, and even the social realm itself
What is meant by 'social reality’? (3)
The constitution of the ‘social reality’
virtually all social entities are 'plastic’ - their properties change significantly over time, as a result of the purposive and unintentional behavior of the socially constructed individuals who make up a society
organizations, labor unions, universities, churches, and social identities all show a substantial degree of flexibility and fluidity over time, and this fact leads to a substantial degree of heterogeneity among groups of similar social organizations and institutions
the properties of a social entity or practice can change over time
they are not rigid, fixed, timeless; they are not bound into consistent and unchanging categories of entities
such as 'bureaucratic state', 'Islamic society', or 'leftist labor organization’
‘molecules of water preserve their physical characteristics no matter what. But in contrast to natural substances such as gold or water, social things can change their properties indefinitely.' (Little 2007)
What is meant by 'social reality’? (4)
the objects studied by social science include ‘social structure’
e.g., kinship structure, historical events, artistic and political movements, types of government, socio-economic classes, historical eras, technology, and the functioning of a market economy
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He went on to found his own school (the Lyceum) to rival Plato’s Academy.
Unlike Plato, he sees empirical observation as vital to the pursuit of true knowledge.
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Illuminated Manuscript (1331)
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Instead, happiness is “a rational activity of the soul in accordance with virtue.”
So that means …?
Human Happiness
Like his teacher, Plato, Aristotle takes for granted the idea that the ultimate purpose of human life is the attainment of happiness.
Unlike Plato, he thinks that ethics is not about constructing a theory but about identifying what types of action create a happy state.
Aristotle sees good action as produced by human capacities, which are traditionally referred to as virtues.
Aristotle recognizes two types of virtue: those of character (endurance, generosity, etc) and those of intellect (“prudence” or “practical wisdom”).
Human Rationality
As with many other ancient Greek thinkers, Aristotle sees a rational power as essential to the human person.
Our word “reason” comes to use through Latin and later French, and is the translation for the Greek word “logos,” which has a very broad meaning (word, conversation, speech, proportion, organization, etc).
One thing is clear: logos is recognized by A. as a uniquely human power.
The word “soul” is a translation of the Greek term “anima,” which simply means the power of movement and change in any living being.
So, the human being possesses a unique “rational power of the soul.”
Virtue
The English word “virtue” similarly reaches us through Latin and French; and means “power” (from the Latin for man, vir, as in “virile”).
The Greek word for virtue is arete, which can also be translated as “excellence” and is not limited to moral attributes (e.g. a knife can have a “virtuous” – excellent for cutting – blade).
Aristotle argues that every human power has its function, and this function can be performed at different degrees of excellence.
This is fairly obvious when it comes to physical skills (e.g. sprinting), but A. insists it is no less the case for social and mental skills.
Book II: Pleasure and Measure
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Like Plato in Republic, Aristotle argues that the ability to control our drive for pleasure is the start of moral training.
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Towards an Ontology of Philosophy
We can distinguish two families of approaches to the building of ontologies -- corresponding roughly to the contrast between 'neats' and 'scruffies' in artificial intelligence research. We describe the implications of each approach for the building of an ontology of philosophy, focusing especially on the Indiana Philosophy Ontology (InPhO) project led by Colin Allen.
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‘Eruv’ is a Hebrew word meaning literally ‘mixture’ or ‘mingling’. An eruv is an urban region demarcated within a larger urban region by means of a boundary made up of telephone wires or similar markers. Through the creation of the eruv, the smaller region is turned symbolically (halachically = according to Jewish law) into a private domain. So long as they remain within the boundaries of the eruv, Orthodox Jews may engage in activities that would otherwise be prohibited on the Sabbath, such as pushing prams or wheelchairs, or carrying walking sticks. There are eruvim in many towns and university campuses throughout the world. There are five eruvim in Chicago, five in Brooklyn, twenty three in Queens and Long Island, and at least three in Manhattan. The US Supreme Court is (like most other major US Federal Government buildings) located within the eruv of Washington DC. In many cases, not all of those living within or near the area of an actual or proposed eruv will themselves be Orthodox Jews, and this has sometimes led to protests against eruv creation. For further details see http://ontology.buffalo.edu/smith/articles/eruv.pdf
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Contemporary philosophy of collective agency, as illustrated by the work of Searle, Bratman, Gilbert, Pettit and others, focuses predominantly on small groups of agents sharing common goals. In his groundbreaking paper “Massively Shared Agency” of 2014, Scott Shapiro shows the limits of this approach when dealing with the large groups of agents that form industrial corporations, armies, or systems of law enforcement. Such groups will involve alienated or uncommitted participants pursuing motives of their own. And as Shapiro shows, they can manifest shared agency only when the actions of all participants are coordinated through authority structures organized hierarchically. Here I wish to focus on that dimension of massively shared agency that has to do with the transmission of authority. I will show that while such transmission almost always involves communication through speech (or through the digital counterparts of speech), transmission of this sort is too transient,
and falls short of creating the type of enduring intermeshing of plans and intentions that is required for the imposition of hierarchical authority structures across large organizations. To create and maintain the needed hierarchical authority structures what is required are complexes of intermeshed documents. Such documents provide for what we can think of as a division of deontic labor, allowing plans, orders, and obligations to be meshed together over time.
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The Fifth Cycle of Philosophy
In a lecture, delivered in Vienna in 1894 and dedicated "to the academic youth of Austria-Hungary", Franz Brentano outlined four phases of advance and decline which he saw as providing the key to the understanding of the history of Western philosophy. In the first cycle, in antiquity, the initial advancing phase culminated in the work of Aristotle, and was followed by three phases of decline, terminating in the irrational mysticism of the Neo-Pythagoreans. These four phases then repeated themselves: in the Middle Ages, beginning with Aquinas and ending with the "learned ignorance" of Nicholas of Cusa; and then in the modern period, beginning with Bacon and reaching its low point in the work of Kant, Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel. In the contemporary era we are currently witnessing the end of the fourth cycle in the work of (for example) Derrida, Rorty; but also the beginnings of a new, fifth cycle, which is described in the talk. (Presented at the conference Consequences of Realism, Rome, May 4-6, 2014.)
Ontology of Poker
There is blind chess but there is no blind poker. This is because to play poker essentially involves the use of cards and chips (or representations of or proxies for cards and chips). A game of chess, in contrast, may involve only the exchange of speech acts. We draw initial conclusions for the ontology of poker from this distinction.
Talk presented on March 14, 2014
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The Philosophome: An Exercise in the Ontology of the Humanities
Presentation at the opening of the Humanomics Research Centre at the University of Copenhagen, 7 February 2014
For background links see: http://philosophome.org/
We describe the methodology of omics disciplines in biology, and consider how analogous methods might be applied in humanities disciplines, focusing specifically on philosophy. We conclude by outlining a possible strategy for a research center in humanomics, identifying possible sources of data in the philosophical domain.
IAO-Intel: An Ontology of Information Artifacts in the Intelligence Domain
We describe on-going work on IAO-Intel, an information artifact ontology developed as part of a suite of ontologies designed to support the needs of intelligence community. IAO-Intel provides a controlled, structured vocabulary for the consistent formulation of metadata about documents, images, emails and other carriers of information. It will provide a resource for uniform explication of the terms used in multiple existing military dictionaries, thesauri and metadata registries, thereby enhancing the degree to
which the content formulated with their aid will be available to computational reasoning.
Presented at the 2013 STIDS (Semantic Technology for Intelligence, Defense and Security) conference: http://stids.c4i.gmu.edu/
Science of Emerging Social Media
Talk presented at the conference on the Philosophy of Emerging Media, Boston University, October 26-27, 2013
If you try to find information about a gene or a molecule or a restaurant or a sports team or a politician on the web, it’s likely that some ontology will be involved in your search. An ontology is (briefly put) a semantically organized consensus representation of the types of entities in a given domain and of the relations between these entities – it is something like a large graph of the way some part of the world is structured. So important have ontologies become to organizations such as the BBC or the New York Times, that there is a running joke in the Semantic Web community to the effect that the Columbia School of Journalism is about to be renamed the Columbia School of Journalism and Ontology. I will attempt to draw conclusions from these phenomena concerning the ways in which social interactions are being influenced, and to some degree also transformed, by digital media.
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analysis. To this end, the terms in ontologies need to be carefully defined. Smith examines definitions
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Ontology of Documents (2005)
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Ontology and the National Cancer Institute Thesaurus (2005)
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MATERIALS AND METHODS:
We used both the on-line browsable version of the Thesaurus and its OWL-representation (version 04.08b, released on August 2, 2004), measuring each in light of the requirements put forward in relevant ISO terminology standards and in light of ontological principles advanced in the recent literature.
RESULTS:
We found many mistakes and inconsistencies with respect to the term-formation principles used, the underlying knowledge representation system, and missing or inappropriately assigned verbal and formal definitions.
CONCLUSION:
Version 04.08b of the NCI Thesaurus suffers from the same broad range of problems that have been observed in other biomedical terminologies. For its further development, we recommend the use of a more principled approach that allows the Thesaurus to be tested not just for internal consistency but also for its degree of correspondence to that part of reality which it is designed to represent.
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- 2. John Searle
- 14. WAR events on the ground speech acts speech acts
- 15. WAR speech acts speech acts
- 17. The Ontology of Chess (Searle: chess is war in attenuated form)
- 40. A President
- 41. A Cathedral
- 43. A Wife and A Husband
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Editor's Notes
- John Searle, The Construction of Social Reality
- With thanks to John Kearns
- With thanks to John Kearns
- http://www.chazj.com/indent/en/1664qa.jpg