This document summarizes a research article that examines how cross-race interpersonal efficacy and affect regulation influence the relationship between contact conditions and positive diversity outcomes, as proposed by contact theory. The article reviews literature on intergroup relations and biases, contact theory, cross-race interpersonal efficacy, and affect regulation. It proposes that positive contact outcomes may depend on an individual's ability to effectively initiate and monitor behaviors for relationship development through cross-race interpersonal efficacy and affect regulation.
Jakari Griffith - An Examination of Interracial ContactJakari Griffith
This document summarizes a research article that examines how cross-race interpersonal efficacy and affect regulation may influence the outcomes of interracial contact as proposed by contact theory. The article provides background on contact theory and research showing mixed results. It discusses how social cognitive factors like efficacy and emotion regulation could help explain the variability in contact theory outcomes. The researchers propose that contact conditions may lead to more positive diversity outcomes when individuals have higher cross-race interpersonal efficacy and stronger affect regulation abilities.
Organizational commitment profiles and job satisfaction among Greek private a...Yannis Markovits
This article examines the relationship between organizational commitment profiles and job satisfaction among Greek private and public sector employees. It summarizes previous research showing that organizational commitment consists of multiple components (affective, continuance, normative) that can form distinct profiles. Greece has unique cultural characteristics but has been underrepresented in organizational research. The study explores how commitment profiles relate to intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction in Greece, adding to the limited research on profiles outside North America. It also compares profiles and job satisfaction between private and public sector employees, who may differ due to Greece's employment context. The results could help validate the profiles approach across cultures and employment sectors.
To what extent does employees’ perception of organizational justice influence...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a research study that investigated the relationship between employees' perceptions of organizational justice (distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice) and their organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). The study was conducted with 152 employees in Ghana and found that:
1) Employees' overall perceptions of organizational justice significantly influenced and accounted for 6.5% of the variance in their OCB.
2) Procedural justice and interactional justice both positively related to OCB at a significant level, accounting for 3.7% and 2.1% of variance respectively.
3) Distributive justice did not significantly relate to OCB and only accounted for 1.4% of the variance
Perceived organizational justice and employees’ organizational citizenship be...Alexander Decker
This document reports on a study that investigated the relationship between employees' perceptions of organizational justice (including distributive, procedural, and interactional justice) and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) in Ghana. The study surveyed 147 employees across 13 insurance companies in Ghana. Results found a significant positive relationship between overall organizational justice perceptions and OCB. Additionally, interactional justice, which involves respectful treatment of employees, was found to account for more variance in OCB and have a stronger relationship than distributive and procedural justice dimensions in the Ghanaian context. This provides insights for human resources professionals in Ghana that promoting interactional justice may better encourage employees to engage in extra-role citizenship behaviors.
This document discusses competency as a potential factor in workplace bullying. It begins by providing background on workplace bullying, defining it as abuse of power that can be costly to organizations. It then discusses competency and how an individual's perceived competency may determine their reaction to bullying. Specifically, the authors develop a framework where a victim's self-perception of competency has a strong mediating relationship with outcomes of bullying behaviors. They believe examining this link between competency and bullying could provide insights, and future research should empirically test this relationship. Managers should also be aware of how allowing employee development could help reduce instances of bullying.
Mediating Effect of Reputation on the Relationship between Interpersonal Skil...paperpublications3
Abstract: Career success is determined by a number of factors, including some combination of specific competencies and a performance record, along with network development, organizational politics, and reputation building. The county government of Uasin Gishu has of late received negative publicity for its policy on career development. Although interpersonal skills have been argued by researchers to demonstrate influence on work and career outcomes, a few attempts have been made to show how interpersonal skills influences these outcomes. This study investigated the relationship between interpersonal skills and career success of employees of Uasin Gishu County. The specific objectives of the study were: To determine the relationship between networking and career success, to establish the relationship between personal promotion and career success, to determine the relationship between impression management and career success, to establish the relationship between use of influence tactics and career success, and to determine whether reputation has any mediating effect on the relationship between interpersonal skills and career success. A case research design was used. Target population was all the employees of Uasin Gishu County government. Stratified ransom sampling and then simple random sampling was used to obtain the respondents for this proposed study. Primary data was collected using standard questionnaires. Interpersonal skills were taken as the independent variable, career success the dependent variable, and reputation as the mediating variable. Reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha and the data was analyzed using SPSS. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the data. The study findings showed a significant positive correlation between networking skills and career success (r = .933, p=0.000), impression management and career success (r = .775, p=0.000), self-promotion and career success (r =.933, p=0.000), use of influence tactics and career success (r=.896, p=0.000). Also there was a significant positive correlation between reputation and networking skills (r =.909, p=0.000), impression management (r =829, p=0.000), self-promotion (r=.933, p=0.000), and use of influence tactics(r=.896, p=0.000), (r=.909, p=0.000). The result of the study indicated that networking does not have a significant effect on career success, impression management was found to have a positive significant relationship with career success, and there was no significant effect of use of influence tactics on career success. Reputation was found to partially mediate the relationship between interpersonal skills and career success and hence on the other hand, results indicated that reputation fully mediate the relationship between impression management and career success and hence. It was also found that reputation fully mediated the relationship between self-promotion and career success.
The link between job satisfaction and organizational commitmentYannis Markovits
This article examines the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment for public and private sector employees. It reviews literature showing private sector employees generally report higher extrinsic job satisfaction than public sector employees due to differences in rewards. However, intrinsic satisfaction can be high for both. Studies also show mixed results for differences in organizational commitment between sectors. The article hypothesizes that job satisfaction will be more strongly related to organizational commitment for public sector versus private sector employees, especially for affective and normative commitment. It analyzes survey data from 617 Greek employees to test this.
This document proposes a research study to examine the effects of leader-member similarity on perceptions based on gender and race. It summarizes previous research showing mixed results on gender differences in leadership but an in-group bias favoring similar others. The study would test how ratings of a fictional leader described in a prompt may differ based on whether the leader's photo depicts a black female, white female, black male, or white male. Participants would respond to scenarios and rate the leader, and results would be analyzed to see if gender or race main effects or interactions influence perceptions. The goal is to reveal how similarity impacts trust and effectiveness between leaders and members.
Jakari Griffith - An Examination of Interracial ContactJakari Griffith
This document summarizes a research article that examines how cross-race interpersonal efficacy and affect regulation may influence the outcomes of interracial contact as proposed by contact theory. The article provides background on contact theory and research showing mixed results. It discusses how social cognitive factors like efficacy and emotion regulation could help explain the variability in contact theory outcomes. The researchers propose that contact conditions may lead to more positive diversity outcomes when individuals have higher cross-race interpersonal efficacy and stronger affect regulation abilities.
Organizational commitment profiles and job satisfaction among Greek private a...Yannis Markovits
This article examines the relationship between organizational commitment profiles and job satisfaction among Greek private and public sector employees. It summarizes previous research showing that organizational commitment consists of multiple components (affective, continuance, normative) that can form distinct profiles. Greece has unique cultural characteristics but has been underrepresented in organizational research. The study explores how commitment profiles relate to intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction in Greece, adding to the limited research on profiles outside North America. It also compares profiles and job satisfaction between private and public sector employees, who may differ due to Greece's employment context. The results could help validate the profiles approach across cultures and employment sectors.
To what extent does employees’ perception of organizational justice influence...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a research study that investigated the relationship between employees' perceptions of organizational justice (distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice) and their organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). The study was conducted with 152 employees in Ghana and found that:
1) Employees' overall perceptions of organizational justice significantly influenced and accounted for 6.5% of the variance in their OCB.
2) Procedural justice and interactional justice both positively related to OCB at a significant level, accounting for 3.7% and 2.1% of variance respectively.
3) Distributive justice did not significantly relate to OCB and only accounted for 1.4% of the variance
Perceived organizational justice and employees’ organizational citizenship be...Alexander Decker
This document reports on a study that investigated the relationship between employees' perceptions of organizational justice (including distributive, procedural, and interactional justice) and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) in Ghana. The study surveyed 147 employees across 13 insurance companies in Ghana. Results found a significant positive relationship between overall organizational justice perceptions and OCB. Additionally, interactional justice, which involves respectful treatment of employees, was found to account for more variance in OCB and have a stronger relationship than distributive and procedural justice dimensions in the Ghanaian context. This provides insights for human resources professionals in Ghana that promoting interactional justice may better encourage employees to engage in extra-role citizenship behaviors.
This document discusses competency as a potential factor in workplace bullying. It begins by providing background on workplace bullying, defining it as abuse of power that can be costly to organizations. It then discusses competency and how an individual's perceived competency may determine their reaction to bullying. Specifically, the authors develop a framework where a victim's self-perception of competency has a strong mediating relationship with outcomes of bullying behaviors. They believe examining this link between competency and bullying could provide insights, and future research should empirically test this relationship. Managers should also be aware of how allowing employee development could help reduce instances of bullying.
Mediating Effect of Reputation on the Relationship between Interpersonal Skil...paperpublications3
Abstract: Career success is determined by a number of factors, including some combination of specific competencies and a performance record, along with network development, organizational politics, and reputation building. The county government of Uasin Gishu has of late received negative publicity for its policy on career development. Although interpersonal skills have been argued by researchers to demonstrate influence on work and career outcomes, a few attempts have been made to show how interpersonal skills influences these outcomes. This study investigated the relationship between interpersonal skills and career success of employees of Uasin Gishu County. The specific objectives of the study were: To determine the relationship between networking and career success, to establish the relationship between personal promotion and career success, to determine the relationship between impression management and career success, to establish the relationship between use of influence tactics and career success, and to determine whether reputation has any mediating effect on the relationship between interpersonal skills and career success. A case research design was used. Target population was all the employees of Uasin Gishu County government. Stratified ransom sampling and then simple random sampling was used to obtain the respondents for this proposed study. Primary data was collected using standard questionnaires. Interpersonal skills were taken as the independent variable, career success the dependent variable, and reputation as the mediating variable. Reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha and the data was analyzed using SPSS. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the data. The study findings showed a significant positive correlation between networking skills and career success (r = .933, p=0.000), impression management and career success (r = .775, p=0.000), self-promotion and career success (r =.933, p=0.000), use of influence tactics and career success (r=.896, p=0.000). Also there was a significant positive correlation between reputation and networking skills (r =.909, p=0.000), impression management (r =829, p=0.000), self-promotion (r=.933, p=0.000), and use of influence tactics(r=.896, p=0.000), (r=.909, p=0.000). The result of the study indicated that networking does not have a significant effect on career success, impression management was found to have a positive significant relationship with career success, and there was no significant effect of use of influence tactics on career success. Reputation was found to partially mediate the relationship between interpersonal skills and career success and hence on the other hand, results indicated that reputation fully mediate the relationship between impression management and career success and hence. It was also found that reputation fully mediated the relationship between self-promotion and career success.
The link between job satisfaction and organizational commitmentYannis Markovits
This article examines the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment for public and private sector employees. It reviews literature showing private sector employees generally report higher extrinsic job satisfaction than public sector employees due to differences in rewards. However, intrinsic satisfaction can be high for both. Studies also show mixed results for differences in organizational commitment between sectors. The article hypothesizes that job satisfaction will be more strongly related to organizational commitment for public sector versus private sector employees, especially for affective and normative commitment. It analyzes survey data from 617 Greek employees to test this.
This document proposes a research study to examine the effects of leader-member similarity on perceptions based on gender and race. It summarizes previous research showing mixed results on gender differences in leadership but an in-group bias favoring similar others. The study would test how ratings of a fictional leader described in a prompt may differ based on whether the leader's photo depicts a black female, white female, black male, or white male. Participants would respond to scenarios and rate the leader, and results would be analyzed to see if gender or race main effects or interactions influence perceptions. The goal is to reveal how similarity impacts trust and effectiveness between leaders and members.
"Friend" Me: Social Media Privacy In A Supervisory RelationshipGuy Sack, M.A.
A random sample of 407 US Facebook users participated in an online survey assessing relationships between supervisors and subordinates. Self-disclosure was operationalized as having a Facebook friendship with privacy settings. Employees who were Facebook friends with their supervisor but had privacy settings reported lower relationship quality than those without settings. Those with more open disclosure reported higher trust and relationship quality. Within Facebook friendships, there were no differences in relationship quality based on who initiated the friendship. The study found support for the idea that more open disclosure on social media is related to better supervisor relationships.
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Business and Management. IJBMI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Business and Management, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Creating Consumer Attachment to Retail Service FirmsAdi Prayuda
This research examines how atmosphere-dominant service firms can create a sense of place and foster customer attachment to specific locations. It develops three dimensions of sense of place - place identity, place dependence, and social bonding - and tests how they influence attachment strength. Study 1 finds that sense of place dimensions predict attachment strength, with identity having the strongest effect. Study 2 expands the social bonds construct. The research clarifies how sense of place and attachment are distinct from brand attachment and important for location-based services. Future research should explore these relationships in different service contexts and longitudinally.
This document summarizes a research paper that explores the link between organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behavior among expatriates in Taiwan. It begins with an abstract that describes the study's objectives, methods, and key findings. The full paper then provides definitions and literature reviews of organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behavior. It discusses previous research that has found relationships between aspects of organizational commitment, like affective commitment, and dimensions of organizational citizenship behavior, like courtesy. The study aims to better understand the attitudes and behaviors of expatriates in Taiwan by exploring correlations between sub-dimensions of the two constructs.
Lmx as a predictor of performance behaviour empirical evidence from life insu...Abdul Saboor
This study comprehensively evaluated the association between LMX and performance (Task performance, Contextual performance) behavior. Results are based upon a sample of 200 field staff at State Life Insurance Corporation of Pakistan. Sample was identified with snowball sampling method. Pearson coefficient of correlation and linear regression was utilized for data analysis. Results reveal that LMX have significant positive association with subordinates task and contextual performance behavior. Study is novel in its sense, and strengthens the prior research as well.
Effect of Relational Governance on Job Satisfaction: Empirical Evidence of Su...AJHSSR Journal
This paper attempted to identify the effect of Relational Governance on Job Satisfaction of the
supportive staff of the Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka. This paper was based on primary data collected
from 40 supportive staff who are working in the Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka. Data were analyzed
using Partial Least Squares-Structural Equation Modeling. The study tested three hypothesis between three
dimensions of relational governance (i.e. Flexibility, Inter-personal Trust and Cooperation) and job satisfaction.
The results revealed that these three dimensions of relational governance have a significant positive impact on
job satisfaction of the supportive staff of the Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka.
This document summarizes a research study that examined the relationships between communication, trust, and individual performance in globally distributed teams. The study explored three models: an additive model where communication and trust independently predict performance, an interaction model where communication and trust interact to predict performance, and a mediation model where trust mediates the relationship between communication and performance. Data was collected from 111 students in US-Norway and US-Denmark teams. Results supported the mediation model, showing that high communication leads to higher trust which then leads to better individual performance. The interaction model showed an anomalous interaction effect that differed for high and low trust individuals.
This document summarizes a research paper that studied the relationship between employees' perceptions of organizational politics and their performance, with the mediating role of social exchange perceptions. The study collected survey responses from over 1,000 employees across organizations in Pakistan. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the data. The results showed that perceptions of social exchange fully mediate the relationship between perceptions of organizational politics and employees' performance. Perceptions of unfair politics can harm the social exchange relationship between employees and their organization and negatively impact performance.
Social influence, negotiation and cognitionZorigoo Ch
This document discusses a computational model of social influence and negotiation. The model incorporates agents' mental states, principles of social interaction, and the structural patterns of social relations. The model is used to simulate the negotiation process involved in selling a privately held company through different selling strategies. Simulations examine how the choice of selling strategy, agents' negotiation behaviors, and cognitive factors impact negotiation outcomes and the performance of the sale.
1) The document discusses challenges related to human capital in the US and Slovenia, including many senior employees nearing retirement age and the need to invest more in education.
2) It recommends strategies like workforce development, succession planning, knowledge management, and analyzing social networks to address these challenges.
3) A case study is described that used social network analysis to map knowledge flows within an organization and identify how to improve communication and collaboration.
Effects of managing gender of employees in enhancing organizational performan...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a research study on the effects of managing gender diversity to enhance organizational performance at Kenya Ports Authority. The study found that gender, age and marital status impact organization performance and success. It recommends that KPA recruit a more diverse workforce to improve decision making, understand customer needs better, and increase staffing flexibility. Managing diversity well through human resource policies and practices can reinforce these benefits. The background discusses how globalization requires more interaction among diverse people, so organizations must capitalize on diversity. Gender diversity can provide resources like market insight and innovation that lead to competitive advantage and higher performance, according to previous research.
Influences of strong tie with opinion leaders in an interconnected network of...Myunggoon Choi
The document discusses research on the influence of strong ties with opinion leaders in social networks in Korea. It presents three research questions: 1) the relationship between tie strength with opinion leaders and information exchange, 2) the relationship between strong ties with opinion leaders and influence on peripheral network members, and 3) differences in influence between networks that include opinion leaders versus those that do not. The document reviews literature on information inequality, social networks, opinion leaders, tie strength, and influence. It proposes three hypotheses related to the research questions and describes the planned method of identifying opinion leaders, measuring tie strength, and analyzing network density to test the hypotheses.
The Effect of Organizational Commitment and Organization Identity Strength to...IOSR Journals
Fire Department Employee Performance Jakarta Indonesia was marked by people had not been
maximized yet since in the fire cases always come late. Society always expected the performance of the fire
department in carrying out their duties on time. The purpose of this research was to measure and describe the
extent to which performance of the Jakarta Fire Department when it was affected by the variable of
organizational commitment and strength of organizational identity and organizational citizenship behaviour.
The method used in this research was quantitative. Data analysis techniques used was SEM (Structural
Equation Modelling) with the help of AMOS program. The data were collected by using a research instrument
that was distributed to the sample of 355 employees. The results showed that organizational commitment was
significantly influence organizational citizenship behaviour, but having no significant effect on employee
performance. While organizational citizenship behaviour had a significant effect on employee performance.
Organizational citizenship behaviour was mediating the relationship between commitments to employee
performance. On the other hand, it did not significantly influence organizational identity on organizational
citizenship behaviour, and also no significant effect on the employee performance. The implication of research
was organizational citizenship behaviour of Fire Department employee to be important in improving employee
performance.
This document examines the relationship between corporate culture, trust, and the effectiveness of virtual teams. A survey was administered to employees at three insurance companies that use virtual teams. The results showed Company B had the lowest levels of personality, institutional, and cognitive trust between virtual team members. High levels of trust were found to directly improve virtual team effectiveness. Corporate culture was found to directly influence the three modes of trust and thus virtual team performance.
Modeling non rational behaviour in environmental conflictsMark Szabo
This document provides a summary of a literature review on non-rational drivers of behavior in environmental conflicts. It discusses how current assessment approaches can be improved by taking a systems approach and accounting for non-rational decision making. A proposed agent-based modeling approach would add heuristics for non-rational decision making to resource dilemma simulations to compare outcomes and implications for conflict resolution policies. The document outlines relevant theories from systems science, psychology, and other fields and discusses methods like agent-based modeling, variable-based modeling, and qualitative differential modeling to study environmental conflicts.
Managing diversity becomes one of the most important factors in ensuring company competitiveness. This paper explores the theory about diversity management and compares it with the practices in organizations and then examines the organizations’ diversity programs through their employees’ perceptions. The findings illustrate that there is a gap between managing diversity theories and practices in organizations and some barriers in implementing divManaging diversity becomes one of the most important factors in ensuring company competitiveness. This paper explores the theory about diversity management and compares it with the practices in organizations and then examines the organizations’ diversity programs through their employees’ perceptions. The findings illustrate that there is a gap between managing diversity theories and practices in organizations and some barriers in implementing diversity program, especially in the hospitality industry.ersity program, especially in the hospitality industry.
Look at this annotated bibliography maker sample, that may be useful for you. If you need more information visit https://www.annotatedbibliographymaker.com/vancouver-style-of-writing-bibliography/
Barriers to Effective Communication in Organizations Shauna Lindsay
This document provides an abstract for a study examining barriers to communication within organizational cultures. The study aims to understand how hierarchical vs participative structures influence communication barriers and message distortion. An online survey will ask employees about their organizational culture, perceived barriers, degree of message distortion, and impact of subcultures. The hypotheses are that authoritarian structures experience more barriers and distortion than participative structures due to the influence of communication barriers created by organizational structure. Previous research found links between culture, barriers, and distortion, but did not comprehensively study their relationships. This study seeks to add to the body of knowledge in this area through a unified examination of these factors.
The document summarizes a journal article that examines the factors associated with dysfunctional customer behavior severity. It discusses three key factors identified in the literature: psychological obstructionism, disaffection with service, and servicescape variables.
The researchers developed two competing models - a research model based on prior frameworks, and a rival model that approaches customer dysfunction more directly. The research model posits an indirect relationship between servicescape variables and behavior, with disaffection mediating the relationship. It was tested against the rival model. Five hypotheses were advanced regarding the relationships between the factors. The study aims to integrate insights from diverse literature to better understand the antecedents of dysfunctional customer behavior severity.
This document evaluates two online courses based on best practices for online course design. For the first course on computer games and simulations, the evaluation found that while assignments and readings were clearly outlined, contact information for the professor and feedback mechanisms like a gradebook were not provided. For the second course on audio recording, the evaluation found that forums allowed student interaction and assignments supported active learning, but learning objectives and rubrics were not provided to communicate expectations. Overall, both courses provided content and activities to engage students, but could improve in areas like feedback, communication of expectations, and support for diverse learners.
"Friend" Me: Social Media Privacy In A Supervisory RelationshipGuy Sack, M.A.
A random sample of 407 US Facebook users participated in an online survey assessing relationships between supervisors and subordinates. Self-disclosure was operationalized as having a Facebook friendship with privacy settings. Employees who were Facebook friends with their supervisor but had privacy settings reported lower relationship quality than those without settings. Those with more open disclosure reported higher trust and relationship quality. Within Facebook friendships, there were no differences in relationship quality based on who initiated the friendship. The study found support for the idea that more open disclosure on social media is related to better supervisor relationships.
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Business and Management. IJBMI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Business and Management, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Creating Consumer Attachment to Retail Service FirmsAdi Prayuda
This research examines how atmosphere-dominant service firms can create a sense of place and foster customer attachment to specific locations. It develops three dimensions of sense of place - place identity, place dependence, and social bonding - and tests how they influence attachment strength. Study 1 finds that sense of place dimensions predict attachment strength, with identity having the strongest effect. Study 2 expands the social bonds construct. The research clarifies how sense of place and attachment are distinct from brand attachment and important for location-based services. Future research should explore these relationships in different service contexts and longitudinally.
This document summarizes a research paper that explores the link between organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behavior among expatriates in Taiwan. It begins with an abstract that describes the study's objectives, methods, and key findings. The full paper then provides definitions and literature reviews of organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behavior. It discusses previous research that has found relationships between aspects of organizational commitment, like affective commitment, and dimensions of organizational citizenship behavior, like courtesy. The study aims to better understand the attitudes and behaviors of expatriates in Taiwan by exploring correlations between sub-dimensions of the two constructs.
Lmx as a predictor of performance behaviour empirical evidence from life insu...Abdul Saboor
This study comprehensively evaluated the association between LMX and performance (Task performance, Contextual performance) behavior. Results are based upon a sample of 200 field staff at State Life Insurance Corporation of Pakistan. Sample was identified with snowball sampling method. Pearson coefficient of correlation and linear regression was utilized for data analysis. Results reveal that LMX have significant positive association with subordinates task and contextual performance behavior. Study is novel in its sense, and strengthens the prior research as well.
Effect of Relational Governance on Job Satisfaction: Empirical Evidence of Su...AJHSSR Journal
This paper attempted to identify the effect of Relational Governance on Job Satisfaction of the
supportive staff of the Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka. This paper was based on primary data collected
from 40 supportive staff who are working in the Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka. Data were analyzed
using Partial Least Squares-Structural Equation Modeling. The study tested three hypothesis between three
dimensions of relational governance (i.e. Flexibility, Inter-personal Trust and Cooperation) and job satisfaction.
The results revealed that these three dimensions of relational governance have a significant positive impact on
job satisfaction of the supportive staff of the Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka.
This document summarizes a research study that examined the relationships between communication, trust, and individual performance in globally distributed teams. The study explored three models: an additive model where communication and trust independently predict performance, an interaction model where communication and trust interact to predict performance, and a mediation model where trust mediates the relationship between communication and performance. Data was collected from 111 students in US-Norway and US-Denmark teams. Results supported the mediation model, showing that high communication leads to higher trust which then leads to better individual performance. The interaction model showed an anomalous interaction effect that differed for high and low trust individuals.
This document summarizes a research paper that studied the relationship between employees' perceptions of organizational politics and their performance, with the mediating role of social exchange perceptions. The study collected survey responses from over 1,000 employees across organizations in Pakistan. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the data. The results showed that perceptions of social exchange fully mediate the relationship between perceptions of organizational politics and employees' performance. Perceptions of unfair politics can harm the social exchange relationship between employees and their organization and negatively impact performance.
Social influence, negotiation and cognitionZorigoo Ch
This document discusses a computational model of social influence and negotiation. The model incorporates agents' mental states, principles of social interaction, and the structural patterns of social relations. The model is used to simulate the negotiation process involved in selling a privately held company through different selling strategies. Simulations examine how the choice of selling strategy, agents' negotiation behaviors, and cognitive factors impact negotiation outcomes and the performance of the sale.
1) The document discusses challenges related to human capital in the US and Slovenia, including many senior employees nearing retirement age and the need to invest more in education.
2) It recommends strategies like workforce development, succession planning, knowledge management, and analyzing social networks to address these challenges.
3) A case study is described that used social network analysis to map knowledge flows within an organization and identify how to improve communication and collaboration.
Effects of managing gender of employees in enhancing organizational performan...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a research study on the effects of managing gender diversity to enhance organizational performance at Kenya Ports Authority. The study found that gender, age and marital status impact organization performance and success. It recommends that KPA recruit a more diverse workforce to improve decision making, understand customer needs better, and increase staffing flexibility. Managing diversity well through human resource policies and practices can reinforce these benefits. The background discusses how globalization requires more interaction among diverse people, so organizations must capitalize on diversity. Gender diversity can provide resources like market insight and innovation that lead to competitive advantage and higher performance, according to previous research.
Influences of strong tie with opinion leaders in an interconnected network of...Myunggoon Choi
The document discusses research on the influence of strong ties with opinion leaders in social networks in Korea. It presents three research questions: 1) the relationship between tie strength with opinion leaders and information exchange, 2) the relationship between strong ties with opinion leaders and influence on peripheral network members, and 3) differences in influence between networks that include opinion leaders versus those that do not. The document reviews literature on information inequality, social networks, opinion leaders, tie strength, and influence. It proposes three hypotheses related to the research questions and describes the planned method of identifying opinion leaders, measuring tie strength, and analyzing network density to test the hypotheses.
The Effect of Organizational Commitment and Organization Identity Strength to...IOSR Journals
Fire Department Employee Performance Jakarta Indonesia was marked by people had not been
maximized yet since in the fire cases always come late. Society always expected the performance of the fire
department in carrying out their duties on time. The purpose of this research was to measure and describe the
extent to which performance of the Jakarta Fire Department when it was affected by the variable of
organizational commitment and strength of organizational identity and organizational citizenship behaviour.
The method used in this research was quantitative. Data analysis techniques used was SEM (Structural
Equation Modelling) with the help of AMOS program. The data were collected by using a research instrument
that was distributed to the sample of 355 employees. The results showed that organizational commitment was
significantly influence organizational citizenship behaviour, but having no significant effect on employee
performance. While organizational citizenship behaviour had a significant effect on employee performance.
Organizational citizenship behaviour was mediating the relationship between commitments to employee
performance. On the other hand, it did not significantly influence organizational identity on organizational
citizenship behaviour, and also no significant effect on the employee performance. The implication of research
was organizational citizenship behaviour of Fire Department employee to be important in improving employee
performance.
This document examines the relationship between corporate culture, trust, and the effectiveness of virtual teams. A survey was administered to employees at three insurance companies that use virtual teams. The results showed Company B had the lowest levels of personality, institutional, and cognitive trust between virtual team members. High levels of trust were found to directly improve virtual team effectiveness. Corporate culture was found to directly influence the three modes of trust and thus virtual team performance.
Modeling non rational behaviour in environmental conflictsMark Szabo
This document provides a summary of a literature review on non-rational drivers of behavior in environmental conflicts. It discusses how current assessment approaches can be improved by taking a systems approach and accounting for non-rational decision making. A proposed agent-based modeling approach would add heuristics for non-rational decision making to resource dilemma simulations to compare outcomes and implications for conflict resolution policies. The document outlines relevant theories from systems science, psychology, and other fields and discusses methods like agent-based modeling, variable-based modeling, and qualitative differential modeling to study environmental conflicts.
Managing diversity becomes one of the most important factors in ensuring company competitiveness. This paper explores the theory about diversity management and compares it with the practices in organizations and then examines the organizations’ diversity programs through their employees’ perceptions. The findings illustrate that there is a gap between managing diversity theories and practices in organizations and some barriers in implementing divManaging diversity becomes one of the most important factors in ensuring company competitiveness. This paper explores the theory about diversity management and compares it with the practices in organizations and then examines the organizations’ diversity programs through their employees’ perceptions. The findings illustrate that there is a gap between managing diversity theories and practices in organizations and some barriers in implementing diversity program, especially in the hospitality industry.ersity program, especially in the hospitality industry.
Look at this annotated bibliography maker sample, that may be useful for you. If you need more information visit https://www.annotatedbibliographymaker.com/vancouver-style-of-writing-bibliography/
Barriers to Effective Communication in Organizations Shauna Lindsay
This document provides an abstract for a study examining barriers to communication within organizational cultures. The study aims to understand how hierarchical vs participative structures influence communication barriers and message distortion. An online survey will ask employees about their organizational culture, perceived barriers, degree of message distortion, and impact of subcultures. The hypotheses are that authoritarian structures experience more barriers and distortion than participative structures due to the influence of communication barriers created by organizational structure. Previous research found links between culture, barriers, and distortion, but did not comprehensively study their relationships. This study seeks to add to the body of knowledge in this area through a unified examination of these factors.
The document summarizes a journal article that examines the factors associated with dysfunctional customer behavior severity. It discusses three key factors identified in the literature: psychological obstructionism, disaffection with service, and servicescape variables.
The researchers developed two competing models - a research model based on prior frameworks, and a rival model that approaches customer dysfunction more directly. The research model posits an indirect relationship between servicescape variables and behavior, with disaffection mediating the relationship. It was tested against the rival model. Five hypotheses were advanced regarding the relationships between the factors. The study aims to integrate insights from diverse literature to better understand the antecedents of dysfunctional customer behavior severity.
This document evaluates two online courses based on best practices for online course design. For the first course on computer games and simulations, the evaluation found that while assignments and readings were clearly outlined, contact information for the professor and feedback mechanisms like a gradebook were not provided. For the second course on audio recording, the evaluation found that forums allowed student interaction and assignments supported active learning, but learning objectives and rubrics were not provided to communicate expectations. Overall, both courses provided content and activities to engage students, but could improve in areas like feedback, communication of expectations, and support for diverse learners.
This document summarizes a research article that examined the relationship between ethnic identity, job attributes, collectivism, and psychological capital. It hypothesizes that ethnic identity is more strongly related to preferences for competence and growth job attributes rather than status and independence attributes. It also hypothesizes that collectivism and psychological capital mediate the relationship between ethnic identity and preferences for competence and growth attributes. The study used a sample of 380 college students to test these relationships using structural equation modeling.
Professor Jakari Griffith's Research Paper on Implications from psychological capital. This research was conducted along side F. Luthans and it explains about the motivations for learning and its relation to human resource capital development in terms of knowledge transfer.
Although Inter-Disciplinary (ID) teaching as a pedagogy has been proven to be effective, it is not prevalent in PE in Singapore. This session highlights the conceptual links between sports and the other curriculum subjects taught in schools. Participants will understand the benefits of ID teaching and explore how it could resolve the challenges faced in the "academisation" of PE in schools.
Although Inter-Disciplinary (ID) teaching as a pedagogy has been proven to be effective, it is not prevalent in PE in Singapore. This session highlights the conceptual links between sports and the other curriculum subjects taught in schools. Participants will understand the benefits of ID teaching and explore how it could resolve the challenges faced in the "academisation" of PE in schools.
1. Search engine optimization (SEO) involves optimizing websites to rank higher in search results through relevant keywords, quality content, and community engagement.
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En este azaroso e imprevisible tránsito que viven hoy los principales soportes de los libros y las maneras de leer, es innegable que el entorno digital es la más grande transformación de la transmisión de los textos desde Gutenberg.
This document discusses types, classification, assessment, pathophysiology, effects, management, and complications of burns. It covers topics such as thermal, electrical, chemical, and inhalation burns. Burns are classified based on thickness of skin involvement from first to fourth degree. Assessment involves determining burn size using the Rule of Nines or Lund and Browder chart. Management consists of fluid resuscitation, wound care, surgery, and treatment of complications like infection and contractures.
This document discusses traditional and modern methods of beekeeping. Under the traditional or indigenous method, bees would build combs in wall cavities or wooden boxes, and honey was extracted by killing the bees or smoking them out and squeezing the honeycombs by hand, resulting in impure honey and a weakened bee colony. The modern method uses movable frame hives, queen excluders to separate the brood chamber from honey supers, and centrifugal honey extractors and uncapping knives to harvest honey without harming bees or combs. Appliances and scientific practices allow for better control, productivity, and humane treatment of bee colonies.
Sungjoo Choi Kennesaw State University Hal G. Rainey Univers.docxmattinsonjanel
Sungjoo Choi
Kennesaw State University
Hal G. Rainey
University of Georgia
Managing Diversity in U.S. Federal Agencies: Effects of Diversity and Diversity Management on Employee Perceptions of Organizational Performance
Current Trends in Public Personnel Administration
Sungjoo Choi is an assistant professor in the Department of Political Science at Kennesaw State University. She received her doctorate from the University of Georgia. Her research interests include diversity management, organizational justice, perfor- mance management in public organizations, and comparative public administration. E-mail: [email protected]
Hal G. Rainey is Alumni Foundation Distinguished Professor in the School of Public and International Affairs at the University of Georgia. His book Understand- ing and Managing Public Organizations was published in 2009. This year, he received the Dwight Waldo Award from the American Society for Public Administration.
E-mail: [email protected]
Diversity in the workplace is a central issue for contemporary organizational management. Concomitantly, managing increased diversity deserves greater concern in public, private, and nonprofit organizations. The authors address the effects of diversity and diversity management on employee perceptions of organizational performance in U.S. federal agencies
by developing measures of three variables: diversity, diversity management, and perceived organizational performance. Drawing from the Central Personnel Data File and the 2004 Federal Human Capital Survey, their findings suggest that racial diversity relates negatively
to organizational performance. When moderated by diversity management policies and practices and team processes, however, racial diversity correlates positively with organizational performance. Gender and age diversity and their interactions with contextual variables produce mixed results, suggesting that gender and age diversity reflect more complicated relationships. This article provides evidence for several benefits derived from effectively managing diversity.
The American workforce has been increasingly diversified by greater access to jobs for women and minorities. Diversity and representation “politically integrate a diverse nation with a measure of legitimacy” (Brewer 2002, 1), but also enhance social justice (Kellough 1990; Krislov and Rosen- bloom 1981). Understanding the impacts of diversity on organizational outcomes, such as organizational performance, employee satisfaction, and turnover,
has become essential (Milliken
pursuing affirmative action programs to taking advan- tage of differences to improve organizational effective- ness (Wise and Tschirhart 2000). Recent research has investigated diversity in relation to organizational effectiveness.
Public organizations, through equal employment opportunity (EEO) and affirmative action programs, have been more committed to workforce diversity than have private organizations, resulting in a higher lev ...
Niels opstrup is assistant professor in the department of POLY33
This summary provides the key details about the document in 3 sentences:
The document discusses a study examining the relationship between gender diversity in top management teams (TMTs) and financial performance in Danish municipalities. The authors find that gender diversity in TMTs is associated with better financial results, but only in municipalities that have a management structure supporting cross-functional teamwork. The study contributes to research on how demographic diversity impacts public sector organizations and sheds light on organizational factors that help leverage the benefits of diverse management teams.
Leadership & Organization Development JournalEmployee justic.docxsmile790243
This study examines the relationship between perceptions of organizational justice (distributive, procedural, and interactional justice) and coworker relationships, specifically coworker trust and morale. The researchers hypothesized that all three types of justice perceptions would be positively related to coworker trust and morale. Surveys were distributed to 364 employees across six small companies, with 264 responses collected. The results showed that perceptions of distributive, procedural, and interactional justice were indeed positively related to coworker trust and morale. Fairness in rewards, policies/procedures, and treatment were thus linked to better coworker relationships. The implications are that organizations should focus on enhancing justice to facilitate improved coworker trust and morale.
This study examines the relationship between perceptions of organizational politics and employee attitudes, strain, and behavior through a meta-analysis. The meta-analysis found that perceptions of organizational politics were significantly related to increased strain, turnover intentions, job satisfaction, affective commitment, task performance, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Additionally, work attitudes were found to mediate the effects of perceived politics on turnover intentions, and attitudes and strain mediated the effects on performance. Perceptions of organizational politics appear to represent a unique stressor for employees.
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Business and Management. IJBMI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Business and Management, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Does diversity matter- exploring workforce diversity, diversitymanagement, an...drkhaledshukran
This article examines workforce diversity, diversity management, and organizational performance in social enterprises. It conducted interviews with 14 individuals from social enterprises in Los Angeles, including top managers and regular employees. The study found high levels of diversity in gender, race, education and sexual orientation but low diversity in age and values. Workforce diversity and diversity management were seen as positively impacting performance. However, while diversity management was considered important, it was not widely implemented. The study provides insights into how diversity and diversity management can support sustainability in social enterprises.
Effects of internal_social_media_and_ocb____research_proposal[1]SohailTariq16
This research proposal aims to examine the impact of internal social media on employee engagement and organizational citizenship behavior. The student proposes to investigate whether internal social media engages employees, the effect of positive voice behavior on employee engagement, and whether internal social media affects organizational citizenship behavior. The proposal outlines the research questions, contribution, objectives, theoretical model relating internal social media to employee engagement and citizenship behavior, and provides a literature review on internal communication, social media, and their benefits and challenges.
A Complex Systems Investigation Of Group Work Dynamics In L2 Interactive TasksMary Calkins
This study examines group work dynamics in two video-recorded language learning task groups - one with a very positive dynamic and the other with a weaker dynamic. Using a complexity theory perspective, the study seeks to identify how various interacting elements, such as learner affect, task characteristics, group composition, and social relationships, influenced the emerging group work dynamics patterns in each group. The results found that a combination of positive and negative group behaviors, learner affective states, critical moments in the interaction, and initial task and learner conditions acted as control parameters that shaped the outcomes into either a strong or weak dynamic. Adopting this complex systems lens provided insights into the intricate dynamics at play in how a group's social climate emerges.
This document summarizes a study on employees' perceptions of workforce diversity and its impact on job satisfaction in a South African public service department. The study investigated how employees view diversity in their workplace and whether diversity affects their job satisfaction. A sample of 90 employees completed a questionnaire assessing the impact of 7 factors (age, marital status, ethnicity, income, tenure, qualifications, job title) on employee commitment. 5 factors were found to potentially impact commitment, but gender did not have a significant effect. The study aimed to identify employees' views of diversity, examine how diversity relates to job satisfaction, and provide recommendations to address problems caused by diversity. It used the similarity-attraction theory as a framework to hypothesize that positive attitudes towards diversity
Work-Family Factors and its Relationships Between Dispositional, Occupational...Waqas Tariq
This study was conducted to test the mediating effects of work-family factors on the relationships between dispositional and occupational characteristics as the independent variables and intention to stay as the dependent variable. By using self-administered research questionnaire, data was collected from 240 middle age single mother employees in Klang Valley, Malaysia. Samples were determined through simple random sampling method whereby six out of 24 single mother associations were selected to obtain research samples. Descriptive statistical analysis was conducted to describe the respondents. Pearson Product Moment Correlation was used to determine the relationships among variables and Structural Equation Modeling using AMOS version 16.0 was utilized for model testing and to verify the presence of mediation effects. Further, the Soble’s z-test was used to test whether the mediators carry the effect of the independent variables on the dependent variable. The findings indicated that there were positive relationships among variables. The results also established the presence of mediation effects between the independent and dependent variables. Organizations may utilize work-family factors as mechanism to promote longer retention among employees. Keywords: Intention to stay, work-family facilitation, family satisfaction, dispositional characteristics, occupational characteristics.
Cabigon, John Vincent Z., 2
Esquejo, Paulo Gabriel W., 3Reyes, Brevin C.,
4Mr. Buenviaje, Jefferson
Abstract: One of the most pressing challenges in 21st-century human resource management across all industries
was workplace bullying and its effects on workers and businesses. Workplace bullying has received growing
attention locally and internationally in recent years as a difficult business and management problem. Working on
a cruise ship is no exception to this human resource problem. Workplace violence, age discrimination, ethnic
discrimination, and bullying are all examples of inappropriate aggression directed at workers
Keywords: Bullying, workplace, cruise, Filipino, Workplace Bullying, Cruise Staff.
1. INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
The staff from cruise lines and the cruise ship employment are frequently depicted as either "perfect workers in a dream
job" or "exploited workers on sweatshops. Cruise line companies and agencies typically emphasize the economic and
non- economic benefits of working aboard a cruse ship in order to attract potential workers. These popular portrayals, on
the other hand, tend to gloss over the work's social and economic complexities, as well as the wide range subjective
experiences amongst cruise seafarers. (Llanco, 2017)
One of the most pressing challenges in 21st-century human resource management across all industries was workplace
bullying and its effects on workers and businesses. Workplace bullying has received growing attention locally and
internationally in recent years as a difficult business and management problem. Working on a cruise ship is no exception
to this human resource problem. Workplace violence, age discrimination, ethnic discrimination, and bullying are all
examples of inappropriate aggression directed at workers
Team conflict management and teameffectiveness the effects .docxerlindaw
Team conflict management and team
effectiveness: the effects of task
interdependence and team identification
ANIT SOMECH
1*, HELENA SYNA DESIVILYA
2
AND HELENA LIDOGOSTER
1
1
University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
2
Emek Yezreel College, Emek Yezreel, Israel
Summary The present study explores the dynamics of conflict management as a team phenomenon. The
study examines how the input variable of task structure (task interdependence) is related to
team conflict management style (cooperative versus competitive) and to team performance,
and how team identity moderates these relationships. Seventy-seven intact work teams from
high-technology companies participated in the study. Results revealed that at high levels of
team identity, task interdependence was positively associated with the cooperative style of
conflict management, which in turn fostered team performance. Although a negative associ-
ation was found between competitive style and team performance, this style of team conflict
management did not mediate between the interactive effect of task interdependence and team
identity on team performance. Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Introduction
In modern organizations, teams have become the method of choice for responding quickly to
technological and market changes and thus improving the organization’s chances of survival (Illgen,
Hollenbeck, Johnson, & Jundt, 2006; Richter, West, van Dick, & Dawson, 2006). Considerable
research effort and human energy have been invested in understanding how to create and develop
effective teams (e.g., Illgen et al., 2006). Although research on teams within organizations has
developed somewhat independently from research on organizational conflict, over the past 20 years an
increasing number of studies have emphasized the impact of conflict on team dynamics and outcomes
(De Dreu & Beersma, 2005; Tjosvold, Hui, & Yu, 2005). Conflicts are common within the
interpersonal context of teams, as are attempts made to manage these conflicts (De Dreu & van de
Vliert, 1997; Rahim, Magner, & Shapiro, 2000). In such conflicts, team members become aware of
discrepancies, incompatible wishes, or incompatible desires (Jehn & Mannix, 2001). Among other
issues, teams must contend with conflicts over how to distribute work and rewards effectively and
fairly, how to cope with social loafing, and how best to accomplish their goals (Wageman, 1995).
Journal of Organizational Behavior
J. Organiz. Behav. 30, 359–378 (2009)
Published online 25 April 2008 in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/job.537
* Correspondence to: Anit Somech, Faculty of Education, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa 31905, Israel.
E-mail: [email protected]
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Received 8 March 2007
Revised 18 February 2008
Accepted 9 March 2008
Furthermore, research has shown that it is not simply the presence of conflict that affects teams; rather,
how team members approach an.
This study explores the relationship between participative management practices in strategic planning processes and job satisfaction in local government agencies. The literature review discusses how participative management that incorporates employee participation in decision-making and effective supervisor communication can enhance job satisfaction. The study tests the hypotheses that managers' use of participative management styles, employees' participation in strategic planning, and effective supervisory communication are positively associated with higher job satisfaction. Regression analysis of employee survey data from Clark County, Nevada finds support for all three hypotheses, suggesting participative management can improve job satisfaction in the public sector.
This document summarizes a study that examined the impact of organizational communication on organizational commitment and job satisfaction among public employees in Namibia. The study reviewed relevant literature on organizational communication, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction. It then proposed and tested a research model and two hypotheses: 1) open organizational communication is positively associated with organizational commitment, and 2) there is a positive relationship between open organizational communication and job satisfaction. An empirical study was conducted among 100 public employees across 25 Namibian government ministries. Statistical analysis of the data found support for both hypotheses, with open organizational communication showing significant positive correlations with both organizational commitment and job satisfaction.
1. The document discusses incorporating environmental, social, and governance (ESG) strategies into diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) efforts for leadership roles in higher education.
2. ESG refers to environmental, social, and governance factors that investors increasingly examine when evaluating organizational performance. Diversity, equity, and inclusion fall under the social aspect of ESG.
3. Adopting policies that embrace ESG and DEI principles can help higher education institutions create a more inclusive learning environment and better reflect the diversity of their communities. Tracking inclusion metrics can also help organizations evaluate progress on DEI goals.
Sexual Orientation Disclosure at Work Among LGB Employees in Vietnam. This study applied mixed approach including qualitative and quantitative methods. Qualitative approach was only used for modifying the scales in Vietnamese context while quantitative was the main one for testing the hypotheses. The quantitative phase of this study will be carried out by SPSS software with some statistical technique comprising reliability and exploratory factor analysis, descriptive statistic analysis , multiple regression, path analysis and ANOVA.
Employees’ attitudes and efficiency of human resourceAlexander Decker
This document discusses a study examining the relationship between employee attitudes and the efficiency of human resource management (HRM) practices in Nigeria. The study surveyed 1,940 employees across several food and beverage companies in Nigeria. The results indicated that employee attitudes like commitment, trust, employment relations, well-being, absence, and self-motivation were significantly related to the efficiency of HRM practices. Specifically, higher levels of these positive employee attitudes were linked to greater efficiency in how companies implemented practices like recruitment, training, performance evaluation, and compensation. The findings suggest HRM practices work best when they help foster beneficial attitudes among employees.
Similar to Jakari griffiththe influence of cross race interpersonal efficacy-2007 (20)
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The Radar reflects input from APCO’s teams located around the world. It distils a host of interconnected events and trends into insights to inform operational and strategic decisions. Issues covered in this edition include:
How are Lilac French Bulldogs Beauty Charming the World and Capturing Hearts....Lacey Max
“After being the most listed dog breed in the United States for 31
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popular canines. The French Bulldog is the new top dog in the
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How MJ Global Leads the Packaging Industry.pdfMJ Global
MJ Global's success in staying ahead of the curve in the packaging industry is a testament to its dedication to innovation, sustainability, and customer-centricity. By embracing technological advancements, leading in eco-friendly solutions, collaborating with industry leaders, and adapting to evolving consumer preferences, MJ Global continues to set new standards in the packaging sector.
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Company Valuation webinar series - Tuesday, 4 June 2024FelixPerez547899
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HOW TO START UP A COMPANY A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE.pdf46adnanshahzad
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How to Implement a Strategy: Transform Your Strategy with BSC Designer's Comp...Aleksey Savkin
The Strategy Implementation System offers a structured approach to translating stakeholder needs into actionable strategies using high-level and low-level scorecards. It involves stakeholder analysis, strategy decomposition, adoption of strategic frameworks like Balanced Scorecard or OKR, and alignment of goals, initiatives, and KPIs.
Key Components:
- Stakeholder Analysis
- Strategy Decomposition
- Adoption of Business Frameworks
- Goal Setting
- Initiatives and Action Plans
- KPIs and Performance Metrics
- Learning and Adaptation
- Alignment and Cascading of Scorecards
Benefits:
- Systematic strategy formulation and execution.
- Framework flexibility and automation.
- Enhanced alignment and strategic focus across the organization.
[To download this presentation, visit:
https://www.oeconsulting.com.sg/training-presentations]
This presentation is a curated compilation of PowerPoint diagrams and templates designed to illustrate 20 different digital transformation frameworks and models. These frameworks are based on recent industry trends and best practices, ensuring that the content remains relevant and up-to-date.
Key highlights include Microsoft's Digital Transformation Framework, which focuses on driving innovation and efficiency, and McKinsey's Ten Guiding Principles, which provide strategic insights for successful digital transformation. Additionally, Forrester's framework emphasizes enhancing customer experiences and modernizing IT infrastructure, while IDC's MaturityScape helps assess and develop organizational digital maturity. MIT's framework explores cutting-edge strategies for achieving digital success.
These materials are perfect for enhancing your business or classroom presentations, offering visual aids to supplement your insights. Please note that while comprehensive, these slides are intended as supplementary resources and may not be complete for standalone instructional purposes.
Frameworks/Models included:
Microsoft’s Digital Transformation Framework
McKinsey’s Ten Guiding Principles of Digital Transformation
Forrester’s Digital Transformation Framework
IDC’s Digital Transformation MaturityScape
MIT’s Digital Transformation Framework
Gartner’s Digital Transformation Framework
Accenture’s Digital Strategy & Enterprise Frameworks
Deloitte’s Digital Industrial Transformation Framework
Capgemini’s Digital Transformation Framework
PwC’s Digital Transformation Framework
Cisco’s Digital Transformation Framework
Cognizant’s Digital Transformation Framework
DXC Technology’s Digital Transformation Framework
The BCG Strategy Palette
McKinsey’s Digital Transformation Framework
Digital Transformation Compass
Four Levels of Digital Maturity
Design Thinking Framework
Business Model Canvas
Customer Journey Map
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Dive into the steadfast world of the Taurus Zodiac Sign. Discover the grounded, stable, and logical nature of Taurus individuals, and explore their key personality traits, important dates, and horoscope insights. Learn how the determination and patience of the Taurus sign make them the rock-steady achievers and anchors of the zodiac.
Top mailing list providers in the USA.pptxJeremyPeirce1
Discover the top mailing list providers in the USA, offering targeted lists, segmentation, and analytics to optimize your marketing campaigns and drive engagement.
Understanding User Needs and Satisfying ThemAggregage
https://www.productmanagementtoday.com/frs/26903918/understanding-user-needs-and-satisfying-them
We know we want to create products which our customers find to be valuable. Whether we label it as customer-centric or product-led depends on how long we've been doing product management. There are three challenges we face when doing this. The obvious challenge is figuring out what our users need; the non-obvious challenges are in creating a shared understanding of those needs and in sensing if what we're doing is meeting those needs.
In this webinar, we won't focus on the research methods for discovering user-needs. We will focus on synthesis of the needs we discover, communication and alignment tools, and how we operationalize addressing those needs.
Industry expert Scott Sehlhorst will:
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Jakari griffiththe influence of cross race interpersonal efficacy-2007
1. University of Nebraska - Lincoln
DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln
Management Department Faculty Publications Management Department
9-1-2007
An Examination of Interracial Contact: The
Influence of Cross-Race Interpersonal Efficacy and
Affect Regulation
Gwendolyn Combs
University of Nebraska - Lincoln, gcombs2@unl.edu
Jakari Griffith
University of Nebraska - Lincoln
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Management Department at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has
been accepted for inclusion in Management Department Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of
Nebraska - Lincoln. For more information, please contact proyster@unl.edu.
Combs, Gwendolyn and Griffith, Jakari, "An Examination of Interracial Contact: The Influence of Cross-Race Interpersonal Efficacy
and Affect Regulation" (2007). Management Department Faculty Publications. Paper 29.
http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/managementfacpub/29
3. An Examination of Interracial Contact 223
experience difficulties with discrimination and employee behaviors that neg-
atively impact employee productivity and organizational reputation (Bell,
2006; James & Wooten, 2006).
The interface of these positive and negative developments demonstrates a
need for managerial proficiency and effectiveness in facilitating organizational
environments that maximize the benefits of diversity (Swann, Polzer, Seyle,
& KO, 2004). The increase in organizational diversity impacts the nature and
expectation of employee interactions (Bell, 2006). The organizational impera-
tive is to develop contextual interventions geared toward congenial work rela-
tionships that transcend pluralistic differences (Combs & Nadkami, 2005). Al-
though prior research recognizes the need to understand and better utilize a
wide spectrum of diversity dimensions (Bell, 2006), race continues to be the
most common complaint of discrimination (Heldrich Center for Workforce De-
velopment, 2002; U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, n.d.).
Research investigating the effects of racial differences on critical workplace
variables is important to the field of human resource development (HRD) in
advancing organizational goals and objectives (Alderfer, Alderfer, Tucker,
& Tucker, 1980; Brown & Lent, 1996; Greenhaus, Parasuraman, & Wormley,
1990; Roberson, Deitch, Brief, & Block, 2003). Numerous studies show race
to be correlated with job satisfaction (Friday, Moss, & Friday, 2004); percep-
tions of procedural justice (Wesolowski & Mossholder, 1997); employee de-
velopmental outcomes (Ely & Thomas, 2001); career assessments (Thomas,
1993); attitudes toward training (DeMeuse & Hostager, 2001); quality of men-
toring relationships (Murrell & Tangri, 1999); and the effectiveness of coach-
ing and feedback processes (Proudford & Thomas, 1999). Despite the broad
range of empirical research conducted to differentiate the effects of race on
work interactions, little is known about the specific interpersonal processes
that might mitigate adverse cross-race interactions and promote positive di-
versity outcomes (Shelton, 2003).
The purpose of this article is to examine the application of the contact the-
ory hypothesis and the potential mediating role of cross-race interpersonal
efficacy (confidence) and affect regulation on the effectiveness of cross-racial
contact conditions. Contact theory sets forth the premise that the frequency
and nature of encounters between minority and majority group members
lead to improved relational outcomes (Allport, 1954) and effective diver-
sity performance (Gaertner & Dovidio, 2000; Pettigrew, 1998). Although con-
tact theory has demonstrated favorable results in recent meta-analytic stud-
ies (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006), theorists contend research has not adequately
mapped out how interacting partners produce relationships that decrease
prejudice (Pettigrew, 1998). Figure 1 represents the theoretical model of the
proposed relationship between constructs.
Drawing from Bandura’s (1986) conceptualization of social cognitive the-
ory and perceived self-efficacy construct, we define interpersonal cross-race
efficacy as a person’s beliefs about his/her capacity to mobilize capabili-
ties, courses of action, and cognitive resources to achieve valued outcomes
4. 224 Combs & Griffith in Human Resource Development Review 6 (2007)
in cross-race interpersonal interactions. Considering the work of Gross (1999)
and Fonagy, Gergely, Jurist, and Target (2002), we conceptualize affect reg-
ulation as the cognitive process by which individuals identify, monitor, and
adjust the expression of mental models and emotions toward a target person,
thing, or situation. We argue that organizations that develop and encourage
affect regulation and cross-race interpersonal efficacy capabilities in employ-
ees will increase effective employee contact experiences that facilitate more
inclusive and productive work environments (Richard, 2001).
An analysis of the impact of cross-race interpersonal efficacy and affect
regulation on the operation of contact conditions is important to human re-
source development. The relational component of human capital is inte-
gral to creating and sustaining high impact performance (Combs & Luthans,
2007). Group and team structures (both actual and virtual) rely on relation-
ships between diverse individuals (Gaertner & Dovidio, 2000; Thibaut & Kel-
ley, 1959). Extant research on racial prejudice and the implementation of con-
tact conditions has focused primarily on situational and procedural aspects
for integrating diversity into an organizational context (Pettigrew & Tropp,
2006). Missing from these investigations is an assessment of cognitive and af-
fective elements that may advance our understanding of the underlying pro-
cesses that may facilitate positive outcomes of contact conditions (Connolly,
2000). The development of positive intergroup relationships may directly de-
pend on an individual’s ability to effectively initiate and monitor personal be-
haviors for relationship development. Our effort seeks to formulate a frame-
work for this discussion.
In subsequent sections of this article, we provide a review of the literature
relating to intergroup relations, the contact theory, cross-race interpersonal
Figure 1: Theoretical Model of the Influence of Cross-Race Interpersonal Efficacy and
Affect Regulation on the Relationship between Contact Conditions and Positive Di-
versity Outcomes
5. An Examination of Interracial Contact 225
efficacy, and affect regulation. We discuss intergroup differences to establish
a base of understanding for foundational issues associated with racial bias.
Our presentation of the aspects of cross-race interpersonal efficacy and affect
regulation centers on their potential to influence individual perceptions and
interactions in contact conditions in organizational settings. Additionally, be-
cause contact theory is largely based in black and white cross-group inter-
actions, our examples are presented in terms of black and white individuals
and group contexts.
Intergroup Differences and Racial Bias
An understanding of the dynamics of contact conditions requires a discus-
sion of bias and prejudice that operate on individual and organizational levels.
Group categorization and identity, the formation and operation of stereotypes,
and interracial trust are important to the effectiveness of contact outcomes.
Group Categorization
Tajfel and Turner (1986) contend that individuals tend to categorize them-
selves and others into groups contingent upon shared values, norms, cogni-
tions, attitudes, and behaviors. Groups can be socially constructed to reflect the
normative values and belief structures of the larger society, or be construed
from the intersection of various social, historical, political influences, and rela-
tional schemas (Heider, 1958). Knowledge of group membership may lead to
attributions that prompt specific individual actions, behavioral orientations, or
perceptions of social reality (Tajfel, 1982). For example, the saliency of group
membership may lead individual group members to operate on the environ-
ment to protect their group identity (Hogg & Terry, 2000). Members may be-
have individually to influence their environment so as to affirm their identity
group status and their perceptions of others (Feagin & McKinney, 2003).
A major factor guiding much of the research on prejudice is in-group and
out-group membership orientation (see Gaertner, Dovidio, Anastasio, Bach-
man, & Rust, 1993; Ensari & Miller, 2005; Tam, Hewstone, Harwood, Voci, &
Kenworthy, 2006). In interpersonal evaluations, it is common for individuals
to form in-group and out-group distinctions based on salient characteristics
of individuals and generalized perceptions of the group as a whole (Allport,
1954). Consider identifying one as a black male or white female may carry
considerably different implicit information about the individual than iden-
tifying an individual as white and male (Blair, Judd, Sadler, & Jenkins 2002).
Differences in these implicit representations may promote mindsets and dis-
trust that in turn affect the nature and frequency of interactions between in-
dividual members of different groups (Feagin & McKinney, 2003). Using
black and white as terms to describe racial identity groups, Phelps, Taylor
and Gerard (2001) suggest that the mistrust between black and white indi-
viduals manifests ostensibly in “business and work, interpersonal, and social
6. 226 Combs & Griffith in Human Resource Development Review 6 (2007)
relations” (p. 209). These conditions may negatively impact and limit the de-
velopment of the types of inter-group relations necessary to mitigate racial/
ethnic bias in organizations (Hilton & von Hippel, 1996).
Stereotypes in Intergroup Relations
Research regarding in-group and out-group dynamics acknowledges that
stereotypes about the characteristics, attributes, and behaviors of out-groups
may contain negative undertones that can influence subsequent informa-
tion processing activity (Hilton & von Hippel, 1996). As embedded complex
mental representations, stereotypes influence the way individuals classify in-
formation about others different from themselves. Additionally, these rep-
resentations are often referenced in automatic evaluations process (Fiske &
Pavelchak, 1986; Roberson et al., 2003).
The interaction of stereotypes and perceived group differences has influ-
enced the organizational experiences of members of stigmatized groups (e.g.,
black individuals and other racial/ethnic minorities). For example, a field
study conducted by Crocker and Major (1989) found that negative feedback
communicated to black individuals in performance evaluations led to ra-
cially based performance attributions. Greenhaus, Parasuraman, and Worm-
ley (1990) also found that black employees, in comparison to white employ-
ees, reported more difficulties being accepted in their organizations, received
lower evaluations on relationship measures and task performance, and expe-
rienced slower career growth. More recent studies focusing on black workers
maintain that interactions between organizational members might be limited
to the extent their category membership activates automatic avoidance be-
havior as well as negative emotions relating to particular stereotypes (Jonas
& Sassenberg, 2006; Roberson et al., 2003).
From a human resource development perspective, stereotypes operate to
the disadvantage of stigmatized group members in two ways. First, in sit-
uations where a stereotype is likely to become activated (e.g., performance
evaluations, informal information requests), workers fail to receive critical
developmental information resulting in impoverished developmental oppor-
tunities (Aronson, Fried, & Good, 2002). Second, stereotype threat (Steele &
Aronson, 1995) may shape the development of targeted workers by generat-
ing counterproductive behaviors in work settings. Such behaviors may cause
apprehension and mistrust of key evaluative and decision-making processes.
In turn, this apprehension and mistrust may limit the developmental poten-
tial of evaluative feedback (Walsh, Bingham, Brown, & Ward, 2001); hamper
mentoring opportunities (Thomas, 1990); elevate negative perceptions of pro-
cedural justice (Feagin & McKinney, 2003); and impede cross-racial closeness
(Brookins, Anyabwile, & Nacoste, 1996). For organizations, these circum-
stances can reduce the ability to maximize diversity and negatively impact
competitive advantage. Further, these limitations are particularly important
in organizational environments where teamwork and synergy are required
and encouraged (Watson, Kumar, & Michaelsen, 1993).
7. An Examination of Interracial Contact 227
Contact Theory
The contact theory hypothesis (Allport, 1954), centers on the improve-
ment of between-race interactions and the betterment of relational outcomes
among racially diverse groups. A number of theorists postulate that prej-
udice and bias towards racial group members are the products of a lack of
knowledge and understanding by white individuals of other social identity
groups (Connolly, 2000; Gaertner & Dovidio, 2000; Hewstone & Brown, 1986;
Miller, 2002). Allport (1954) offers a set of conditions for intergroup contact
that is believed to encourage stereotype reduction and minimize prejudicial
perceptions and behaviors. The theory stresses that as cross-race groups in-
teract in conditions that are of equal status, noncasual, voluntary, and have
proximity and availability of cross-race interactions, they learn more about
one another. This learning tends to restrict their judgments based on stereo-
types (Pettigrew, 1998) and promote improved interaction outcomes (Plant &
Butz, 2006; Wilder & Thompson, 1988).
Research support for the contact hypothesis has been generally estab-
lished in the areas of public policy and sociological determinants of group in-
teractions (Emerson, Kimbro, & Yancey, 2002; Welch, Sigelman, Bledsoe, &
Combs, 2001). For example, Sigelman and Welch (1993) found that the effects
of contact influenced the extent to which attitudes between black individuals
and white individuals differed on issues of political inequity. These studies
have demonstrated that interracial contact can prove beneficial to the devel-
opment of positive intergroup relationships and may lessen the significance
of accessible stereotypes in evaluative processes. In spite of the varied cross-
disciplinary applications and overall appeal of the contact hypothesis in de-
creasing cross-racial prejudice, a meta-analysis conducted by Pettigrew and
Tropp (2006) suggests research support has been generally mixed in terms of
the effectiveness of contact conditions.
Studies cited in Pettigrew and Tropp’s (2006) meta-analysis illuminate the
conflicting results derived from both field and laboratory studies of the effect
of contact on cross-race relations. For example, Riordan’s (1978) examination
of contact between black and white teenagers who had completed tolerance
training revealed an insignificant decrease in the interracial attitudes of black
teenagers and a significant decrease among white teenagers. In another study
of a school desegregation plan, Parsons (1985) found that interracial contacts
between black and white parents and students did not improve interracial at-
titudes over time. In addition, Rothbart and John’s (1993) 4-year longitudinal
study of stereotypes held by black and Asian individuals showed that those
interacting in contact conditions solidified their stereotypes to the extent that
increased contact influenced the favorability of stereotypes.
On the other hand, a number of studies show support for the contact hy-
pothesis. Studies along these lines tend to show contact leads to decreases in
prejudice as evidenced in Cook’s (1978) study of interracial attitude change.
More recently, Emerson, Kimbro, and Yancey (2002) showed that prior in-
8. 228 Combs & Griffith in Human Resource Development Review 6 (2007)
terracial contacts have a positive effect on social ties. In addition, Levin, van
Laar, and Sidanius (2003) found those with more out-group encounters in
their earlier years of college were less likely to demonstrate in-group bias in
the later years of college.
Most studies of contact conditions have examined the structure of con-
tact experiences and the temporal relationship between contact and posi-
tive cross-race relationships (Hewstone & Brown, 1986). For example, En-
sari and Miller (2005) articulated that individuation of group members from
larger group categories is a function of personalized contact and high out-
group salience. Pettigrew (1998) focused attention on the structural factors
that are believed to accelerate the establishment of effective cross-group re-
lations in contact conditions. Interestingly, these studies do not address the
cognitive components inherent in personalized responding and individual
experiences (Miller, 2002). These nonstructural contact conditions reference
the interpersonal interactions that may be anchored in identity salience, in-
group-out-group dynamics, and stereotype initiation (Voci & Hewstone,
2003). Attending to cross-race interpersonal efficacy and affect regulation
may lessen the impact of nonstructural dimensions that may influence con-
tact conditions. Determining ways to build individual abilities in cross-
race interpersonal efficacy and affect regulation may stabilize the outcomes
of cross-race contact conditions and foster positive inclusionary organiza-
tional practices.
In our review of the literature, we found few studies that examined con-
tact in specific human resource development areas or as a factor in organiza-
tional diversity initiatives. For example, Combs and Sommers (2004) provide
a series of testable propositions that link contact, social comparison, and ca-
reer development for African Americans in predominately white organiza-
tions. In this work, the authors suggest that positive contact may improve
the evaluative processes critical to effective career development. Elvira and
Cohen (2001) examine elements of contact and representation of women in
upper-level management positions. The proximity and availability dimen-
sion of contact theory played a prominent role in their findings regarding
sex composition and turnover. Based on the above research we propose the
following:
Proposition 1: Nonstructural contact conditions have a positive signif-
icant relationship to positive organizational diversity outcomes.
The Role of Cross-Race Interpersonal Efficacy and Affect Regulation
In this article we suggest that a more comprehensive understanding of
the application of contact theory in work organizations can be reached by
considering an efficacy- and affect regulation-based approach to cross-race
interpersonal relations. In diverse environments, the degree to which con-
9. An Examination of Interracial Contact 229
tact conditions facilitate meaningful relationships may depend on levels of
cross-race interpersonal efficacy and the ability to effectively regulate ones
interpretation of events, and regulate personal behavior in cross-race inter-
actions. In the following sections, we present the theoretical underpinnings
of cross-race interpersonal efficacy and affect regulation. We then explore
their relationships to the development of positive cross-race relationships
and their potential contribution to the success of contact theory application
in organizations.
Cross-Race Interpersonal Efficacy
Efficacy theory postulates that those high in efficacy perceptions select
purposeful courses of action and structure their environments to success-
fully accommodate personal development, adaptation, and change (Bandura,
1997). Furthermore, those who believe they have the ability to successfully
exercise control over events experience increased chances of personal success
(Harrison, Rainer, Hochwater, & Thompson, 1997). High levels of self-effi-
cacy have been shown to enhance performance in a variety of workplace do-
mains, such as task performance (Schwoerer, May, Hollensbe & Mencl, 2005;
Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998), decision making (Markus & Owen, 1992), and
complex interpersonal skills (Gist, Stevens, & Bavetta, 1991).
Human resource development literature reveals an association of efficacy
with important employee outcomes, such as organizational learning and
training (Colquitt, LePine, & Noe, 2000; Combs & Luthans, 2007; Schwoerer
et al., 2005). More prevalent discussion of race differences in HRD literature
centers more on career development and career decision making (e.g., Hack-
ett & Byars, 1996; Leong, 1995). For example, Gloria and Hird (1999) found
that ethnic identity and other group orientation perceptions held by minor-
ities (e.g., black aspiring employees) more significantly predicted career de-
cision-making self-efficacy than demonstrated for whites. More recently,
Chrobot-Mason and Thomas (2002) describe the complex nature of diversity
in organizations through an interactive model of the intersection of individ-
ual and organizational racial identity development. However, in spite of this
body of research we did not find empirical examination or conceptual for-
mulation of a relationship between cross-race interpersonal efficacy and af-
fect regulation and a potential effect on the operationalization of contact the-
ory conditions.
Although general efficacy beliefs have been researched, individual effi-
cacy perceptions can be specific to particular functional domains (Stajkovic
& Luthans, 1998). Stated differently, individuals can exhibit differing levels
of efficacy/confidence perceptions in various life domains to the extent that
people form beliefs about what they can do and the likely consequences of
prospective action (Bandura, 1991). Analogous to the construct of diversity
self-efficacy, which Combs and Luthans (2007) describe as the perception and
belief (confidence) in ones abilities to successfully accomplish desired diver-
sity goals in the workplace, we define cross-race interpersonal efficacy as a
10. 230 Combs & Griffith in Human Resource Development Review 6 (2007)
person’s beliefs about his/her capacity to mobilize capabilities, courses of ac-
tion, and cognitive resources to achieve valued outcomes in cross-race inter-
personal interactions. However, cross-race interpersonal efficacy differs from
diversity self-efficacy. Diversity self-efficacy appears to represent confidence
in handling diverse environments from an overarching perspective. On the
other hand, cross-race interpersonal efficacy focuses on a specific set of intri-
cacies and nuances of cross-race interactions that can directly influence indi-
vidual-level and, in some cases, group-level situational response.
Efficacy beliefs influence how one overcomes adversity, preserves through
difficulties, and withstands stressful conditions (Bandura, 1988, 1991). When
people exhibit a strong sense of cross-race interpersonal efficacy they may in-
teract with others more confidently through the influence of their own and
others behavior. Cross-race interpersonal efficacy may enhance the applica-
tion of contact theory as the mechanism through which contact operates. Spe-
cifically, in newly forming cross-race interpersonal interactions anticipatory
control and self-evaluative influences operate in concert (Shelton, 2003). The
effectiveness of interracial contact might depend on the individual’s percep-
tion of his or her ability to initially succeed in cross-race interaction, and the
progress experienced toward particular outcomes (Harrison et al., 1997). In
this regard, cross-race interpersonal efficacy may mediate the effectiveness of
contact experience.
We suggest that cross-race interpersonal efficacy beliefs impact diversity
behaviors by directly influencing how contact theory may be operationalized
between interaction partners. Gist et al. (1991) found that efficacy mediated
the effect of knowledge on learning motivation and behavior. Additionally,
in their study of 276 workers in a variety of employee categories, Combs and
Luthans (2007) found that the development of diversity self-efficacy medi-
ated the relationship between diversity training and trainees’ intentions to
engage in positive diversity behaviors. The researchers concluded that the
effect of diversity training on intentions to promote positive diversity out-
comes was mediated by the trainee’s level of diversity self-efficacy. Addition-
ally, diversity self-efficacy was positively correlated with both the number
and difficulty of the diversity intentions in which trainees proposed to en-
gage. Given the above research we propose:
Proposition 2: Cross-race interpersonal efficacy will mediate the rela-
tionship between contact conditions and positive diversity outcomes.
Affect Regulation
Affect is an important concept to consider when assessing the effectiveness
of cross-race interpersonal relationships (Berscheid, 1983; Berscheid & Reis,
1998). Russell and Carroll (1999) define affect as a set of subjective experiences
and moods, rather than thoughts about specific events. Affective experiences
11. An Examination of Interracial Contact 231
can represent short-lived momentary feelings and reactions to the character-
istics of the target individual or situation; or they can represent a psychologi-
cal experience involving less intense and diffuse affective states (Forgas, 1995).
Given that human behavior is largely purposive, affective states are constantly
being regulated by the ongoing exercise of self-influence of cognitive strategies
and behavior to influence achievement of particular goals or outcomes (Ban-
dura, 1991). Thus, we have conceptualized affect regulation as the cognitive
process by which individuals identify, monitor, and adjust the expression of
mental models and emotions toward a target person, thing or situation.
The emphasis on affect regulation in cross-race interpersonal relation-
ships stems from individual desire for interdependence and the need to so-
cially belong (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Devine (1989) suggests that the reg-
ulation of one’s behavior toward others in terms of what others expect and
would prefer requires control and is not automatic. In the context of contact
theory, affect regulation implicates the forethought dimensions of efficacy.
Forethought is directed toward relationship outcomes based on criteria set
by interaction participants (Fiske & Neuberg, 1990). This means that people
may need to monitor what mindsets they have regarding out-group mem-
bers, and how they allow these mindsets to influence their experiences with
others (Fonagy et al., 2002). Such a view is consistent with bounded emotion-
ality theory, which posits individuals build interpersonal relationships in or-
ganizations by attending to others through sensitivity and preferred modes
of expression (Mumby & Putnam, 1992; Putnam & Mumby, 1993). Integrat-
ing a bounded emotionality framework with affect regulation suggests that
emotions or affective states should not be altered in the service of instrumen-
tal gain as would be the case of emotional labor and impression manage-
ment (Ashforth & Humprhey, 1995; Hochschild, 1983), but serve to enhance
the well-being of individual organizational members in general (Martin,
Knopoff, & Beckman, 1998).
Affect regulation appears similar to constructs such as emotional intelli-
gence (Goleman, 1995); mood-processing effects (Forgas, 1995); the social
exchange of affect (Lawler & Thye, 1999); and social intelligences (Bar-On,
2000). However, recent literature suggests that affect regulation is consis-
tent with the self-efficacy based view of psychosocial functioning (Caprara
& Steca, 2005). Using the efficacy-based view, affect is likely to become im-
portant in implementation of contact conditions when individuals attempt
to form impressions of others based on observable attributes and behav-
iors demonstrated in the context of cross-race social interaction (Asch, 1946).
This suggests that rather than permitting spontaneous emotions to influence
mindsets and behaviors, individuals should be encouraged to cognitively
regulate their experiences to facilitate behaviors and thoughts aimed at re-
ducing their anxiety and frustration (Devine, 1989).
Shelton’s (2003) work on cross-race interactions found that white individ-
uals’ interpersonal concerns about appearing prejudice had a direct impact
on perceptions of white participants interactions by black participants and
12. 232 Combs & Griffith in Human Resource Development Review 6 (2007)
black participants’ description of the interaction. Specifically, black partici-
pants’ interpersonal concerns about white participants being prejudiced di-
rectly impacted black participants’ enjoyment of the interaction when they
expected their white partner to be prejudiced. Additionally, current experi-
ences and perceptions of discrimination and historical memory of prejudice
and bias may cause interaction participants to experience and express ten-
sion and anxiety (Islam & Hewstone, 1993) that cast the encounter as neg-
ative and/or unproductive (Fiske & Neuberg, 1990). We contend in such
instances that the quality of cross-race interactions could be positively influ-
enced through enhancing individual efficacy/confidence and tooling indi-
vidual ability to identify, monitor, and regulate habitual affective responses
that may emerge when engaging cross-race others.
The processes by which individuals control or regulate affect generally fit
within the social cognitive perspective of tension reduction (Ashforth & Hum-
phrey, 1995; Bandura, 199 1). Individuals who experience negative states are
typically inclined to relieve those states by engaging in behaviors that posi-
tively reduce the tension and by avoiding encounters with objects provoking
the tension (Higgins, 1987). Exercising affect regulation in cross-race interac-
tions may permit the engagement of control processes to reverse and manage
potentially negative states triggered by cross-racial contact (Plant, Devine, &
Brazy, 2003). Forgas (1995) finds that such regulation plays an integral role in
monitoring and managing everyday interpersonal interactions. Additionally,
Ashforth and Humphrey (1995) stress that individuals must demonstrate
personal control in achieving organizational objectives. Thus, we propose the
following proposition:
Proposition 3: Affect regulation will mediate the relationship between
contact and positive diversity outcomes.
The Interaction of Cross-Race Interpersonal Efficacy and Affect Regulation
Bandura, Caprara, Barbaranelli, Gerbino, and Pastorelli (2003) propose
a causal model between affect and interpersonal efficacy. Additionally, it is
suggested that affect is related to and predictive of positive relational out-
comes (Caprara & Steca, 2005). For example, Ekman and Oster (1979) suggest
that displays of negative affect relate to negative outcome expectancies and
positive affect can be projected onto situations resulting in positive percep-
tions and reactions. Similarly, positive nonstereotypic compliments directed
to an individual are generally perceived as positive (Garcia, Miller, Smith, &
Mackie, 2006).
Affect regulation impacts individual self-interpretations of cross-race in-
terpersonal efficacy. These constructs may operate reciprocally to influence
the success of contact conditions in facilitating positive diversity outcomes
(Johnson & Fredrickson, 2005). Bodenhausen and Moreno (2000) argue that
13. An Examination of Interracial Contact 233
people use affect to inform their response patterns toward a particular target
and as a guide to subsequent judgments. Similarly, Schwarz and Clore (1983)
propose that affect influences the way individuals evaluate and cope with
the dimensions of unfamiliar circumstances.
In a longitudinal study, Bandura et al. (2003) examined the role of affect
regulation on academic efficacy and empathic efficacy, and highlighted the
importance of affect regulation on influencing several important personal
outcomes. The study found that perceived affect regulation correlated closely
with those efficacy domains in terms of adaptation or change. Similarly, fol-
low-up studies discovered that one’s ability to regulate positive affect was re-
lated to higher levels of social self-efficacy (Caprara & Steca, 2005); and that
positive affect and interpersonal efficacy demonstrated a positive relation-
ship with prosocial behavior (Caprara & Steca, 2005). Therefore, we propose
the following:
Propositions 4: There is a significant positive relationship between
cross-race interpersonal efficacy and affect regulation.
The Integration of Contact Conditions, Cross-Race Interpersonal Efficacy,
and Affect Regulation
Our belief that affect regulation and cross-race interpersonal efficacy are
predictive of the success of contact conditions is supported by Schwarz and
Clore (1983). These researchers demonstrated that affect-based judgments
influence how individuals relate to others who are different from them. We
propose that for contact conditions to be effective, individuals who differ on
salient dimensions of diversity (e.g., both black and white individuals) must
monitor their affective response and work to develop cross-race interper-
sonal efficacy in encounters with one another. The convergence of actual and
perceived bias and the need for positive cross-race interactions may lead to
irritation, physical and emotional discomfort, and aversive behaviors (Dijker,
1987; Garcia-Marques & Mackie, 2000). Consequently, a lack of cross-race in-
terpersonal efficacy and affect regulation may exacerbate tensions between
racial groups and potentially lead to negative outcomes even in prescribed
contact conditions.
A social cognitive approach to cross-race interpersonal relations assumes
individuals can choose to regulate responses to experiences as well as their
behaviors resulting from those experiences (Bandura, 1997). Applying this
perspective to diversity and contact conditions, individuals who possess the
efficacy/confidence and the ability for affect regulation would be positioned
to facilitate, in themselves and others, appropriate and positive diversity-re-
lated workplace outcomes (Bandura et al., 2003). Organizations attempting to
promote inclusion through implementation of contact conditions may ben-
efit from methods that build or enhance cross-race interpersonal efficacy
14. 234 Combs & Griffith in Human Resource Development Review 6 (2007)
and affect regulation. Specifically, capability in cross-race interpersonal effi-
cacy coupled with engaged affect regulation may mitigate stereotype activa-
tion and other maladaptive responses that can occur when interracial contact
conditions are implemented (Bodenhausen & Moreno, 2000). Next, we will
provide an example of the suggested influence of cross-race interpersonal
efficacy and affect regulation on the more prevalently prescribed contact con-
dition of equal status.
Equal Status
We propose that cross-race interpersonal efficacy and affective regula-
tion are important corollary constructs that serve to interactively support the
positive outcome of contact conditions in cross-race interactions. In the vast
amount of research on contact theory, the condition of equal status appears
as the most prevalent and constant condition in the mix of components of the
contact hypothesis (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006). Individuals come into orga-
nizations with preconceived notions of status or develop status perceptions
from the context of the organization. In organizations, status might be con-
veyed through the physical arrangements, homogeneity of individuals posi-
tioned within the hierarchy (e.g., racialized or genderized positions), and/or
through individual gestures and other verbal communication between mem-
bers (Ruscher, Cralley & O’Farrell, 2005).
In terms of black and white racial groups, status differentials can be heav-
ily based on the prescribed differences in group status that are reflected and
reinforced in the larger society (Awbrey, 2007; Ely & Thomas, 2001; James,
2000). For example, social identities indicate status functions that can be an-
tecedents of intergroup perception (Boldry & Gaertner, 2006). As individu-
als work toward understanding the place and/or role of other organizational
members, elements of status may become relevant dimensions for interpret-
ing out-group behavior (Ely & Thomas, 2001). Finding ways to reduce these
status differentials to acceptable levels is an important consideration when
attempting to establish contact conditions that maximize human resource po-
tential (Awbrey, 2007).
We argue that one way to offset the effects of status is to regulate affec-
tive response such that individuals in cross-race interactions express mutu-
ally accepted positive behaviors, offset stereotypic informational processing
tendencies, and establish shared impressions for positive future interactions
(Miller, 2002). Through the advancement of these exchange components, in-
dividuals may be less likely to perceive status differences based on in-group
and out-group membership. Pulling from the work of Stroessner, Mackie,
and Michaelsen (2005), this positive affective response should increase per-
ceptions of intergroup similarity and mitigate differential status perceptions.
Additionally, individuals with high levels of cross-race interpersonal efficacy
will find ways to capitalize on and use the learning from the experience to
limit the influence of perceived status differentials. Furthermore, the effec-
tive regulation of affective response coupled with cross-race interpersonal ef-
15. An Examination of Interracial Contact 235
ficacy might reduce external perceptions of threat leading to more enduring
personal relationships and consensual understanding across racial groups
(Ruscher et al., 2005).
The Contributions of Improved Contact Conditions on Organizational
Outcomes
Organizational members are increasingly required to work together to ac-
complish desired organizational outcomes (Watson et al., 2004). Such team-
based interactions require increased cooperation (Ensari & Miller, 2005). Get-
ting diverse members to cooperate more effectively may greatly depend
upon the mitigation of stereotypes that can have an adverse impact on the
quality of work interaction (Devine, Plant, Amodio, Harmon-Jones, & Vance,
2002). When stereotypes are evoked, there may be a tendency for individu-
als to be committed to advancing actions that establish positive outcomes for
themselves, and resist cooperating with others who are perceived to be ei-
ther of lower status or psychological threats (Awbrey, 2007; Steele & Aron-
son, 1995).
Schimel, Arndt, Pyszczynski, and Greenberg (2001) in their study of rela-
tionships where intrinsic qualities could be communicated, found a signifi-
cant increase in positive feelings toward the other and reductions in overall
tendencies to be defensive. Conversely, a tendency toward stereotype acti-
vation and confirmation might directly influence judgments of other aspects
of the labeled individual. Consistent with this assertion, Jackson and Dut-
ton (1988) suggest that when individuals perceive a threatening condition,
they are highly likely to attend to those specific characteristics that support
previous suspicions. Extending this argument to contact theory, we expect
that cross-race interpersonal efficacy and effective regulation of affective re-
sponse are likely to influence the degree of persistence in establishing harmo-
nious cross-race relationships. This may be due to individual confidence in
ability to interact with others and less potential to give up in the face of diffi-
culty (Bandura et al., 2003). Additionally, the appropriate regulation of affect
(identifying, monitoring, and adjusting mindsets and behaviors) may reduce
the exhibition of prejudice and bias and facilitate cultivation of positive cross-
race interactions in both short- and long-term encounters (Chatman, Polzer,
Barsade, & Neale, 1998).
The proper facilitation of contact conditions should be both an organiza-
tional directive and an individual process. Assuming interpersonal and af-
fect regulation positively affects the perceptions of organizational members
in a bidirectional fashion, it is not enough to rely on organizational policies
and structures to implement the establishment of such conditions (Schimel et
al., 2001). What we suspect is that by developing cross-race interpersonal effi-
cacy and affect regulation competencies in employees, performance at the in-
dividual, group, and organizational level should increase as a consequence
of contact conditions. This type of developmental focus may foster collabora-
16. 236 Combs & Griffith in Human Resource Development Review 6 (2007)
tive and congenial work relationships where members share intimate knowl-
edge of each other’s strengths, skills, and abilities. In addition, high levels of
interpersonal efficacy and affect regulation should also produce positive rela-
tionships between individuals that transcend any negative experiences from
identity group membership (Caprara & Steca, 2005).
Implications for Human Resource Development
The implications of this article for human resource development in or-
ganizations rest in the areas of employee training and development, perfor-
mance management, and organizational development and change. From the
perspective of training and development, enhancing the cross-race interper-
sonal efficacy of organizational members can be infused through employee
education and skill development (Combs & Luthans, 2007). Specific training
that solely concentrates on cross-race interpersonal efficacy and affect regu-
lation would help employees identify their personal levels of strength and
challenge relating to their confidence levels in confronting both low- and
high-risk interactions across identity groups. As an example, Gist, Stevens,
and Bavetta (1991) developed an efficacy-based intervention that emphasizes
self-management. This training provided participants who demonstrated
lower self-efficacy the confidence to avail themselves of pertinent skill devel-
opment programs.
Organizations can develop and affirm employee skills in navigating cross-
race interactions by supplying information that provides a thorough under-
standing of different communication styles, conflict resolution skills, and the
recognition of subtle nuances of racial difference. This could be considered
baseline training that ensures a certain level of understanding and integra-
tion of cross-racial issues that could assist individuals in regulating affect
and monitoring interpersonal responses. Similarly, employees might develop
methods of regulating affect in order to abate the operation of psychosocial
elements such as stereotypes and prejudices that can negatively impact posi-
tive diversity behaviors (Stockdale & Cao, 2004).
Employees may defer to situational cues as a means to regulate their effec-
tiveness in cross-race interpersonal interactions (Gist & Mitchell, 1992). The
recognition of affect regulation between interacting parties may mitigate op-
portunities for negative interactions. The process involved in developing af-
fect regulation and cross-race interpersonal efficacy may heavily rely on mas-
tery experiences, peer feedback, and peer modeling (Bandura, 1991). For
example, video-recorded feedback of cross-race interactions may be develop-
mental tools that facilitate mastery experiences. Additionally, this may offer
meaningful information about how others make attributions about cross-race
interpersonal behaviors.
In performance management cross-race interpersonal efficacy and affect
regulation may be used to ensure success of the performance feedback pro-
cess and its outcomes. In both the giving and receiving of performance feed-
back involving cross-race individuals, mistrust and communication missteps
17. An Examination of Interracial Contact 237
can contribute to nonpositive reactions and lack of acceptance of the feedback
(Aronson et. al, 2002). For example, Landau (2006) in a study involving 1,268
managerial and professional employees found that black and Asian employ-
ees were rated lower than white employees in promotion potential, which
correlated to significant mistrust of the evaluation procedure and feedback
process.
Cross-race performance evaluation and feedback environments may be
tension and anxiety producing (James, 2000). When performance feedback is
unfavorable, affect regulation might help employees to be positive and open
to elements of performance feedback and to avoid responses that unneces-
sarily incorporate race saliency. Attention to cross-race interpersonal efficacy
and affect regulation, through the use of self-reflection techniques, may al-
leviate the stress and anxiety surrounding cross-race performance assess-
ment and feedback (Roberson et. al, 2003). In these instances, self-reflection
could facilitate the adjustment of ineffective individual responses peculiar
to cross-race interactions. Similarly, for the supervisor or manager provid-
ing the performance feedback, high levels of cross-race interpersonal effi-
cacy and the ability to positively regulate affect might result in more effective
communication and a more facilitative appraisal environment. These capa-
bilities may be critical to the success of mentoring and coaching organiza-
tional environments.
Organizations contemplating or involved in pluralistic climate or culture
change should have an interest in building cross-race interpersonal efficacy
and affect regulation in order to assist proactive embracement and adjust
to change. Changing the organizations climate or culture regarding diver-
sity is suggestive of an organizational development focus (Chrobot-Mason &
Thomas, 2002). These would include long-term efforts that require employ-
ees to submit to iterative processes of data gathering and analysis, implemen-
tation, and evaluation (Cox, 2000). To sustain the process and impact of orga-
nizational diversity change efforts, supervisors/managers may need to help
employees personally and professionally adjust to a heightened diversity or
pluralistic focus (Bell, 2006).
Organizations may envision contact conditions as avenues for imple-
menting pluralistic changes in individual and group perspectives and mak-
ing cross-racial differences less salient in the work environment (Gaertner &
Dovidio, 2000; Hewstone & Brown, 1986). This will demand high levels of
cross-race interpersonal efficacy to ensure that individuals will effectively
and appropriately articulate their needs and perceptions, and that individu-
als will have the know-how and skill to appropriately acknowledge the needs
and perceptions of others. Effective changes in organization cultures with re-
spect to diversity will no doubt impose a demand for high levels of cross-
race interpersonal efficacy and affect regulation capabilities. The know-how
and skill to appropriately articulate needs and perceptions and to acknowl-
edge the needs and perceptions of others are critical for progression to plu-
ralistic organizational environments (Gaertner & Dovidio, 2000).
18. 238 Combs & Griffith in Human Resource Development Review 6 (2007)
Finally, the convergence of multiple races, cultures, values, and beliefs
across employee groups demands attention to the nature of cross-race in-
terpersonal relationships. Interest should not only rest at managing diver-
sity but building an effective climate where diversity can be nurtured. In or-
der for contact tenets to work fully toward improving cross-race relations,
interaction participants must be appropriately motivated and believe that
they can successfully execute the necessary behaviors to foster pluralistic
environments.
Future Research
Future research might consider the extent to which emotions align with
one’s authentic self or whether implementation of all or certain contact con-
ditions (i.e., noncasual) may result in maladaptive situations, such as emo-
tional labor (Ashforth & Humprhey, 1995). Additionally, examination of
the effect of contact conditions on the perceptions of different racial/ethnic
groups might be instructive. Some research has revealed that black and white
individuals respond differently to contact conditions with black individuals
demonstrating a reverse or minimal impact (Sigelman & Welch, 1993).
Finally, individual perceptions of sincerity in cross-race relationships may
influence and be influenced by cross-race interpersonal efficacy and the abil-
ity to effectively regulate affective response. To the extent that individuals do
not engage voluntarily and instead pursue instrumental outcomes in inter-
personal interaction, contact conditions may be jeopardized and may have
negative carryover effects for organizational diversity performance. Future
investigation of the relationship of perceived sincerity would be helpful to
our understanding of the interplay of cross-race interpersonal efficacy and
affect regulation on the operationalization of contact conditions initially and
over time. Additional research is needed to sort out these relationships.
Conclusion
Providing a positive diversity climate that fosters pluralism and inclusion
is a critical requirement for contemporary organizations. The ability of em-
ployees to work collaboratively requires individual ability to initiate, culti-
vate, and nurture positive cross-racial (and cross-cultural) interpersonal in-
teractions and relationships. However, the historical perspectives brought to
the organizational environment and their influence on cross-race interper-
sonal experiences may inhibit individual cross-race interpersonal efficacy
while simultaneously heightening the need for more effective affect regula-
tion (Stephan & Stephan, 1992). Contact theory has been examined for its po-
tential to assist organizations in fostering an inclusive climate. However, the
wide appeal of contact theory conditions is overshadowed by the inconsis-
tency of results in instances where attempts have been made to foster posi-
tive contact.
19. An Examination of Interracial Contact 239
We offer here consideration of cross-race interpersonal efficacy and affect
regulation as constructs to mitigate and promote positive individual relation-
ships within contact conditions. In addition, we speculate that the extension
of cross-race interpersonal efficacy and affect regulation might easily trans-
late to cross-cultural contexts. Culture might be examined on country, ethnic
group, and organizational levels. For example, in global organizations the in-
tegration and differentiation of these cultural aspects might prove quite chal-
lenging for application of contact conditions. In other words, efficacy beliefs
could be enhanced using mastery and modeling techniques to equip individ-
uals with skills that allow them to attain and maintain meaningful relation-
ship outcomes despite demographic differences.
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◘ ◘ ◘ ◘ ◘
Gwendolyn M. Combs is an Associate Professor at the University of Nebraska-
Lincoln, Department of Management. Her research interests are in Human Re-
source Management and Organizational Behavior: Specifically, she examines is-
sues of diversity and group identity as they related to and impact inter-group
behavior and organizational performance; affirmative action policy development
and implementation; and the influence of positive organizational constructs on
employee performance. Additionally, she consults in the areas of human resource
policy development, diversity program implementation and diversity training.
Jakari Griffith is a doctoral student in the Department of Management at the Uni-
versity of Nebraska-Lincoln. He received his Bachelors of Science degree from
Florida A & M University. His current research interests include organizational
diversity, leadership development, and positive organizational behavior.