This article examines the relationship between organizational commitment profiles and job satisfaction among Greek private and public sector employees. It summarizes previous research showing that organizational commitment consists of multiple components (affective, continuance, normative) that can form distinct profiles. Greece has unique cultural characteristics but has been underrepresented in organizational research. The study explores how commitment profiles relate to intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction in Greece, adding to the limited research on profiles outside North America. It also compares profiles and job satisfaction between private and public sector employees, who may differ due to Greece's employment context. The results could help validate the profiles approach across cultures and employment sectors.
The link between job satisfaction and organizational commitmentYannis Markovits
This article examines the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment for public and private sector employees. It reviews literature showing private sector employees generally report higher extrinsic job satisfaction than public sector employees due to differences in rewards. However, intrinsic satisfaction can be high for both. Studies also show mixed results for differences in organizational commitment between sectors. The article hypothesizes that job satisfaction will be more strongly related to organizational commitment for public sector versus private sector employees, especially for affective and normative commitment. It analyzes survey data from 617 Greek employees to test this.
How do multi national corporations ce os perceive and communicate about socia...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a research journal article that investigated how multi-national corporation CEOs perceive and communicate about corporate social responsibility. The researchers analyzed 105 letters from sustainability reports and identified different areas of CSR that CEOs discussed as well as five categories of CEO discourse. However, the authors note that CEO discourse may not fully reflect their true perceptions of CSR since their communications are stake-driven.
11.how do multi national corporations ce os perceive and communicate about so...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a research journal article that investigated how multi-national corporation CEOs perceive and communicate about corporate social responsibility. The researchers analyzed 105 letters from sustainability reports and identified different areas of CSR that CEOs discussed as well as five categories of CEO discourse. However, the authors note that CEO discourse may not fully reflect their true perceptions of CSR since their communications are stake-driven.
Jakari griffiththe influence of cross race interpersonal efficacy-2007Dr. Jakari Griffith
This document summarizes a research article that examines how cross-race interpersonal efficacy and affect regulation influence the relationship between contact conditions and positive diversity outcomes, as proposed by contact theory. The article reviews literature on intergroup relations and biases, contact theory, cross-race interpersonal efficacy, and affect regulation. It proposes that positive contact outcomes may depend on an individual's ability to effectively initiate and monitor behaviors for relationship development through cross-race interpersonal efficacy and affect regulation.
Perceived organizational justice and employees’ organizational citizenship be...Alexander Decker
This document reports on a study that investigated the relationship between employees' perceptions of organizational justice (including distributive, procedural, and interactional justice) and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) in Ghana. The study surveyed 147 employees across 13 insurance companies in Ghana. Results found a significant positive relationship between overall organizational justice perceptions and OCB. Additionally, interactional justice, which involves respectful treatment of employees, was found to account for more variance in OCB and have a stronger relationship than distributive and procedural justice dimensions in the Ghanaian context. This provides insights for human resources professionals in Ghana that promoting interactional justice may better encourage employees to engage in extra-role citizenship behaviors.
Jakari Griffith - An Examination of Interracial ContactJakari Griffith
This document summarizes a research article that examines how cross-race interpersonal efficacy and affect regulation may influence the outcomes of interracial contact as proposed by contact theory. The article provides background on contact theory and research showing mixed results. It discusses how social cognitive factors like efficacy and emotion regulation could help explain the variability in contact theory outcomes. The researchers propose that contact conditions may lead to more positive diversity outcomes when individuals have higher cross-race interpersonal efficacy and stronger affect regulation abilities.
Job 2001 stamper van dyne ocb part timeFahim Ahmed
This survey-based field study examined differences in organizational citizenship behavior between full-time and part-time service employees. Questionnaire data from 257 employees and their supervisors showed that part-time employees exhibited less helping behavior than full-time, but there was no difference in voice behavior. The study also found that an individual's preferred work status and organizational culture moderated the relationships between actual work status and citizenship. For helping behavior, preferred status mattered more to part-time workers. For voice, preferred status was equally important to both groups, with high voice when actual status matched preferred. Contrary to expectations, work status made a bigger difference in both helping and voice in less bureaucratic organizations.
The link between job satisfaction and organizational commitmentYannis Markovits
This article examines the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment for public and private sector employees. It reviews literature showing private sector employees generally report higher extrinsic job satisfaction than public sector employees due to differences in rewards. However, intrinsic satisfaction can be high for both. Studies also show mixed results for differences in organizational commitment between sectors. The article hypothesizes that job satisfaction will be more strongly related to organizational commitment for public sector versus private sector employees, especially for affective and normative commitment. It analyzes survey data from 617 Greek employees to test this.
How do multi national corporations ce os perceive and communicate about socia...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a research journal article that investigated how multi-national corporation CEOs perceive and communicate about corporate social responsibility. The researchers analyzed 105 letters from sustainability reports and identified different areas of CSR that CEOs discussed as well as five categories of CEO discourse. However, the authors note that CEO discourse may not fully reflect their true perceptions of CSR since their communications are stake-driven.
11.how do multi national corporations ce os perceive and communicate about so...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a research journal article that investigated how multi-national corporation CEOs perceive and communicate about corporate social responsibility. The researchers analyzed 105 letters from sustainability reports and identified different areas of CSR that CEOs discussed as well as five categories of CEO discourse. However, the authors note that CEO discourse may not fully reflect their true perceptions of CSR since their communications are stake-driven.
Jakari griffiththe influence of cross race interpersonal efficacy-2007Dr. Jakari Griffith
This document summarizes a research article that examines how cross-race interpersonal efficacy and affect regulation influence the relationship between contact conditions and positive diversity outcomes, as proposed by contact theory. The article reviews literature on intergroup relations and biases, contact theory, cross-race interpersonal efficacy, and affect regulation. It proposes that positive contact outcomes may depend on an individual's ability to effectively initiate and monitor behaviors for relationship development through cross-race interpersonal efficacy and affect regulation.
Perceived organizational justice and employees’ organizational citizenship be...Alexander Decker
This document reports on a study that investigated the relationship between employees' perceptions of organizational justice (including distributive, procedural, and interactional justice) and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) in Ghana. The study surveyed 147 employees across 13 insurance companies in Ghana. Results found a significant positive relationship between overall organizational justice perceptions and OCB. Additionally, interactional justice, which involves respectful treatment of employees, was found to account for more variance in OCB and have a stronger relationship than distributive and procedural justice dimensions in the Ghanaian context. This provides insights for human resources professionals in Ghana that promoting interactional justice may better encourage employees to engage in extra-role citizenship behaviors.
Jakari Griffith - An Examination of Interracial ContactJakari Griffith
This document summarizes a research article that examines how cross-race interpersonal efficacy and affect regulation may influence the outcomes of interracial contact as proposed by contact theory. The article provides background on contact theory and research showing mixed results. It discusses how social cognitive factors like efficacy and emotion regulation could help explain the variability in contact theory outcomes. The researchers propose that contact conditions may lead to more positive diversity outcomes when individuals have higher cross-race interpersonal efficacy and stronger affect regulation abilities.
Job 2001 stamper van dyne ocb part timeFahim Ahmed
This survey-based field study examined differences in organizational citizenship behavior between full-time and part-time service employees. Questionnaire data from 257 employees and their supervisors showed that part-time employees exhibited less helping behavior than full-time, but there was no difference in voice behavior. The study also found that an individual's preferred work status and organizational culture moderated the relationships between actual work status and citizenship. For helping behavior, preferred status mattered more to part-time workers. For voice, preferred status was equally important to both groups, with high voice when actual status matched preferred. Contrary to expectations, work status made a bigger difference in both helping and voice in less bureaucratic organizations.
This document discusses competency as a potential factor in workplace bullying. It begins by providing background on workplace bullying, defining it as abuse of power that can be costly to organizations. It then discusses competency and how an individual's perceived competency may determine their reaction to bullying. Specifically, the authors develop a framework where a victim's self-perception of competency has a strong mediating relationship with outcomes of bullying behaviors. They believe examining this link between competency and bullying could provide insights, and future research should empirically test this relationship. Managers should also be aware of how allowing employee development could help reduce instances of bullying.
The impact of corporate social responsibility on investment recommendationslucahearth
This document discusses a study that investigates how corporate social responsibility (CSR) strategies impact security analysts' investment recommendations. The study finds that analysts issue more favorable recommendations for socially responsible firms now compared to earlier periods, indicating a changing view of CSR's value. Additionally, firms with greater visibility and analysts with more experience, CSR awareness or resources are more likely to view CSR strategies positively in their recommendations. In summary, the document examines how CSR can influence value creation in public markets through influencing analysts' recommendations.
This study examined the relationship between employee commitment and organizational citizenship behavior in Nepalese companies. A survey was administered to 340 employees across five companies. The results showed that affective commitment and normative commitment were positively related to both factors of organizational citizenship behavior - altruism and compliance. Continuance commitment was not significantly related to altruism or compliance. The findings imply that affectively and normatively committed employees are more likely to exhibit organizational citizenship behaviors that benefit coworkers and the organization, while continuance commitment does not influence such extra-role behaviors. Overall, the study found employee commitment, especially affective and normative commitment, can promote organizational citizenship behavior in Nepalese workplaces.
Craig, Russell J. and Brennan, Niamh M. [2012] An Exploration of the Relation...Prof Niamh M. Brennan
This paper proposes a taxonomy to assist in more clearly locating research on aspects of the association between corporate reputation and corporate accountability reporting. We illustrate how our proposed taxonomy can be applied by using it to frame our exploration of the relationship between measures of reputation and characteristics of the language choices made in CEO letters to shareholders. Using DICTION 5.0 software we analyse the content of the CEO letters of 23 high reputation US firms and 23 low reputation US firms. Our results suggest that company size and visibility each have a positive influence on the extent to which corporate reputation is associated with the language choices made in CEO letters. These results, which are anomalous when compared with those of Geppert and Lawrence (2008), highlight the need for caution when assessing claims about the effects on corporate reputation arising from the language choice in narratives in corporate annual reports.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
This study examines the relationship between corporate social performance (CSP) and corporate financial performance (CFP) for 383 companies in Indonesia over 2002-2003. Specifically, it analyzes whether company size and industry affect the CSP-CFP relationship. Content analysis was used to measure CSP based on dimensions like community, diversity, environment, and products. Financial data came from annual reports. The study aims to add to literature on developing countries and examine the impact of moderating variables on the CSP-CFP relationship. Hypotheses are that the relationship is positive and moderated by size and industry.
The document discusses research on human resources management and board composition. It covers several key areas:
1. Director demographics like age, education, gender, and race, and how they can impact decision making but results are inconsistent.
2. Human capital factors of directors such as industry experience, experience as a CEO, venture capital experience, and financial expertise, and how they influence decisions.
3. Social capital aspects including ties to other firms, relationships with managers, and social standing, and how they can provide benefits but also constraints.
4. Suggestions for future research including focusing on appropriate level of analysis, improving measurement methods, and exploring more complex relationships.
This document summarizes a research paper that studied the relationship between employees' perceptions of organizational politics and their performance, with the mediating role of social exchange perceptions. The study collected survey responses from over 1,000 employees across organizations in Pakistan. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the data. The results showed that perceptions of social exchange fully mediate the relationship between perceptions of organizational politics and employees' performance. Perceptions of unfair politics can harm the social exchange relationship between employees and their organization and negatively impact performance.
This document is a dissertation submitted by Mohit Kumar to Leeds University Business School in partial fulfillment of an MSc in Finance and Investment. The dissertation examines the impact of managerial ownership on firm performance during a financial crisis using a sample of 180 UK firms from 2009-2011. The dissertation includes an abstract, acknowledgements, table of contents, literature review on the relationship between ownership structure and firm performance, research methods and methodology, findings and conclusions.
Effects of internal_social_media_and_ocb____research_proposal[1]SohailTariq16
This research proposal aims to examine the impact of internal social media on employee engagement and organizational citizenship behavior. The student proposes to investigate whether internal social media engages employees, the effect of positive voice behavior on employee engagement, and whether internal social media affects organizational citizenship behavior. The proposal outlines the research questions, contribution, objectives, theoretical model relating internal social media to employee engagement and citizenship behavior, and provides a literature review on internal communication, social media, and their benefits and challenges.
The effect of CSR content and media on reputation and stakeholder communicati...Vera Engelbertink
This document provides an abstract and introduction for a master's thesis that examines the effect of CSR content and media on corporate reputation and stakeholder communication. Specifically, it aims to understand how intrinsic, extrinsic, and combined CSR messages as well as different media types influence a company's reputation and stakeholders' willingness to share or react to CSR messages. The introduction provides background on CSR and discusses how communicating CSR can have both positive and negative effects depending on stakeholders' perceptions of a company's motives. It proposes examining these concepts through an online experiment testing different message types and media on reputation and secondary communication outcomes.
Formation of organizational citizenship behaviors in students employed in uni...AlFajrQuraan
This document summarizes a study that examined how manager and coworker behaviors influence the development of organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) in student employees of university dining services. The study found that managers and coworkers demonstrating OCBs towards individuals was positively related to students also exhibiting individual-oriented OCBs. It also found that certain transformational leadership behaviors by managers indirectly led to students demonstrating organization-oriented OCBs. Additionally, there was a weak but significant negative relationship between students' OCBs and their intent to leave their job.
Corporate social responsibility (csr) and issue to corporate financial perfor...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the relationship between corporate social responsibility (CSR) and corporate financial performance (CFP) of banking companies in Bangladesh. It provides background on CSR and reviews previous literature on the relationship between CSR and CFP. The study uses questionnaires to assess perceptions of CSR among banking executives and social groups. It analyzes CSR practices reported in annual reports of selected Bangladeshi banks. Statistical tests are used to analyze the relationship between CSR and CFP. The study aims to provide insight into CSR practices in Bangladesh and their potential impact on financial performance.
This document summarizes a study on employees' perceptions of workforce diversity and its impact on job satisfaction in a South African public service department. The study investigated how employees view diversity in their workplace and whether diversity affects their job satisfaction. A sample of 90 employees completed a questionnaire assessing the impact of 7 factors (age, marital status, ethnicity, income, tenure, qualifications, job title) on employee commitment. 5 factors were found to potentially impact commitment, but gender did not have a significant effect. The study aimed to identify employees' views of diversity, examine how diversity relates to job satisfaction, and provide recommendations to address problems caused by diversity. It used the similarity-attraction theory as a framework to hypothesize that positive attitudes towards diversity
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Business and Management. IJBMI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Business and Management, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Research in Management Accounting (Pesquisa em contabilidade gerencial)Felipe Pontes
Palestra realizada na UFPB sobre pesquisa em contabilidade gerencial.
A palestra foi dividida em duas partes. Na primeira, a Professora Kate Horton apresentou o seu artigo e na segunda ela falou sobre o processo de publicação deste artigo.
This paper aims to analyze the relationship between corporate social responsibility (CSR) and financial performance among banks in the UK. Previous research has found mixed results on this relationship. The paper conducts an empirical analysis using data from selected UK banks. Various regression models are used to examine the impact of CSR on two measures of financial performance, while controlling for bank size, risk, productivity, and expenditures. The results show a mixed relationship between CSR and financial performance that differs between banks and performance measures. Larger banks seem to have a negative or weak positive correlation, suggesting overspending on CSR. The relationship also varies substantially between the two financial performance measures.
Managerial perceptions on corporate social responsibility in select companies...inventy
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
This paper reveals the relationship of FTSE board and environment policy of t...Service_supportAssignment
This paper reveals the relationship of FTSE board and environment policy of their companies listed. According to Lovell and Liverman (2010) suggested that they are inspired in their reassessment of carbon trading procedures due to the lack of some world class standards and Also it is similarly deregulated by the deficiency of broadly recruited international standards or policy for intentional carbon reporting of carbon emission. Consolidating the analysis in regard to the investors’ wants for data has permitted the researchers for well understanding the various methods to evaluate the procedures that are used to develop the emission of carbon reports, and also hoping that the social world of monetary services mediators, controller and carbon consultancie
This document summarizes a research article that examines the relationship between organizational commitment profiles and job satisfaction among employees in the Greek private and public sectors. The study uses surveys of over 1,100 private sector employees and 470 public sector employees in Greece. It finds that affective organizational commitment, which refers to an emotional attachment to the organization, has the strongest influence on levels of intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction. This confirms other research finding affective commitment to be most influential for behavioral outcomes of commitment. The study also contrasts commitment profiles and job satisfaction between the Greek private and public sectors.
Exploring the relationsip between diversity and workplace friendshipAlexander Decker
1) The document examines the relationship between diversity (measured by perceived value diversity and diversity climate) and workplace friendship.
2) It presents a literature review on diversity, diversity climate, perceived value diversity, and workplace friendship. Conceptual frameworks on social identity and relational approaches to diversity are discussed.
3) A survey was conducted of 196 employees in Nigeria to examine the hypotheses that diversity climate and perceived value diversity predict and are related to workplace friendship. Statistical analyses found significant relationships between the variables as predicted.
This document discusses competency as a potential factor in workplace bullying. It begins by providing background on workplace bullying, defining it as abuse of power that can be costly to organizations. It then discusses competency and how an individual's perceived competency may determine their reaction to bullying. Specifically, the authors develop a framework where a victim's self-perception of competency has a strong mediating relationship with outcomes of bullying behaviors. They believe examining this link between competency and bullying could provide insights, and future research should empirically test this relationship. Managers should also be aware of how allowing employee development could help reduce instances of bullying.
The impact of corporate social responsibility on investment recommendationslucahearth
This document discusses a study that investigates how corporate social responsibility (CSR) strategies impact security analysts' investment recommendations. The study finds that analysts issue more favorable recommendations for socially responsible firms now compared to earlier periods, indicating a changing view of CSR's value. Additionally, firms with greater visibility and analysts with more experience, CSR awareness or resources are more likely to view CSR strategies positively in their recommendations. In summary, the document examines how CSR can influence value creation in public markets through influencing analysts' recommendations.
This study examined the relationship between employee commitment and organizational citizenship behavior in Nepalese companies. A survey was administered to 340 employees across five companies. The results showed that affective commitment and normative commitment were positively related to both factors of organizational citizenship behavior - altruism and compliance. Continuance commitment was not significantly related to altruism or compliance. The findings imply that affectively and normatively committed employees are more likely to exhibit organizational citizenship behaviors that benefit coworkers and the organization, while continuance commitment does not influence such extra-role behaviors. Overall, the study found employee commitment, especially affective and normative commitment, can promote organizational citizenship behavior in Nepalese workplaces.
Craig, Russell J. and Brennan, Niamh M. [2012] An Exploration of the Relation...Prof Niamh M. Brennan
This paper proposes a taxonomy to assist in more clearly locating research on aspects of the association between corporate reputation and corporate accountability reporting. We illustrate how our proposed taxonomy can be applied by using it to frame our exploration of the relationship between measures of reputation and characteristics of the language choices made in CEO letters to shareholders. Using DICTION 5.0 software we analyse the content of the CEO letters of 23 high reputation US firms and 23 low reputation US firms. Our results suggest that company size and visibility each have a positive influence on the extent to which corporate reputation is associated with the language choices made in CEO letters. These results, which are anomalous when compared with those of Geppert and Lawrence (2008), highlight the need for caution when assessing claims about the effects on corporate reputation arising from the language choice in narratives in corporate annual reports.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
This study examines the relationship between corporate social performance (CSP) and corporate financial performance (CFP) for 383 companies in Indonesia over 2002-2003. Specifically, it analyzes whether company size and industry affect the CSP-CFP relationship. Content analysis was used to measure CSP based on dimensions like community, diversity, environment, and products. Financial data came from annual reports. The study aims to add to literature on developing countries and examine the impact of moderating variables on the CSP-CFP relationship. Hypotheses are that the relationship is positive and moderated by size and industry.
The document discusses research on human resources management and board composition. It covers several key areas:
1. Director demographics like age, education, gender, and race, and how they can impact decision making but results are inconsistent.
2. Human capital factors of directors such as industry experience, experience as a CEO, venture capital experience, and financial expertise, and how they influence decisions.
3. Social capital aspects including ties to other firms, relationships with managers, and social standing, and how they can provide benefits but also constraints.
4. Suggestions for future research including focusing on appropriate level of analysis, improving measurement methods, and exploring more complex relationships.
This document summarizes a research paper that studied the relationship between employees' perceptions of organizational politics and their performance, with the mediating role of social exchange perceptions. The study collected survey responses from over 1,000 employees across organizations in Pakistan. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the data. The results showed that perceptions of social exchange fully mediate the relationship between perceptions of organizational politics and employees' performance. Perceptions of unfair politics can harm the social exchange relationship between employees and their organization and negatively impact performance.
This document is a dissertation submitted by Mohit Kumar to Leeds University Business School in partial fulfillment of an MSc in Finance and Investment. The dissertation examines the impact of managerial ownership on firm performance during a financial crisis using a sample of 180 UK firms from 2009-2011. The dissertation includes an abstract, acknowledgements, table of contents, literature review on the relationship between ownership structure and firm performance, research methods and methodology, findings and conclusions.
Effects of internal_social_media_and_ocb____research_proposal[1]SohailTariq16
This research proposal aims to examine the impact of internal social media on employee engagement and organizational citizenship behavior. The student proposes to investigate whether internal social media engages employees, the effect of positive voice behavior on employee engagement, and whether internal social media affects organizational citizenship behavior. The proposal outlines the research questions, contribution, objectives, theoretical model relating internal social media to employee engagement and citizenship behavior, and provides a literature review on internal communication, social media, and their benefits and challenges.
The effect of CSR content and media on reputation and stakeholder communicati...Vera Engelbertink
This document provides an abstract and introduction for a master's thesis that examines the effect of CSR content and media on corporate reputation and stakeholder communication. Specifically, it aims to understand how intrinsic, extrinsic, and combined CSR messages as well as different media types influence a company's reputation and stakeholders' willingness to share or react to CSR messages. The introduction provides background on CSR and discusses how communicating CSR can have both positive and negative effects depending on stakeholders' perceptions of a company's motives. It proposes examining these concepts through an online experiment testing different message types and media on reputation and secondary communication outcomes.
Formation of organizational citizenship behaviors in students employed in uni...AlFajrQuraan
This document summarizes a study that examined how manager and coworker behaviors influence the development of organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) in student employees of university dining services. The study found that managers and coworkers demonstrating OCBs towards individuals was positively related to students also exhibiting individual-oriented OCBs. It also found that certain transformational leadership behaviors by managers indirectly led to students demonstrating organization-oriented OCBs. Additionally, there was a weak but significant negative relationship between students' OCBs and their intent to leave their job.
Corporate social responsibility (csr) and issue to corporate financial perfor...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the relationship between corporate social responsibility (CSR) and corporate financial performance (CFP) of banking companies in Bangladesh. It provides background on CSR and reviews previous literature on the relationship between CSR and CFP. The study uses questionnaires to assess perceptions of CSR among banking executives and social groups. It analyzes CSR practices reported in annual reports of selected Bangladeshi banks. Statistical tests are used to analyze the relationship between CSR and CFP. The study aims to provide insight into CSR practices in Bangladesh and their potential impact on financial performance.
This document summarizes a study on employees' perceptions of workforce diversity and its impact on job satisfaction in a South African public service department. The study investigated how employees view diversity in their workplace and whether diversity affects their job satisfaction. A sample of 90 employees completed a questionnaire assessing the impact of 7 factors (age, marital status, ethnicity, income, tenure, qualifications, job title) on employee commitment. 5 factors were found to potentially impact commitment, but gender did not have a significant effect. The study aimed to identify employees' views of diversity, examine how diversity relates to job satisfaction, and provide recommendations to address problems caused by diversity. It used the similarity-attraction theory as a framework to hypothesize that positive attitudes towards diversity
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Business and Management. IJBMI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Business and Management, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Research in Management Accounting (Pesquisa em contabilidade gerencial)Felipe Pontes
Palestra realizada na UFPB sobre pesquisa em contabilidade gerencial.
A palestra foi dividida em duas partes. Na primeira, a Professora Kate Horton apresentou o seu artigo e na segunda ela falou sobre o processo de publicação deste artigo.
This paper aims to analyze the relationship between corporate social responsibility (CSR) and financial performance among banks in the UK. Previous research has found mixed results on this relationship. The paper conducts an empirical analysis using data from selected UK banks. Various regression models are used to examine the impact of CSR on two measures of financial performance, while controlling for bank size, risk, productivity, and expenditures. The results show a mixed relationship between CSR and financial performance that differs between banks and performance measures. Larger banks seem to have a negative or weak positive correlation, suggesting overspending on CSR. The relationship also varies substantially between the two financial performance measures.
Managerial perceptions on corporate social responsibility in select companies...inventy
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
This paper reveals the relationship of FTSE board and environment policy of t...Service_supportAssignment
This paper reveals the relationship of FTSE board and environment policy of their companies listed. According to Lovell and Liverman (2010) suggested that they are inspired in their reassessment of carbon trading procedures due to the lack of some world class standards and Also it is similarly deregulated by the deficiency of broadly recruited international standards or policy for intentional carbon reporting of carbon emission. Consolidating the analysis in regard to the investors’ wants for data has permitted the researchers for well understanding the various methods to evaluate the procedures that are used to develop the emission of carbon reports, and also hoping that the social world of monetary services mediators, controller and carbon consultancie
This document summarizes a research article that examines the relationship between organizational commitment profiles and job satisfaction among employees in the Greek private and public sectors. The study uses surveys of over 1,100 private sector employees and 470 public sector employees in Greece. It finds that affective organizational commitment, which refers to an emotional attachment to the organization, has the strongest influence on levels of intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction. This confirms other research finding affective commitment to be most influential for behavioral outcomes of commitment. The study also contrasts commitment profiles and job satisfaction between the Greek private and public sectors.
Exploring the relationsip between diversity and workplace friendshipAlexander Decker
1) The document examines the relationship between diversity (measured by perceived value diversity and diversity climate) and workplace friendship.
2) It presents a literature review on diversity, diversity climate, perceived value diversity, and workplace friendship. Conceptual frameworks on social identity and relational approaches to diversity are discussed.
3) A survey was conducted of 196 employees in Nigeria to examine the hypotheses that diversity climate and perceived value diversity predict and are related to workplace friendship. Statistical analyses found significant relationships between the variables as predicted.
Research Paper- The Effects of Corporate Social Responsibility on EmployeesAnnie-Pierre Fortier
This document summarizes a research report that investigated the relationship between employees' perceptions of their company's corporate social responsibility and their job satisfaction. The study examined this relationship across cultures, analyzing the moderating effects of power distance and individualism-collectivism. Survey data from 79 employees of an oil and gas firm in Australia found a positive relationship between perceived CSR and job satisfaction. Individualistic employees had a stronger relationship between perceived CSR and job satisfaction. The report identifies a gap in the literature around considering cross-cultural dimensions and proposes examining individualism-collectivism and power distance as moderators in future research.
Age diversity, age discrimination climateand performance con.docxgalerussel59292
Age diversity, age discrimination climate
and performance consequences—a cross
organizational study
FLORIAN KUNZE*, STEPHAN A. BOEHM AND HEIKE BRUCH
Institute for Leadership and Human Resource Management, University of St. Gallen, St. Gallen,
Switzerland
Summary This paper deals with the emergence of perceived age discrimination climate on the company
level and its performance consequences. In this new approach to the field of diversity research,
we investigated (a) the effect of organizational-level age diversity on collective perceptions of
age discrimination climate that (b) in turn should influence the collective affective commit-
ment of employees, which is (c) an important trigger for overall company performance. In a
large-scale study that included 128 companies, a total of 8,651 employees provided data on
their perceptions of age discrimination and affective commitment on the company level.
Information on firm-level performance was collected from key informants. We tested the
proposed model using structural equation modeling (SEM) procedures and, overall, found
support for all hypothesized relationships. The findings demonstrated that age diversity seems
to be related to the emergence of an age discrimination climate in companies, which negatively
impacts overall firm performance through the mediation of affective commitment. These
results make valuable contributions to the diversity and discrimination literature by establish-
ing perceived age discrimination on the company level as a decisive mediator in the age
diversity/performance link. The results also suggest important practical implications for the
effective management of an increasingly age diverse workforce. Copyright # 2010 John
Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Introduction
Vivid terms like the ‘‘demographic time bomb’’ (Tempest, Barnatt, & Coupland, 2002, p. 487) or the
impending ‘‘age quake’’ (Tempest et al., p. 489) describe one of the key challenges for most developed
countries today: Simultaneously shrinking and aging populations resulting from low birth rates and
increased longevity. These factors also impact a country’s workforce as a lack of skilled junior
employees, combined with the potential rise of the legal retirement age, forces companies to retain
older, more experienced personnel, (e.g., Dychtwald, Erickson, & Morison, 2004; Tempest et al.).
Already today, just over half of the United States’ 147 million-member workforce is 40 years old or
older and, until 2016, the number of workers age 25–54 will rise only slightly (2.4 per cent), while the
Journal of Organizational Behavior
J. Organiz. Behav. 32, 264–290 (2011)
Published online 14 December 2010 in Wiley Online Library
(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/job.698
* Correspondence to: Florian Kunze, Institute for Leadership and Human Resource Management, University of St. Gallen,
Dufourstrasse 40a, CH-9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland. E-mail: [email protected]
Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Receiv.
This study examines the relationship between perceptions of organizational politics and employee attitudes, strain, and behavior through a meta-analysis. The meta-analysis found that perceptions of organizational politics were significantly related to increased strain, turnover intentions, job satisfaction, affective commitment, task performance, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Additionally, work attitudes were found to mediate the effects of perceived politics on turnover intentions, and attitudes and strain mediated the effects on performance. Perceptions of organizational politics appear to represent a unique stressor for employees.
Frontiers in Psychology www.frontiersin.org 1 August 2019 .docxshericehewat
This document discusses generational diversity in the workplace. It analyzes the variables of psychological empowerment and flexibility among different generations in Spanish companies. Sixteen focus groups were conducted with four generations (Baby Boomers, Gen X, Gen Y, Gen Z) to identify differences. Results showed older generations (Baby Boomers and Gen X) differed from younger ones (Gen Y and Gen Z) on these variables. The document provides background on these variables and their relevance to workplace performance and adaptation.
Sungjoo Choi Kennesaw State University Hal G. Rainey Univers.docxmattinsonjanel
Sungjoo Choi
Kennesaw State University
Hal G. Rainey
University of Georgia
Managing Diversity in U.S. Federal Agencies: Effects of Diversity and Diversity Management on Employee Perceptions of Organizational Performance
Current Trends in Public Personnel Administration
Sungjoo Choi is an assistant professor in the Department of Political Science at Kennesaw State University. She received her doctorate from the University of Georgia. Her research interests include diversity management, organizational justice, perfor- mance management in public organizations, and comparative public administration. E-mail: [email protected]
Hal G. Rainey is Alumni Foundation Distinguished Professor in the School of Public and International Affairs at the University of Georgia. His book Understand- ing and Managing Public Organizations was published in 2009. This year, he received the Dwight Waldo Award from the American Society for Public Administration.
E-mail: [email protected]
Diversity in the workplace is a central issue for contemporary organizational management. Concomitantly, managing increased diversity deserves greater concern in public, private, and nonprofit organizations. The authors address the effects of diversity and diversity management on employee perceptions of organizational performance in U.S. federal agencies
by developing measures of three variables: diversity, diversity management, and perceived organizational performance. Drawing from the Central Personnel Data File and the 2004 Federal Human Capital Survey, their findings suggest that racial diversity relates negatively
to organizational performance. When moderated by diversity management policies and practices and team processes, however, racial diversity correlates positively with organizational performance. Gender and age diversity and their interactions with contextual variables produce mixed results, suggesting that gender and age diversity reflect more complicated relationships. This article provides evidence for several benefits derived from effectively managing diversity.
The American workforce has been increasingly diversified by greater access to jobs for women and minorities. Diversity and representation “politically integrate a diverse nation with a measure of legitimacy” (Brewer 2002, 1), but also enhance social justice (Kellough 1990; Krislov and Rosen- bloom 1981). Understanding the impacts of diversity on organizational outcomes, such as organizational performance, employee satisfaction, and turnover,
has become essential (Milliken
pursuing affirmative action programs to taking advan- tage of differences to improve organizational effective- ness (Wise and Tschirhart 2000). Recent research has investigated diversity in relation to organizational effectiveness.
Public organizations, through equal employment opportunity (EEO) and affirmative action programs, have been more committed to workforce diversity than have private organizations, resulting in a higher lev ...
This study examined differences in motivational factors for participating in action sports between Korean and American college students. A survey was administered to 492 participants, measuring 8 motivation dimensions. Results of statistical analysis revealed American students had significantly higher levels of motivation across all dimensions measured, even after controlling for gender, education, experience, and frequency of participation. This suggests cultural differences influence motivations for engaging in action sports between these two groups.
the relationship between normative commitment (one form of organizational commitment) and loyal boosterism (one construct of organizational citizenship behaviours)
fpsyg-10-01612 July 9, 2019 Time 1738 # 1ORIGINAL RESEAR.docxshericehewat
fpsyg-10-01612 July 9, 2019 Time: 17:38 # 1
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published: 10 July 2019
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01612
Edited by:
Darren C. Treadway,
University at Buffalo, United States
Reviewed by:
Jun Yang,
University of North Carolina
at Greensboro, United States
Dana Unger,
University of East Anglia,
United Kingdom
*Correspondence:
Simon L. Albrecht
[email protected]
Specialty section:
This article was submitted to
Organizational Psychology,
a section of the journal
Frontiers in Psychology
Received: 23 August 2018
Accepted: 26 June 2019
Published: 10 July 2019
Citation:
Landells EM and Albrecht SL
(2019) Perceived Organizational
Politics, Engagement, and Stress:
The Mediating Influence of Meaningful
Work. Front. Psychol. 10:1612.
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01612
Perceived Organizational Politics,
Engagement, and Stress: The
Mediating Influence of Meaningful
Work
Erin M. Landells and Simon L. Albrecht*
School of Psychology, Deakin University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
The research aimed to assess proposed associations between organizational politics
and employee engagement, employee stress (or more correctly ‘strain’), and work
meaningfulness. Very few studies have examined these associations. Confirmatory
factor analyses established the dimensionality and reliability of the full measurement
model across two independent samples (N = 303, N = 373). Structural equation
modeling supported the proposed direct associations between organizational politics,
operationalized as a higher order construct, and employee stress and employee
engagement. These relationships were shown to be partially mediated by meaningful
work. As such, politics had significant indirect effects on engagement and stress through
meaningful work. The results also showed a significant and direct association between
stress and engagement. Overall, the results shed important new light on the factors that
influence engagement, and identify work meaningfulness as an important psychological
mechanism that can help explain the adverse impact of organizational politics on
employee engagement and stress. The results also support the dimensionality and
validity of a new set of measures of perceived organizational politics focused on
generalized perceptions about the use and abuse of relationships, resources, reputation,
decisions, and communication channels. More generally, the results serve as a platform
for further research regarding the negative influence of organizational politics on a range
of individual and organizational outcomes.
Keywords: organizational politics, work engagement, stress, meaningful work, measures
INTRODUCTION
The detrimental, damaging, and negative effects of organizational politics on outcomes such as
stress, burnout, turnover intentions, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment have been
well-established with theory and research (Hochwarter et al., 2003; Miller et al., 2008; Chang et al.,
2009; Vigoda-Gadot and Talmud, 2010). Howeve ...
Sexual Orientation Disclosure at Work Among LGB Employees in Vietnam. This study applied mixed approach including qualitative and quantitative methods. Qualitative approach was only used for modifying the scales in Vietnamese context while quantitative was the main one for testing the hypotheses. The quantitative phase of this study will be carried out by SPSS software with some statistical technique comprising reliability and exploratory factor analysis, descriptive statistic analysis , multiple regression, path analysis and ANOVA.
A Content Analysis Of Arguing Behaviors A Case Study Of Romania As Compared ...Daniel Wachtel
This document presents a study that examines arguing behaviors in Romania and the United States through a content analysis of self-reports from Romanian and American participants. The study found differences between the two cultures in topics argued about, arguing partners, appropriateness of arguing, and role of arguing. No differences were found in goals pursued during arguments. The discussion provides characterization of arguing in each culture and implications are addressed.
Organizational Commitment in relation to Organizational Politics: A study on ...inventionjournals
The root objective behind this study is to explore the relation between organizational commitment
and organizational politics, of the government employees. This study also focuses on the gender difference
taking these factors under consideration. This study is conducted on 200 male and female employees in total, of
middle level belonging to urban domicile. A survey of government employees (aged 40-55) reveals that
organizational commitment has no significant positive correlation with organizational politics in total.
Additionally, this relation does not found to be correlated in case of both female and their male counterparts.
Four studies tested whether cultural values moderate the content of gender stereotypes. Specifically, they tested if male stereotypes more closely align with core cultural values (individualism vs collectivism) than female stereotypes. In Studies 1 and 2, Americans rated men as less collectivistic than women, whereas Koreans rated men as more collectivistic than women. Study 3 found that bicultural Korean Americans gave different ratings depending on the language and cultural frame. Study 4 analyzed gender stereotype data across 26 nations, finding that views of traits as masculine correlated with how individualistic or collectivistic a culture was. Together, the studies provide support for the hypothesis that cultural values influence the content of gender stereotypes.
To stay or not to stay can organizational culture provide the staying powerAlexander Decker
This study investigated the influence of organizational culture on employee retention in the Ghanaian banking sector. A survey was administered to 301 employees from 4 banks. The study found that organizational culture significantly predicted employee retention, with innovative culture accounting for the greatest variance. Community and bureaucratic cultures also significantly predicted retention, while competitive culture did not. The findings suggest that cultures emphasizing innovation, community, and bureaucracy best promote employee retention in Ghanaian banks.
This editorial introduces a special issue of papers on sexuality and sexual orientation in organizations. It provides a brief overview of the emerging field of research on this topic. The papers in this special issue were originally presented at a 2009 conference on tackling the "invisibility" of discussions around sexuality and sexual orientation in academic and organizational contexts. The six papers make important contributions to the evolving study of sexuality and sexual orientation in diversity and equality policy and practice.
Running head: LITERATURE REVIEW 1
Running head: LITERATURE REVIEW 17
LITERATURE REVIEW
Student’s Name:
Instructor’s name:
Affiliation:
Course:
Date:
CRITIQUE: WHO GETS THE CARROT AND WHO GETS THE STICK?
In this qualitative article, the researchers studied the gap in gender pay in leadership positions in the globe today. The purpose of the research was to find out whether there existed any parity in the payment and company performances of male and female employees in managerial positions. The researchers conducted a thorough literature review in which the following subject categories were studied: the existence of a pay gap between males and females in top executive positions, how managerial compensation packages are structured and their effect on company performance.
This category encompassed prior research studies on women and paid, from previous research articles such as from The Wall Street Journal and The Equal opportunities commission of 1999. They also studied the effect of work performance on pay, founded on the agency theory by Eisenhardt. The romance of leadership was also studied from several sources including over thirty thousand research articles belonging to thirty-four different companies. From the literature review, the researchers developed a designed a study to establish the relationship between pay and company performance, in a real setting of an organization and using companies’ archived economic data. The hypothesis formulated included: there is a variation in the allocation of bonuses, where male executive directors get higher bonuses than the female ones and that there is a variation in the sensitivity of directors ‘bonuses to company performance, where female bonuses are less sensitive than male ones (Kulich, 306).
The population studied encompassed directors in just a sample of the United Kingdom listed firms. The researchers were particularly concerned with the industrial affiliations, the stock market data and the accounting data when either a male or a female director was on board. This made a total of ninety-six paired managing directors. The researchers examined various compensation measures, performance measures and set up various controls to standardize the data. Data analysis was done by use of univariate nonparametric Wilcoxon method because many of the employees used in the study had not received any bonuses in that year of the study. The hypotheses were then tested on Tobit’s regression framework. The results of the study supported both hypotheses strongly. They show that there indeed exists a gender pay gap between males and females since female directors earn averagely nineteen percent less than their male counterparts. There is also evidence of little sensitivity in company performance of women directors’ pay compared to male one.
This document summarizes the current state of intersectionality research in work and organizations. It discusses how intersectionality has been defined and established as a framework to study inequality based on intersecting social identities like gender, race and class. While intersectionality research has flourished across disciplines, the document notes it has not been fully utilized in work and organization studies to explore power dynamics and systems of discrimination. The document outlines two approaches to intersectionality research in this field - one focusing on subjectivities and individual experiences, the other taking a more systemic view of how inequalities are institutionalized. It argues more work is needed using systemic frameworks like Holvino's model of simultaneity to further intersectionality research in contextualizing individual narratives within broader
This study examined the effects of a short-term international experience on group cohesion and dynamics among 14 business students who traveled to Costa Rica. Surveys and interviews were conducted before and after the trip to assess communication, comfort levels, efficacy, and social interactions within the whole class and individual project groups. While statistical analysis was not possible due to the small sample size, the data suggested the international experience improved relationships among students and overall group functioning.
This document summarizes a research article that assesses person-organization fit using a profile comparison approach. The researchers developed an instrument called the Organizational Culture Profile (OCP) to measure individual preferences for organizational culture types and the actual cultures of organizations. Results showed the OCP dimensions were interpretable and person-organization fit predicted later job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and actual employee turnover. This provided evidence for the importance of understanding the fit between individual preferences and organizational cultures.
Similar to Organizational commitment profiles and job satisfaction among Greek private and public sector employees (20)
The document discusses the "Dark Triad" personality traits that are commonly seen in economic criminals. It describes these traits as narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Economic criminals exhibit arrogance and a need for admiration from narcissism, see others as a means to an end from Machiavellianism, and are prone to lying, manipulation, and antisocial behaviors from psychopathy. The combination of these "Dark Triad" traits creates a socially malevolent character with a tendency toward dishonesty, self-interest, and criminal acts. The document argues that economic crimes are premeditated and intentional to gain personal satisfaction and status, not due to outside circumstances. It calls on society
Job satisfaction and organizational commitment in the private and public sect...Yannis Markovits
This study compared organizational commitment and job satisfaction between the private and public sectors in Greece. It found that in the public sector, affective commitment and normative commitment had stronger relationships with both extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction compared to the private sector. Specifically, higher levels of extrinsic and intrinsic satisfaction in the public sector led to increasing levels of affective and normative commitment. This is likely because the public sector provides greater extrinsic and intrinsic rewards and conditions, making employees feel higher satisfaction and commitment to remain. However, the study was limited by being cross-sectional and relying on self-reports.
Commitment profiles in Greece, 12th congreess of eawop, 2005Yannis Markovits
1) The study examined commitment profiles in Greece using two samples - private sector employees (Study 1) and public sector employees (Study 2).
2) Across both studies, employees who were highly committed and identified with their organizations reported higher job satisfaction, both intrinsically and extrinsically.
3) Profiles containing identification or affective commitment were linked to greater intrinsic satisfaction, while profiles without these components were more strongly associated with extrinsic satisfaction.
The document discusses teaching organization and lesson planning. It provides guidance on developing effective lesson plans in three stages: pre-lesson preparation including setting goals and understanding student entry levels, lesson planning and implementation including objectives and instructional procedures, and post-lesson activities such as evaluating lessons. The document emphasizes that lesson plans provide organization for managing classroom time and instruction, while allowing flexibility for teacher innovation. Precise preparation must allow for adaptive delivery.
Yannis Markovits_Seminar_The pedagogy of supervision, planning for effective ...Yannis Markovits
The document discusses various models and approaches to supervision, including the traditional expert-apprentice model and more collaborative approaches. It also describes the mentoring role of supervisors and the career and psychosocial functions mentors provide. The responsibilities of supervisors include regularly meeting with students, providing guidance on research design and methods, and maintaining open communication. Students are responsible for complying with research policies and developing a research plan and timeline in collaboration with supervisors.
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2. 78
International Journal of Cross Cultural Management 7(1)
This article examines the relationship
between organizational commitment and job
satisfaction in Greece. Greece is represented
in most major studies of cross cultural variation (Hofstede, 1980, 2001; House et al.,
2004), however organizational commitment
is barely reported from a Greek perspective.
Following on from Myloni et al.’s (2004)
identification of the culture-specific nature of
Greek human resource management (HRM)
practices, this article explores the outcomes
of these practices in terms of organizational
commitment and its relationship with job
satisfaction.
In line with recent developments, we take
the approach of exploring the role of commitment profiles (Meyer and Herscovitch,
2001). That is, the way in which different
commitment components combine to form
an overall pattern or profile of organizational
commitment, and how these profiles influence the outcomes of organizational commitment, specifically intrinsic and extrinsic job
satisfaction.
Finally, the article contrasts the responses
of employees in the public sector with those
in private sector employment in Greece.
These sectors have different implications
for the likely nature of commitment profiles
generated and for job satisfaction. However
the approach to employment in the two sectors in Greece differs markedly from the pattern normally expected in Western European
countries, which is also discussed.
Greek Context and Culture
Greece is rarely explored in management
research (Myloni et al., 2004; Papalexandris,
1992) although it is represented in major
studies of cross cultural variation. Indeed its
position in these studies is quite distinctive.
The GLOBE studies (Global Leadership and
Organizational Behavior Effectiveness; House
et al., 2004) locate Greece in the Eastern
Europe cluster, while Hofstede’s earlier work
(1980) locates Greece in a broadly ‘Near
Eastern’ cluster (see Ronen and Shenkar,
1985), including Arab countries, Spain, some
Latin American countries and Turkey.
Griffeth et al. (1985) cluster Greece with the
Latin European countries of Spain, Portugal
and Italy, and the Netherlands and Belgium.
In terms of the societal values, institutional
collectivism and uncertainty avoidance are
highly valued, while power distance and
assertiveness are less valued than in most of
the GLOBE participant countries. Of the
nine GLOBE dimensions, only gender egalitarianism is both highly valued and widely
practised in Greece. Societal practices (in
contrast to values) are reported to be high on
assertiveness and power distance, and low on
performance orientation, institutional collectivism, humane orientation and uncertainty
avoidance. Hofstede’s findings are largely
similar, although he reported high power distance being valued rather than just practised.
This shift from Hofstede’s study to the
GLOBE findings may be a function of the
economic development and related changes
that Greece has experienced in the past 30
years.
While Greek values have been explored,
the impact of this value set on organizational
outcomes has not, in contrast to its neighbour
Turkey, which has been the subject of an
extensive series of studies on organizational
commitment by Wasti (1998, 2003). The
cross cultural studies that have included
Greece reinforce the contrast between Greek
attitudes, decision-making style, values and
beliefs and those of more widely researched
contexts, primarily the UK and North
America (Schwartz, 1994). Bourantas et al.
(1990) argue that Greek management is
characterized by a fear of responsibility and a
low belief in others’ knowledge and capacity
– a characterization that accords with the
GLOBE data.
Green et al. (2005) clustered countries’
individualistic and collectivistic dimensions
on the basis of three attitudes: self-reliance
(an individualistic attitude), group-oriented
3. Markovits et al.: Organizational Commitment Profiles and Job Satisfaction 79
interdependence (a collectivistic attitude),
and competitiveness (an attitude that is both
individualistic and collectivist). Greece was
clustered into the self-reliant non-competitor
quadrant (together with Italy), whereas the
USA was on the borders of the interdependent competitor quadrant, and Turkey was
located in the self-reliant competitor quadrant. This seems to indicate an emergent
individualism within both Greece and
Turkey.
Taken as a whole, these and other studies
(e.g. Bond et al., 2004, Smith et al., 2002)
support the assertion that Greece is clearly
distinguishable from Anglo and East Asian
countries, but shares similarities with Latin,
Eastern European and Arabic countries.
Lammers and Hickson (1979) describe
Greece as akin to a typical bureaucracy, high
in power distance and with a strong rule orientation, the inverse of the Anglo pattern.
Kirkman and Shapiro (2001) argue that
there is a tendency for higher levels of collectivism to be associated with greater job satisfaction and organizational commitment, and
a tendency for lower levels of power distance
to be associated with higher levels of organizational commitment. Clugston et al. (2000)
argue that high power distance results in
strong relationships with continuance and
normative commitment but not affective
commitment; individuals high on uncertainty
avoidance develop continuance-type relationships across all foci; while collectivism
leads to more workgroup commitments as
well as normative commitments. According
to Smith et al. (2001) job satisfaction is
greater in individualistic than collectivist
nations, possibly due to greater economic
and social prosperity. Against this background, Greece would appear to be a good
socio-cultural context to further examine
organizational attitudes.
Organizational Commitment
and Commitment Profiles
Organizational commitment (OC) has been
a popular topic for research into work attitudes and behaviours in recent years (see
Meyer et al., 2002). It has been formulated in
a variety of ways, typically as a construct with
multiple components describing individuals’
feelings of attachment to, identification with
and obligation to the organization (e.g. Allen
and Meyer, 1990; Cook and Wall, 1980;
Mowday et al., 1979).
Cook and Wall (1980), working in a UK
context, view OC as the ‘feelings of attachment to the goals and values of the organization, . . . and attachment to the organization
for its own sake rather than for its strictly
instrumental values’ (p. 40). This attachment
takes three forms: identification (a feeling of
pride and belonging to the organization);
involvement (the willingness to invest personal
effort for the sake of the organization); and
loyalty (attachment and obligation towards
the organization). This is operationalized in
the British Organizational Commitment
Scale (BOCS), modelled on Mowday et al.’s
(1979) Organizational Commitment Questionnaire, and has been widely used in the
UK across a range of employment contexts
(e.g. Biggs and Swailes, 2006; Pendleton,
2003). Its psychometric properties have been
extensively tested: a recent study by Mathews
and Shepherd (2002) supported the threecomponent structure, although like Guest
and Peccei (1993) a decade earlier, cautions
remain regarding some negatively worded
items.
Internationally, the BOCS has been used
in the USA (Madsen et al., 2005), in Israel
(Bar-Hayim and Berman, 1992), and in
Australia (Albrecht and Travaglione, 2003),
however there are no reports of its use in the
Near East (Israel is located in the Latin
Europe cluster in the GLOBE studies and
tends more towards northern Europe in
Hofstede’s 1980 study).
4. 80
International Journal of Cross Cultural Management 7(1)
Allen and Meyer’s (1990) formulation
also proposes a three-component model:
affective commitment (employees remain
with the organization because they want to;
AC), continuance commitment (employees
remain because they need to; CC) and normative commitment (they remain because
they feel they ought to; NC). A self-report
measure of these three components has been
developed by Meyer et al. (1993).
The BOCS and Meyer and Allen’s conceptualization share an ‘affective’ component
(organizational identification or affective commitment), which is generally suggested to be
the main determinant of commitment-related
focal and discretionary behaviours (Meyer et
al., 2002). They also share a broadly normative component (NC or loyalty) emphasizing
mutual obligation. The remaining components (job involvement and continuance commitment) are not directly comparable.
Meyer et al.’s (1993) measure has been
researched extensively across cultures. Its construct validity has been demonstrated in
Europe (Vandenberghe, 1996; Vandenberghe
et al., 2001), Nepal (Gautam et al., 2001),
and the Middle East (Yousef, 2002), although
others question its validity in East Asian
samples (e.g. Chen and Francesco, 2003;
Cheng and Stockdale, 2003; Ko et al., 1997;
Lee et al., 2001). The debate continues as to
whether differences arise from translation
problems (Lee et al., 2001) or cultural differences in the OC construct: Wasti (2003)
demonstrated the importance of developing
‘emic’ items when assessing ‘etic’ OC constructs.
The antecedents of OC appear to vary
systematically with societal values, particularly collectivism. Wasti (2003) found that
satisfaction with work and promotions were
the strongest predictors of OC among individualists, whereas satisfaction with supervisor was an important predictor of OC among
collectivists. Across seven nations, Mesner
Andolsek and Stebe (2004) also found that
material job values (e.g. job quality) were
more predictive of OC in individualistic societies, whereas post-materialistic job values
(e.g. helping others) were more predictive of
OC in collectivistic societies.
Research on the consequences of OC has
found that OC in general is a more powerful
predictor of job performance in nations
scoring high on collectivism (Jaramillo et al.,
2005). Meyer et al. (2002) report AC in
particular to be a powerful predictor of job
outcomes in the (individualistic) US, with NC
becoming more important elsewhere (see
Gautam et al., 2005; Wasti, 2003).
Recent theoretical developments (Gellatly
et al., 2004; Meyer and Herscovitch, 2001;
Wasti, 2005) have begun to emphasize the
importance of overall commitment profiles.
This goes beyond the extent to which individual components of commitment relate to
other variables, to looking at the combinations of those components and how they
interact as a whole to influence focal and discretionary outcomes. A review of the literature identified only limited research on commitment profiles and their work-related
implications, and these have adopted Allen
and Meyer’s (1990) approach to OC. Until
recently such studies have limited themselves
to exploring only two-way interactions
among the three forms of OC. For example,
Meyer et al. (1989) and Randall et al. (1990)
associated the components of organizational
commitment with job performance and
behavioural manifestations of job attitude.
Both studies reported differences in the
correlations of each component of commitment with the predictor variables, and some
two-way interactions, but neither examined
three-way interactions. Subsequently, Somers
(1995) identified that while AC was the sole
predictor of turnover and absenteeism, when
observed in conjunction with NC a positive
relationship with intent to remain emerged; a
two-way interaction. However, the statistically significant relationships among the
variables were modest. Similar results were
found by Jaros (1997), where turnover inten-
5. Markovits et al.: Organizational Commitment Profiles and Job Satisfaction 81
tions were more strongly correlated with AC
than with either NC or CC. In China, Cheng
and Stockdale (2003) found that NC reduced
the relationship between CC and job satisfaction, and Chen and Francesco (2003)
found that NC moderated the impact of AC
on organizational citizenship behaviour and
performance, providing support for the primacy of NC in non-western cultures.
In their 2001 article, Meyer and Herscovitch proposed eight theoretically distinguishable commitment profiles, derived from
splitting each component into high or low
scores (2 × 2 × 2). The existence of ‘pure’
affective commitment was suggested to create the highest levels of both focal and discretionary behaviours, followed by those
cases where AC is accompanied by high
levels of either NC or CC, or both.
Herscovitch and Meyer (2002) report three
studies exploring this model, demonstrating
that commitment to change was positively
correlated with compliance with the requirements of change. However cooperation and
championing of change were only correlated
with AC and NC. Overall, both articles
supported the view that AC by itself or in
conjunction with NC were the best predictors of positive organizational behaviours.
Continuing this line of research, Gellatly
et al. (2004) explored the association between
intention to stay and OC among Canadian
hospital staff. They report that intention to
stay was strong when any one component of
commitment was strong and the other two
components weak. They further reported
that normative commitment could take
different forms depending on its context. In
conjunction with low affective commitment
and high continuance commitment, normative commitment reduced the display of discretionary behaviours. When coupled with
high levels of affective commitment however,
normative commitment increased the likelihood of engaging in discretionary behaviour.
In the first reported replication of the
profiles approach outside North America,
Wasti (2005) adopts a clustering procedure
rather than explicitly exploring eight theoretically constructed profiles. This procedure
identified six distinguishable commitment
profiles in her Turkish data: the highly committed, the non-committed, the neutral, the
affective dominant, the continuance dominant and the affective-normative dominant.
Despite the difference in approach, Wasti’s
analysis indicated that, in line with previous
findings, the best job-related outcomes for
both employee and employer were exhibited
where affective commitment was high. Specifically the highly committed group (high on
all three commitment components), and
the affective-normative dominant group displayed significantly lower levels of turnover
intention, and the affective-normative dominant group showed significantly more loyal
boosterism (defending the organization
against co-worker criticism) than all other
groups except the highly committed group.
This contrasting approach lends further
support to the case for a distinctive contribution of a profile-based interpretation of commitment. The current article returns to
the original approach from Meyer and
Herscovitch (2001), statistically generating
eight theoretically feasible groups within a
three-component model. However, it explores
two different three-component models of
commitment, those of Cook and Wall (1980)
and Allen and Meyer (1990; Meyer et al.,
1993), in terms of their relationships to
intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction.
Job Satisfaction and
Organizational Commitment
Job satisfaction is one of the most widely
researched concepts in organizational behaviour, although to date no studies have been
published linking it to commitment profiles.
Job satisfaction is typically construed either
as an affective or emotional attitude of an
individual towards his or her job (James and
Jones, 1980) or as a general attitude towards
6. 82
International Journal of Cross Cultural Management 7(1)
a job and some particular aspects of it
(Knoop, 1995). We take the position that job
satisfaction has two facets relating to the
extrinsic and intrinsic features of a job
(Cooper-Hakim and Viswesvaran, 2005), a
formulation that can be traced back to
Herzberg (1968). Extrinsic job satisfaction
relates to satisfaction with, for example, pay,
physical conditions of the organizational
environment, human resource management
policies and procedures, interpersonal relationships, and so on. Intrinsic job satisfaction
represents an employee’s satisfaction with the
non-monetary, qualitative aspects of work,
such as creativity, opportunity to develop,
ability utilization, feelings of personal achievement and accomplishment, and so on. These
features are internal to a particular job and
are viewed and felt individually and differently by each employee (Arvey et al., 1989).
An examination of the relationships
between organizational commitment and its
forms, and job satisfaction and its facets,
demonstrates consistent and significant correlations, in particular with respect to the
affective component of commitment. The
meta-analysis by Meyer et al. (2002) reports
strong correlations between affective commitment and overall job satisfaction (ρ =
0.65), extrinsic satisfaction (ρ = 0.71) and
intrinsic satisfaction (ρ = 0.68). These relationships have been shown to be influenced
by cultural context.
Differences between Public
and Private Sector in Greece
One final dimension of this study relates to
the impact of the employment sector on
commitment and job satisfaction. There are
significant differences in the nature of employment in the public and private sectors in
Greece, which are likely to have different
implications for the nature of commitment
and the commitment profiles generated.
Therefore it is appropriate to explore these
sectoral differences and speculate on the
likely impact on commitment profiles that
they may generate. Reports of differences in
attitudes among public and private sector
employees abound. For example, in Israel,
Solomon (1986) reports that performancebased rewards and policies intending to promote efficiency lead to higher job satisfaction
among private than public sector managers.
Karl and Sutton (1998) found that private
sector employees placed higher value on
good wages, while public sector employees
valued interesting work. Naff and Crum
(1999) reached similar conclusions, identifying the different values and responses to different incentives between the sectors in the
USA.
With respect to organizational commitment, studies using the OCQ and the BOCS
highlight that Australian private sector
employees were more committed than their
public sector counterparts (Rachid, 1995).
Cho and Lee (2001) argue that organizational culture and societal values determined
the differences in commitment between
public and private sector managers in South
Korea. Goulet and Frank (2002), reporting
on findings from the OCQ in the USA, identified lowest levels of organizational commitment in the public sector, with higher
levels in the non-profit sector and still higher
levels of commitment in the for-profit sector.
The only study examining the differences
between private and public sector employees
in Greece was conducted by Bourantas and
Papalexandris (1999). They showed that,
apart from the structural and environmental
differences exemplified between the private
and the public sector, there were also differences in the personality characteristics of the
people attracted to each sector. In general,
Bourantas and Papalexandris argued that
private sector employees tended to display
higher levels of activity, a greater sense of
competence, more tolerance of ambiguity, a
stronger work ethic and higher growth need,
all of which were believed to contribute to
higher job performance. They conclude that
7. Markovits et al.: Organizational Commitment Profiles and Job Satisfaction 83
the public organization’s context tended to
attract people with certain characteristics,
and that these characteristics did not promote positive work-related attitudes and
behaviours. In summary, private and public
sector employees project different attitudes
and behaviours towards their organizations
and jobs; however, specific influences on
organizational commitment, job satisfaction
and their relationships remain unexplored.
Substantial differences in employment
relationships, status, wages, fringe benefits,
and HRM exemplify differences between
private and public sector employment in
Greece. Table 1 summarizes the most important and significant of these differences
(derived from Papapetrou, 2006; Sotirakou
and Zeppou, 2005). Unusually, the starting
wage for Greek public sector employees is
higher than for the private sector, and given
its stability of employment and guarantee of
pay increases, it is a highly attractive career
choice for young Greeks. Private sector
employment offers greater potential rewards,
but at greater risk.
This research represents the first attempt
at exploring commitment profiles among
Greek employees. It also provides an analysis
of the nature of organizational commitment
in Greece and its relationships to job satisfaction, and an exploration of the impact of the
employment sector on commitment and job
satisfaction.
Two studies are reported, one based in
the private sector and one in the public sector. Greek translations of Cook and Wall’s
(1980) BOCS and Meyer et al.’s (1993) organizational commitment questionnaire are
used. Initially, the two samples are analysed
separately to explore the roles of commitment profiles derived from Cook and Wall’s
model in influencing job satisfaction in the
private and the public sectors. This analysis is
then repeated for the public sector sample
alone, using Meyer et al.’s scales. Conclusions are drawn regarding the development
of organizational commitment profiles to
enhance satisfaction and motivation at work.
From the information presented so far a
number of hypotheses can be generated
regarding the nature of organizational commitment in Greece. Three hypotheses can be
identified with respect to the likely impact of
commitment profiles on reported job satisfaction among Greek employees. Looking
first at the BOCS measure, high levels of
organizational identification, job involvement and loyalty are likely to result in
satisfaction with both the intrinsic and the
extrinsic aspects of a job:
Hypothesis 1a: Employees will be most satisfied,
both extrinsically and intrinsically, if they are
totally organizationally committed (i.e. have high
scores on all three components: organizational
identification, job involvement and loyalty)
compared to all other profiles.
Even if employees are not involved or
loyal to their organization, the dominance of
the affective aspect of commitment (organizational identification) in predicting workrelated outcomes suggests that where identification is present, higher satisfaction will be
found:
Hypothesis 1b: Employees reporting high levels
of identification will exhibit higher mean values for extrinsic and intrinsic satisfaction than
those reporting low identification, irrespective
of loyalty and job involvement.
While the nature of organizational commitment and job satisfaction between public
and private sector employees in Greece may
vary in degree, it is unlikely that it will vary
in type. Therefore these hypotheses hold
equally for both private and public sector
employees. However, the role of loyalty may
differ by sector. In particular, public sector
employees are expected to both value and
express greater loyalty to their organization,
given the stability of employment and the
high cost of leaving:
Hypothesis 1c: Public sector employees will
report higher levels of extrinsic and intrinsic
satisfaction when loyalty is high than when
loyalty is low.
8. 84
International Journal of Cross Cultural Management 7(1)
Table 1
Contrasting approaches to employment in the Greek private and public sectors
Private sector
Public sector
Loyalty
To the private sector employer
To the government and the State. The
new entrant gives an oath to the Greek
Constitution
Employment
contract
Individual-, company- or
sector-based
Government, regional government,
local government-based
Employment status
Contracted employment (mainly
fixed term; rarely without time
restriction)
Life-time and secured employment
Type of employment
Full-time, part-time and flexi-time
Full-time
Hours of work
Mainly 40 hours per week, but
varies from sector to sector
37.5 hours per week
Policies and
procedures
Determined by each private sector
organization
Determined by law and applied to all
employees
Wages determination Individual, enterprise or branch
collective agreements – minimum
wages are not guaranteed across
sector
National collective agreement –
minimum wages are guaranteed
everywhere in the public sector
Fringe benefits
Not provided to everyone
Provided to everyone by law and
collective agreements
Wage progression
Determined by each private
Determined by seniority and
sector organization (according to
educational background
merits, achievements, company needs)
Entrance wage
Around 600 euros per month for a
full-time employee
Around 900 euros for all employees
Wage differentials
by rank
Substantial
Marginal and provided as a fringe
benefit
Hierarchical
progression
Unclear, depends from each
particular organization
After 12 years of public service an
employee may become departmental
manager
Unionization
Dependent on the industry.
Generally low
Essential for everyone
Training and
development
Dependent on the company.
Generally rare and unscheduled
Scheduled and organized by the
National Centre for Public
Administration and Local Government
Performance
evaluation and
assessment
Unclear and unsystematic,
dependent on organization
Typically annually
9. Markovits et al.: Organizational Commitment Profiles and Job Satisfaction 85
Turning to the Meyer et al. (1993) measure of commitment, comparable hypotheses
can be generated. The direct association
identified earlier between organizational
identification and affective commitment
would suggest a similar pattern should occur
with respect to affective commitment as for
identification:
Hypothesis 2a: Employees will be most satisfied,
both extrinsically and intrinsically, if they are
totally organizationally committed (i.e. have high
scores on all three components: affective, continuous and normative commitment), compared to all other profiles.
Hypothesis 2b: Employees reporting high levels
of affective commitment will exhibit higher
mean values for extrinsic and intrinsic satisfaction than those reporting low affective commitment, irrespective of levels of normative
and continuance commitment
In the literature drawing on Meyer et al.’s
model, affective and normative commitment
are highly correlated, and normative commitment displays similar but distinguishable
patterns of association with antecedent and
consequential variables. Given the importance of job security in Greece and the way
in which normative commitment recognizes
the binding of the employee to the organization through a sense of obligation and its
tendency to be more strongly represented
within more collectivist cultures, we put forward:
Hypothesis 2c: Public sector employees who
report high levels of normative commitment
will report higher mean values for extrinsic
and intrinsic satisfaction, irrespective of the
value of continuance commitment.
Method
Data Collection and Samples
Data were collected from two different sets of
participants. The first was a random sample
of 1119 non-supervisory employees from 35
private sector organizations in the Northern
Central Greece, surveyed with the assistance
of business students from the Technological
Educational Institute of Thessaloniki. Participants’ organizations ranged from family
owned small businesses to medium-sized
industrial or commercial enterprises, producing a response rate of 69%. A little less than
half the sample (45.3%) were male, with a
mean age of 33 years and mean organizational tenure of 6 years. Educational achievement was varied, with 38.2% having completed secondary education, 29.3% having
attended a technological educational institute, and 23.8% being university graduates.
The second set of data were collected
from a random sample of 476 public sector
employees from Northern Greece, working
in government authorities, customs and public health care. The response rate from the
different areas of public sector employment
ranged from 61% to 85%. Approximately
40% of this sample were non-supervisory
employees, while the remainder were mainly
middle-level supervisors. All were employed
in secure, primarily white-collar civil service
employment. Again slightly less than half the
sample (47.3%) were male, with the mean
age being 41 years and the average tenure 11
years. Education level was generally higher
than in the private sector sample, with 11.6%
achieving only secondary education, 21.4%
technological educational institute and 67%
university graduates.
Measures
All scales used were translated into Greek, in
some cases with minor modifications providing explanations of the concepts under study.
The job satisfaction measure was based on
the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
(MSQ) (Weiss et al., 1967) coupled with the
questionnaire developed by Warr et al.
(1979). In total 21 items were included, each
scored on a 7-point scale (endpoints 1 = I am
very dissatisfied, 7 = I am very satisfied). The
scale is divided into two facets: extrinsic satisfaction (e.g. wage level, security and safety
offered by the job), and intrinsic satisfaction
10. <.01
<.01
<.01
.30**
.65** .57**
4.64
4.18
4.45
1.14
1.06
1.25
.64
.56
.64
.61** .58**
.18** .26** .28**
.51** .48** .64**
.38**
5.65
4.83
7.91
.71
<.01
0.37
2.86
4.62
4.76
1.00
1.08
.83
.88
.68**
2
.67**
.18**
.51**
.62**
.19**
.52**
.77**
1.11
1.06
1.16
4.29
3.90
3.92
.83
.89
0.98
1.10
4.60
4.59
.61
.55
.54
1
α
2
1
SD
Mean
α
(e.g. opportunity to use one’s own abilities,
feelings of accomplishment). For the public
sector sample, two additional items relating
to satisfaction with industrial relations and
with the trade union were included in the
extrinsic satisfaction scale.
The measure of organizational commitment taken across both samples was the
BOCS (Cook and Wall, 1980), with additional items taken from Lawler and Hall
(1970), Mowday et al. (1979), and Buchanan
(1974). This scale produced three sub-scales
each comprising four items: organizational
identification (e.g. ‘I am proud to say who it
is I work for’), job involvement (e.g. ‘As soon
as the job is finished I leave work’, reversed)
and loyalty (e.g. ‘Even if there are financial
difficulties in the organization, I would be
reluctant to leave’). All items were scored on
a 7-point scale (endpoints 1 = complete disagreement and 7 = complete agreement).
Negatively worded statements were reverse
coded for the purposes of analysis. One
item from the job involvement scale was subsequently deleted to improve the reliability
of the overall scale. Karassavidou and
Markovits (1994) report on previous use and
testing of these scales in Greece.
For the public sector sample, Meyer et
al.’s (1993) organizational commitment scale
was also included in the measurement instrument. This scale comprises 18 items, six for
each of the three commitment components
(affective, normative and continuance commitment). Items again were scored on a
7-point scale (endpoints 1 = complete disagreement and 7 = complete agreement).
Note: ** p < .01 (two-tailed).
1. Extrinsic satisfaction
2. Intrinsic satisfaction
3. Organizational
identification
4. Job involvement
5. Loyalty
Results
Variables
Private sector N = 1119
3
4
Mean
SD
Public sector N = 476
3
4
t
t-tests
p
International Journal of Cross Cultural Management 7(1)
Table 2 Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients), Pearson correlations and t-tests for common
variables by sector
86
Table 2 provides descriptive statistics, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients and inter-correlations for the job satisfaction and BOCS scales
across the two samples. All commitment
measures were significantly higher in the
public than the private sector (p < .01 in all
cases), and levels of identification were higher
11. Markovits et al.: Organizational Commitment Profiles and Job Satisfaction 87
Table 3
Distribution of commitment profiles (Cook and Wall, 1980)
Low
Organizational identification
High
Job involvement
Low
High
Low
High
Low
P1
N (pri) = 276
N (pub) = 141
“Totally
Uncommitted”
P2
N (pri) = 154
N (pub) = 35
P5
N (pri) = 115
N (pub) = 33
P6
N (pri) = 67
N (pub) = 23
High
P3
N (pri) = 67
N (pub) = 36
P4
N (pri) = 89
N (pub) = 31
P7
N (pri) = 113
N (pub) = 75
P8
N (pri) = 237
N (pub) = 102
“Totally
Organizationally
Committed”
Loyalty
than those of job involvement and loyalty.
Loyalty was more prevalent in the public
sector sample than involvement, whereas in
the private sector sample both were equally
depressed. Levels of extrinsic satisfaction did
not vary significantly between the public
and private sectors, whereas public sector
respondents were significantly more intrinsically satisfied with their jobs.
Taking the BOCS data, eight theoretically meaningful profiles were generated using
median splits on each of the three commitment components (see Table 3). This procedure was carried out independently for the
public and private sector samples and separate analyses are reported.
Profile P8 represents what is identified in
Hypothesis 1a as ‘total organizational commitment’. Respondents with this profile are
expected to demonstrate the highest levels of
satisfaction. All profiles to the right of the
table (P5–P8) include high organizational
identification. According to Hypothesis 1b,
these profiles should produce higher levels of
satisfaction than cells P1–P4 where organizational identification is low.
Two three-way analyses of variance were
performed on each data set, with extrinsic
and intrinsic satisfaction as the dependent
variables, and level of each commitment
component (high or low) as the three independent variables. These produced the
results shown in Tables 4a and 4b. Figures 1a
and 1b illustrate the group means.
While main effects for identification and
loyalty and a few two-way interactions were
evident, these effects were qualified by the
predicted significant three-way interaction.
Looking first at the private sector profiles, the
significance of both three-way interaction
terms indicates that variation in both extrinsic and intrinsic satisfaction can be interpreted on the basis of the commitment
profiles. The organizational commitment
profile with the highest levels of both extrinsic and intrinsic satisfaction was the totally
organizationally committed profile (P8), supporting Hypothesis 1a. The next highest
profiles were those incorporating high organizational identification and one or other
component (P5–P7), supporting Hypothesis
1b. Employees with the non-committed
12. 88
International Journal of Cross Cultural Management 7(1)
Table 4a
Analysis of variance for private sector (BOCS)
Variables
df
Extrinsic
satisfaction
OI
JI
LO
OI × JI
OI × LO
JI × LO
OI × JI × LO
F
p
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
7, 1118
27689.04
206.76
.07
43.85
.00
4.79
.50
9.30
.00
.00
.80
.00
1.00
.03
.48
.00
Variables
Intrinsic
satisfaction
OI
JI
LO
OI × JI
OI × LO
JI × LOC
OI × JI × LO
df
F
p
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
7, 1119
24047.06
298.59
.23
35.94
2.70
.00
.00
20.78
.00
.00
.63
.00
.10
.99
.96
.00
df
F
p
Note: OI = Organizational identification, JI = Job involvement, LO = Loyalty.
Table 4b
Analysis of variance for public sector (BOCS)
Variables
Extrinsic
satisfaction
OI
JI
LO
OI × JI
OI × LO
JI × LO
OI × JI × LO
df
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
7, 476
F
9862.32
68.55
2.89
28.08
1.12
.10
2.98
4.92
p
Variables
.00
.00
.09
.00
.29
.92
.09
.03
Intrinsic
satisfaction
OI
JI
LO
OI × JI
OI × LO
JI × LOC
OI × JI × LO
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
7, 476
8713.85
77.19
2.75
11.59
.25
.17
1.08
.48
.00
.00
.10
.00
.62
.68
.30
.49
Note: OI = Organizational identification, JI = Job involvement, LO = Loyalty.
profile (P1) were the least satisfied. In other
words, a commitment profile containing job
involvement related to low satisfaction levels,
whereas a profile also containing organizational identification related to high satisfaction levels. Furthermore, high extrinsic
satisfaction levels were exhibited with the
commitment profile P7, incorporating high
levels of both identification and loyalty, but
in contrast high intrinsic satisfaction levels
were found in the commitment profile P5
with high levels only of identification. Finally,
all profiles that did not contain organizational identification – that is, P1 to P4 – had
lower mean values for both extrinsic and
intrinsic satisfaction, compared with those
profiles that included the element of identification. These low satisfaction profiles tended
to be relatively higher on extrinsic satisfaction than intrinsic satisfaction.
In the public sector sample, only the
three-way interaction term for extrinsic
satisfaction achieved significance. Again, the
organizational commitment profile representing total organizational commitment (P8)
was associated with the highest levels of both
extrinsic and intrinsic satisfaction. As with the
private sector sample, organizational identification makes the largest difference to the
commitment profiles. Its existence in P7 and
13. Markovits et al.: Organizational Commitment Profiles and Job Satisfaction 89
6
5.5
Extrinsic satisfaction
5
Intrinsic satisfaction
4.5
4
3.5
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
P8
Commitment profile
Figure 1a Mean satisfaction values for commitment profiles in the private sector (Cook and
Wall, 1980)
6
5.5
Extrinsic satisfaction
5
Intrinsic satisfaction
4.5
4
3.5
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
P8
Commitment profile
Figure 1b Mean satisfaction values for commitment profiles in the public sector (Cook and
Wall, 1980)
14. 90
International Journal of Cross Cultural Management 7(1)
P5 created very high levels of extrinsic satisfaction. However, in this sample, profile P3,
representing only high levels of loyalty, was
also associated with high levels of satisfaction,
particularly extrinsic satisfaction. Finally, the
non-committed profile (P1), as well as profiles
containing job involvement but not organizational identification (P2 and P4), showed low
levels of extrinsic satisfaction. These results
only partially support the hypotheses since
the relationships were only valid for extrinsic
satisfaction. It appears however that, in contrast to the private sector results, loyalty is
much more important in determining satisfaction than organizational identification, so
broadly supporting Hypothesis 1c. This may
be associated with the higher levels of loyalty
associated with public sector employment as
compared with the private sector in Greece.
The requirement to swear an oath to the
employer, coupled with the extensive benefits
and job and career security offered by the
public sector may enhance the role of loyalty
for this group. Finally, job involvement had a
rather negative effect on satisfaction; profiles
containing this variable tended to produce
lower levels of satisfaction.
Overall, these findings support the usefulness of the ‘profiles’ approach to interpreting
organizational commitment. Eight viable
profiles were identified within the sample.
The totally organizationally committed profile (P8) was associated with the highest levels
of satisfaction, while profiles containing organizational identification all generated higher
levels of satisfaction than those without identification. The existence of job involvement
within a commitment profile does not appear
to make people satisfied with their jobs.
Profiles without identification tended to be
higher on extrinsic satisfaction than intrinsic
satisfaction in the private sector, but higher
on intrinsic than extrinsic satisfaction in the
public sector.
The final set of analyses presented here
relate to Hypotheses 2a to 2c, using the
Meyer et al. (1993) measures of organiza-
tional commitment, thus replicating Gellatly
et al.’s (2004) study. The same measures of
job satisfaction were used. The descriptive
statistics, reliability coefficients and intercorrelations are shown in Table 5.
The same procedure was used to test
these hypotheses as described above. The difference here is that the eight theoretically
meaningful profiles were derived from the
Allen and Meyer (1990) model (see Table 6).
The results of the three-way analyses of
variance are shown in Table 7, with Figure 2
illustrating the mean values for extrinsic
satisfaction and intrinsic satisfaction by commitment profile.
Using this formulation of organizational
commitment, both three-way interactions
were statistically significant. As in the previous analyses, totally organizationally committed employees (C8) were both the most
extrinsically and intrinsically satisfied, supporting Hypothesis 2a. Those profiles containing high affective commitment (C5–C7)
had high mean satisfaction values, supporting Hypothesis 2b. Finally, all commitment
profiles containing normative commitment
exhibited higher mean values for both facets
of job satisfaction than the profiles containing
continuance commitment, providing support
for Hypothesis 2c.
Discussion
In the present article, we examined the relationships between organizational commitment and job satisfaction in Greece, using
an approach based on exploring profiles of
commitment as suggested by Meyer and
Herscovitch (2001). We first identified patterns of organizational commitment and job
satisfaction in the Greek private and public
sectors, and went on to explore the relationships between commitment profiles and job
satisfaction, using two different approaches
to the measurement of organizational commitment.
Greece is an under-researched cultural
15. Markovits et al.: Organizational Commitment Profiles and Job Satisfaction 91
Table 5 Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients) and
correlations among the Meyer et al. (1993) commitment variables (public sector)
Variables
Mean
St.dev.
a
1
2
3
4
4.62
4.76
4.76
4.82
4.27
1.00
1.08
1.19
1.03
1.18
.83
.88
.82
.66
.75
.68**
.42**
.04
.36**
.53**
.01
.34**
.05
.66**
.23**
1. Extrinsic satisfaction
2. Intrinsic satisfaction
3. Affective commitment
4. Continuance commitment
5. Normative commitment
Note: ** p < .01(two-tailed).
Table 6
Distribution of commitment profiles (Meyer et al., 1993)
Affective commitment
Low
Continuance
commitment
High
Table 7
Variables
High
Low
High
Low
Normative
commitment
Low
C1
(N = 96)
“Totally
Uncommitted”
C2
(N = 77)
C5
(N = 42)
C6
(N = 26)
High
C3
(N = 19)
C4
(N = 39)
C7
(N = 81)
C8
(N = 96)
“Totally
Organizationally
Committed”
Analysis of variance for public sector (Meyer et al., 1993)
df
Extrinsic
satisfaction
1
AC
1
CC
1
NC
1
AC × CC
1
AC × NC
1
CC × NC
1
AC × CC × NC 7, 476
F
8396.30
28.96
.06
5.84
.01
.00
.53
5.19
p
Variables
df
.00
.00
.80
.02
.91
.99
.47
.02
Intrinsic
satisfaction
1
AC
1
CC
1
NC
1
AC × CC
1
AC × NC
1
CC × NC
1
AC × CC × NC 7, 476
F
8726.23
55.79
4.82
12.56
.50
.77
.00
13.10
Note: AC = Affective commitment, CC = Continuance commitment, NC = Normative commitment.
p
.00
.00
.03
.00
.48
.38
.97
.00
16. 92
International Journal of Cross Cultural Management 7(1)
6
5.5
Extrinsic satisfaction
5
Intrinsic satisfaction
4.5
4
3.5
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
C8
Commitment profile
Figure 2
1993)
Mean satisfaction values for commitment profiles in the public sector (Meyer et al.,
context in relation to both organizational
commitment and job satisfaction. The data
reported here indicate that organizational
commitment is significantly higher in the
public than in the private sector in Greece.
This contrasts with the Australian findings of
Rachid (1995), and with Goulet and Frank’s
(2002) American study, perhaps reinforcing
the contrast between Anglo and Greek cultures identified earlier, but also permitting an
institutional interpretation based on the construction of Greek public life. In both the
public and private sectors, organizational
identification is the strongest component,
reflecting the collectivistic orientation of
Greek society reported initially by Hofstede
(1980) but also more recently by House et al.
(2004). Public sector employment conditions
are more closely aligned to Greek societal
values, providing job security and structured
progression and development, meeting uncertainty avoidance needs. Predictable progression within the public sector reinforces
the widely practised but less socially valued
power distance orientation. Private sector
employment in contrast tends to be more
short term and insecure, resulting in significantly lower levels of both intrinsic satisfaction and all components of organizational
commitment than the public sector. This is
even more prevalent at times when unemployment rates are high, currently around
10% for the total workforce and over 25%
for workers under 25 years old.
The relatively high levels of loyalty (or
normative commitment) reported in the public sector again reflect the institutional collectivism orientation reported in the GLOBE
study. The overt expression of loyalty to the
Greek constitution required of the new
entrant, and national collective agreements
covering wages and other benefits, further
reinforce this value, while in the broader
society its practice is generally less apparent.
Although private sector employment is
covered by collective agreements, the small
size of typical Greek businesses tends to promote local agreements and HR practice. The
17. Markovits et al.: Organizational Commitment Profiles and Job Satisfaction 93
low performance orientation in practice
reported by GLOBE also tallies with the
relatively lower job involvement ratings
found in both sectors.
Overall therefore, it appears that the
degree of congruence between sectoral and
societal values and practices relates to individual outcomes of commitment and intrinsic
satisfaction. Close alignment of these values
may account for the significantly higher level
of intrinsic satisfaction and all components of
commitment within the public sector sample
than in the private sector. The lack of significant difference in extrinsic satisfaction
between public and private sector employees
may say more about the uniqueness of Greek
society. Both Karl and Sutton’s (1998) and
Naff and Crum’s (1999) work suggest that
there should be significant differences
between public and private sector employees
on both intrinsic and extrinsic satisfaction
measures. The wage structure of the Greek
public sector may be the counterbalance
this suggestion, however further research is
needed to confirm this.
Moving on to the profiles analyses of the
two samples, the results provide considerable
support for this approach to the interpretation of the influence of organizational commitment on job satisfaction. Both sets of data
support the view that the ‘totally organizationally committed’ employee is likely to be
more satisfied with his or her job, irrespective
of where he or she works, and that an
employee who identifies with the organization (shows affective commitment) is likely to
be more satisfied than one who does not,
again irrespective of employment sector.
Low job satisfaction was the most likely
outcome for individuals who were either
uncommitted or only displayed job involvement (or continuance commitment). Perhaps
most specifically for the Greek context, public sector employees were likely to be highly
satisfied with their job when their commitment profile was high on loyalty or normative commitment, even if identification or
affective commitment was low. This trend,
while visible, was not so marked in the private sector where loyalty is neither rewarded
nor offered.
This work lends support to the contention
that commitment needs to be considered as
a whole, irrespective of the formulation of
commitment being used, and not merely
broken down into constituent parts. In line
with both Herscovitch and Meyer (2002) and
Wasti (2005), the dominant influence of the
affective component of commitment in producing organizationally positive work-related
attitudes was confirmed. These authors have
previously identified the importance of this
component for the promotion of positive jobrelated behaviours. Our data confirm that
these profiles also produce the most positive
job-related attitudes.
Adopting a profiles approach to the study
of organizational commitment does present a
number of methodological difficulties. In
particular, in order to ensure sufficient distinctions between the eight proposed profiles,
and to detect three-way interactions, large
samples and sufficient variability are required
in all three commitment components. With
the large data sets used here, within both
samples it was possible to extract the eight
proposed profiles in sufficient numbers. Only
one group (C3) contained fewer than 20
respondents. The replication of findings across
sectors further supports the generalizability
of the results.
These findings have implications for
human resource management specialists and
practitioners. Primarily, the importance of
seeking to develop affective commitment or
organizational identification is highlighted.
Initiatives that seek to emphasize the economic implications of leaving the organization (i.e. associated with continuance commitment) may be not only ineffective but
actually detrimental to positive organizational outcomes. If the key variable is the
extent to which the individual wants to stay
in the organization, emphasizing the costs
18. 94
International Journal of Cross Cultural Management 7(1)
associated with leaving the organization,
through for example manipulation of reward
systems, may undermine the sense of emotional attachment. Thus it is the manager’s
job to create and develop organizational
environments and jobs that will enable
employees to feel attached to their organization. While the primacy of the affective
aspect of commitment appears to be universal, the significance of cultural values, in
particular collectivism and uncertainty avoidance, may be of more significance in impacting on normative commitment or loyalty. In
the Greek context, given the importance of
the loyalty component of commitment,
stability of employment and career structure
would seem to be significant for all employees. However, this may be difficult to
achieve in a climate where unemployment
rates remain high, consumption rates and
patterns are rather low and the growth rates
of the total Greek economy does not exceed
3% per annum. Accepting that total organizational commitment produces positive outcomes, emphasizing security and order
may be a more effective lever for increasing
organizational commitment in collectivist
cultures high in uncertainty avoidance than
in more individualist contexts.
Limitations of the Study
This study related commitment profiles to
job satisfaction, and not to focal and discretionary behaviours as exhibited in most of
the relatively few studies conducted so far.
The major limitation of this research is
the cross-sectional data generated in selfreported questionnaires that raise the potential for common-method variance. However,
it is difficult to envisage a way in which individual attitudes such as job satisfaction can
be assessed other than through self-report.
This is less of a problem, however, for our
hypothesized interaction effects. Commonmethod variance cannot account for interactions but rather leads to an underestimation of statistical interactions (McClelland
and Judd, 1993). Despite the mono-source
design, we may therefore have some confidence in the interactions obtained.
The data were generated from convenience sampling of public and private sector
employees. This also may limit the generalizability of the findings, although the large
sample sizes could mediate this shortcoming.
One further issue arising from this sampling
approach is that the public sector sample
includes supervisory and middle management employees, while the private sector
sample comprises only non-supervisory participants. Therefore it could be suggested
that the differences observed between public
and private sector participants in fact stem
from status and hierarchical variation. It is
not possible to test this proposition with the
data available, but it should be controlled for
in future studies.
One feature that has perhaps not been
sufficiently explored in this article, however,
is the extent to which the direct translation of
scales might introduce error. While the translation processes were checked for accuracy,
the interpretation of the construct under
study may not be so direct. Items generated
in an English-speaking frame might be interpreted differently from a Greek perspective:
they might be difficult to understand or interpret for such a different audience. This
may also go some way towards explaining
the relatively modest internal reliabilities
reported for the organizational identification,
job involvement and loyalty sub-scales.
Clearly there is a judgement to be made
between identifying culturally appropriate
‘emic’ measures, and enabling direct comparisons of data through direct translation of
measures assumed to be ‘etic’ (Vandenberghe, 2003). This study has opted to
pursue the latter line; however underlying
interpretation of the issues associated with
organizational commitment in a Greek context requires further investigation.
19. Markovits et al.: Organizational Commitment Profiles and Job Satisfaction 95
Directions for Future Research
This research verifies the conceptual framework developed by Meyer and Herscovitch
(2001), however it raises issues that need
further investigation. These are: (1) an examination of commitment profiles with respect
to focal and discretionary behaviours in
Greece; (2) a study of the forms of commitment as predictors of more specific job attitudes, such as satisfaction from payment or
satisfaction from job security, or as predictors
of employee performance; and (3) a culturally specific analysis and interpretation of the
meaning of organizational commitment in
Greece, as highlighted above. The first of
these proposals requires an extension of the
current work in line with other published
work focusing on behavioural rather than
attitudinal outcomes of commitment. This
would also in due course overcome the difficulties of common-method variance highlighted in the previous section. The second
suggestion represents an elaboration of the
constructs already under study.
The third proposition, however, poses
more significant difficulties. The local meaning of organizational commitment may not
be captured by either Cook and Wall’s (1980)
or Meyer et al.’s (1993) measures, however
the similarities observed in the data with
those reported elsewhere do provide some
reassurance of the transportability of the constructs. A more comprehensive investigation
of the meaning of organizational commitment in Greece will be a welcome addition to
research in this field. This study provides
some baseline data for such elaboration.
Notes
Parts of this article were presented at the 12th
European Congress of Work and Organizational
Psychology, May 2005, Istanbul, Turkey.
The authors would like to thank Zeynep Aycan
and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful
comments on previous versions of this article.
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YANNIS MARKOVITS is in the Work and
Organisational Psychology Group, Aston
Business School, Aston University, Aston
Triangle, Birmingham B4 7ET, UK.
[email: yannis.markovits@otenet.gr]
ANN J. DAVIS is in the Work and
Organisational Psychology Group, Aston
Business School, Aston University, Aston
Triangle, Birmingham B4 7ET, UK.
[email: a.j.davis@aston.ac.uk]
ROLF VAN DICK is based in Aston University,
Birmingham, UK and Goethe University,
Frankfurt, Germany.
Please address correspondence to Yannis
Markovits or Ann Davis.