Investigation of engine performance, combustion, and emissions using waste tire Oil-Diesel-Glycine max biodiesel blends in a diesel engine

Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 39 (2022) 102435
Available online 15 September 2022
2214-157X/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Investigation of engine performance, combustion, and emissions
using waste tire Oil-Diesel-Glycine max biodiesel blends in a
diesel engine
Md. Nurun Nabi a,*
, Wisam K. Hussam b
, Hasan Mohammad Mostofa Afroz c
,
Adib Bin Rashid d
, Jahidul Islam e
, A.N.M. Mominul Islam Mukut c
a
Central Queensland University, Australia
b
Australian University, Kuwait
c
Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Bangladesh
d
Military Institute of Science and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh
e
Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology, Bangladesh
H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T
• Tire pyrolysis oil was derived from
waste tires.
• A glycine max biodiesel was also
derived.
• The binary and ternary blend properties
were similar to diesel.
• The experimental results were validated
with the simulation results.
• All pyrolysis-diesel-biodiesel blends can
be used as sustainable fuels.
A R T I C L E I N F O
Keywords:
Waste tire
Pyrolysis oil
Diesel engine
Engine performance
Exhaust emissions
A B S T R A C T
This work investigated engine performance and emissions using waste tire oil-diesel-biodiesel
blends. A sustainable fuel glycine max biodiesel was blended with the tire oil-diesel blends to
improve performance, combustion, and exhaust emissions. The seven fuels including a 100%
diesel 10–30% waste tire oil to 90-70% diesel, 10% tire oil +10% biodiesel +80% diesel, 30% tire
oil+10% biodiesel+60% diesel and 10% biodiesel+90% diesel was used as fuels in a direct in
jection diesel engine. Up to 30% (vol) waste tire pyrolysis oil was blended with diesel. More than
30% of waste tire pyrolysis oil shows inferior solubility issues and inferior engine performance
and emissions. Thus, this investigation was limited to 30% waste tire pyrolysis oil. All fuel blends
showed similar properties to diesel. With similar engine performance, like torque, power,
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: m.nabi@cqu.edu.au (Md.N. Nabi).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Case Studies in Thermal Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/csite
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2022.102435
Received 14 April 2022; Received in revised form 11 September 2022; Accepted 14 September 2022

2
efficiency, energy, and exergy metrics, the blends showed insignificant variations in emissions
(carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide) compared to a reference diesel fuel. Interestingly, the experi
mental results were compared with the modelling results, and the maximum variations between
them were 10%. The outcome of this research can promote waste tire pyrolysis oil as an alter
native fuel for diesel engines and accords with alternative energy development initiatives all over
the world.
Nomenclature
ṁ mass flux for boundary = ρAu
dp pressure difference
dx length for mass element
H enthalpy (specific)
h heat transfer coefficient
As area for heat transfer
A flow area
Tfluid fluid temperature
Twall wall temperature
u velocity (boundary)
m volume mass
BSFC Brake specific fuel consumption
BSEC Brake specific energy consumption
BMEP Brake mean effective pressure
NOx Nitrogen oxides
V volume
ρ density
Kp coefficient of pressure loss
Cf Fanning friction factor
D equivalent diameter
ṁDelivery delivery rate of fuel
NRPM Engine rotational speed
F/A Fuel-air ratio
#CYL number of cylinder
ρref reference density
ηv volumetric efficiency
ppm Parts per million
CO2 Carbon dioxide
100D Neat diesel
10T 10% tire oil +90% diesel
hc heat transfer coefficient (convective)
K1 constant
B cylinder bore
T cylinder temperature
p cylinder pressure
w gas velocity (mean)
θ crank angle (instantaneous)
CE fraction of fuel burned
WC Constant (Wiebe)
SOC Start of combustion
e Wiebe exponent
10 TB 10% tire oil+10% biodiesel+80% diesel
10B 10% biodiesel+90% diesel
30T10B60D 30% tire oil+10% biodiesel+60% diesel
TPO Tire pyrolysis oil
Md.N. Nabi et al.

3
1. Introduction
The possibility of declining global oil supplies, uncertain crude oil prices, global warming caused by air pollution, and national
energy security are critical motivators for investing in alternative renewable transportation fuels [1,2]. Therefore, it is of utmost
necessity to explore and use sources of energy that are sustainable, reliable, and do not pollute the environment that can combine
economic and social development with environmental conservation [3–5]. Biomass-sourced biofuels, including aquatic plants, are
sustainable. They are viable replacements for diesel due to their similar fuel properties and energy content [6,7]. Despite the fact that
the reaction of biomass pyrolysis is exceedingly complicated, pyrolysis is gaining popularity since it is a self-contained process with
several advantages [8]. It is an endothermic process that creates gas, liquid, and char in an oxygen-free environment [9].
Pyrolysis may be sorted into two groups: rapid pyrolysis and slow pyrolysis. Compared to rapid pyrolysis, which creates higher-
value energy products, slow pyrolysis is considered to yield low-value energy products [10]. In the reports [10], the authors calcu
lated the internal rate of return for pyrolysis as a function of feedstock cost and expected revenues in the study. Slow pyrolysis is not
profitable, while rapid pyrolysis provides a 15% internal rate of return for the same quantity of feedstock.
Concerning sustainable fuels, biodiesel/biofuel [11–16], hydrogenated fuel [14,17,18], oxygenated fuel [6,19,20], and their
blends with petroleum-based fuels [21,22] are examples of alternative, renewable, and ecologically friendly fuels that have earned
considerable interest in current years. Nevertheless, because of environmental as well as economic reasons, waste-to-fuel or
waste-to-energy technologies have drawn more interest in recent times from scientists worldwide.
Tire pyrolysis oil (TPO) is a valuable product of the tire pyrolysis process, and it is used to make other useful products like char and
pyrolysis gas [23]. Studies revealed that TPO is suitable for compression ignition engine fuels [24,25]. However, the authors indicated
that crude pyrolysis oil has sulphur, and the catalyst process and oxidative desulfurization are appropriate to remove sulphur from
crude pyrolysis oil. Regarding engine performance, their report showed that TPO improves power and thermal efficiency, but mixed
observations on emissions [24] were noted. Waste tire to fuel conversion alleviates trash disposal issues and cuts the demand for fossil
fuels, making it an ideal renewable energy source. The authors concluded that TPO is seen as an alternative fuel that is economically
and environmentally viable [24,25]. Laresgoiti et al. [26] conducted pyrolysis experiments with car tires at different temperatures
ranging from 300 ◦
C to 700 ◦
C. They reported that a maximum amount of liquid yield (38.5 ± 1.2%) was observed at 500 ◦
C. Their
GC-MS results indicated that the pyrolysis liquid contains a combination of organic, aromatics, and oxygenates. They also reported that
the pyrolysis liquid is similar, or some oils have better heating values than others. However, the authors reported the sulphur amount
of 1–1.4%, which was approximately a limiting value.
Another study reported that though the TPO has a high calorific value, its lower flash point, higher density, viscosity, and presence
of sulphur and nitrogen compounds make it incompatible for being used as an alternative fuel directly in the automobile [27].
Therefore, wide-ranging works were carried out to improve the quality of TPO, like refining by fractional distillation, making dual and
triple blending of TPO with fossil fuels, biofuels [28], biodiesels [29–32], and nano-additives [33–35]. To improve the quality of the
TPO, Yarlagadda et al. [36] mixed it with other biodiesels made from food oils. The authors reported that blending with coconut
biodiesel, TPO showed a reduction in kinematic viscosity and density, while higher heating value when blended TPO with camelina
biodiesel. Sharma and Murugan [37] successfully used biodiesel and TPO blends in a diesel engine. The authors reported an unchanged
thermal efficiency with a jatropha methyl ester (biodiesel)-TPO blend. The authors further reported lower CO, THC, and smoke
emissions with a penalty of NOx emissions. Auti et al. [38] also investigated the effects of fuel blends produced from Karanja biodiesel,
TPO, and diesel on compression ignition engines. The authors indicated that the TPO-biodiesel-diesel blends show higher thermal
efficiencies and lower brake specific fuel consumptions. Additionally, based on combustion, emission, and engine performance 10%
TPO-20% karanja biodiesel-70% diesel performs the best. However, the factors for higher or lower NOx emissions with different blends
compared to diesel were not available in their article. Green seaweed (Codium decorticafum) biodiesel and TPO mixes in compression
ignition engines were evaluated by Karthikeyan et al. [39]. The authors indicated that different proportions of biodiesel addition to
diesel improve the cetane number of the blends. Consequently, the use of pyrolytic oil in mixed fuels has led to appreciable im
provements in properties for the engine’s successful functioning. However, their investigation lacked measuring PM, PN, and soot
emissions. Also, it is not clear why NOx is lower with TPO blends, and they did not indicate the economic viability of the TPO and its
blends.
Nursal et al. [40] investigated the ignition delay of TPO blends, neat diesel, and other biodiesel blends in a rapid compression
machine. Like other investigators, their investigation is somewhat different, as they did not conduct the investigation in an engine.
Also, they investigated the fuels’ autoignition behaviour at higher pressures and temperatures. Their investigation included several
blends of biodiesel and TPO and diesel. The ignition lag of 10% and 20% TPO blends was higher than neat diesel, while 15% indicated
the highest. The authors pointed out that thermal cracking takes a long time during the chemical reaction process because of the large
molecular weight of the blends. They also indicated that all types of fuel combinations do not directly relate to ignition lag. Another
study used motor silk as an additive for TPO [41]. Motor silk is an additive that can reduce metal friction to zero. In this investigation,
the authors reported higher emissions with diesel-TPO blends. Interestingly, with the addition of motor silk additive to TPO blends, the
average brake-specific fuel consumption was reduced by 9%. Consequently, lower fuel consumption resulted in higher thermal effi
ciency with motor silk blends. Teoh et al. [42] investigated engine performance and emissions with diesel, a 10% TPO blend, and a
10% biodiesel blend. On average, the 10% TPO blend performs better than the 10% biodiesel blend. It was found that 10% TPO
increased thermal efficiency by 2.2% and 3.3% than 10% biodiesel blend and diesel, respectively. The authors found simultaneous
reductions in smoke at 2000 rpm and NOx emissions at 3500 rpm with 10% TPO blend than 10% biodiesel and diesel fuel. Although
both NOx and smoke are reduced with the 10% TPO blend, their study lacked the results for such reductions. Hossain et al. [43]
experimented with engine performance and exhaust emissions using 10% and 20% tire oil blends in a diesel engine. The authors
Md.N. Nabi et al.

4
reported similar properties of the tire oil blends to diesel. The engine was operated with constant speed and four different loads. Lower
PM and PN emissions with both blends, along with higher CO emissions, were also reported by the authors.
1.1. Novelty statements
Based on the above comprehensive literature review, it is revealed that the pyrolysis tire oil has almost similar properties with
mixed observations for exhaust emissions. Some of the research gaps from the literature review included the absence of the analyses of
exergy and energy parameters and economical and ecological viability (unitary cost and sustainability indices) for the tire oil and its
blends. The current study focuses on physicochemical properties (heating value, density, viscosity, and cetane number), engine
performance (brake power, brake torque, brake mean effective pressure, brake thermal efficiency, and brake specific fuel consump
tion), exhaust emissions (nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, noise emissions, and exhaust temperature), and fundamental energy and
exergy parameters (exergy and energy rates, combustion efficiencies, and sustainability). Comprehensive fuel characterisation and
significant reductions in GHGs with unchanged engine noise emissions, with diesel-waste tire oil-biodiesel blends and diesel-waste tire-
biodiesel, are among the work’s distinctive and original features. This study is also unique in that it analyses fundamental energy and
exergy metrics using the same fuels. The addition of sustainability and unitary cost indices for the binary and ternary blends is the
additional novelty of this study. The most exciting part of this investigation is to compare the experimental data with the 1-D modelling
data, and the maximum variations between the two were observed to be 10%.
In the experiment, the performance parameters, including BSFC, BSEC, BMEP, brake power, brake thermal efficiency, exhaust
emission parameters, including CO, CO2, NOx, and noise emissions, combustion parameters, including in-cylinder pressure, rate of
heat release, gross heat release, exhaust temperature and combustion efficiencies were investigated with a range of tested biofuels.
Besides these parameters, some fundamental exergy and energy parameters, including exergy and energy rates, exergetic and energetic
efficiencies, and sustainability indices, including cost index and sustainability index were studied for the same tested fuels. This
comprehensive investigation suggests the reason for using the tested biofuels as substitute fuels for diesel engines. As far as the authors’
knowledge, no study has been conducted for tire oil blends that validated experimental data with modelling data.
2. Materials and methods
This section discusses the pyrolysis oil derivation from waste tire oil, biodiesel preparation from Glycin max, 1-D model devel
opment for experimental data validation, and engine operation with seven tested fuels, including neat diesel. The block diagram 1 is a
brief about the methodology of the current investigation. The pyrolysis oil is generated by a locally made fixed bed pyrolysis plant.
Glycine max Biodiesel was made by the transesterification process. Then a ternary blend is engendered by mixing the tire pyrolysis oil
and Glycine max Biodiesel with commercially available diesel. Total seven fuels blends including a 100% diesel 10–30% waste tire oil
to 90-70% diesel, 10% tire oil +10% biodiesel +80% diesel, 30% tire oil+10% biodiesel+60% diesel and 10% biodiesel+90% diesel
was used for the experiments. Up to 30% (vol) of waste tire pyrolysis oil was blended with diesel. This investigation was restricted to
30% waste tyre pyrolysis oil since waste tyre pyrolysis oil in excess of that percentage exhibits subpar engine performance and
emissions. For data validation, 1D modelling is formulated by GT-Suite software.
2.1. 1-Dimensional modelling
In 1-D modelling using GT-Suite, the solution of the conservation of momentum, energy, and continuity equations is incorporated.
The complete engine system was separated into multiple volumes in the model. A volume is assigned to each flow split, and each pipe is
divided into one or more volumes. The volumes are connected by boundaries. The continuity, energy, and momentum equations are
represented by equations (i), (ii), and (iii), respectively [44].
dm
dt
=
∑
boundaries
ṁ, (i)
D(me)
dt
= − p
dV
dt
+
∑
boundaries
(ṁH) − hAs
(
Tfluid − TWall
)
, (ii)
dṁ
dt
=
dpA +
∑
boundaries(ṁu) − 4Cf
ρu|u|
2
dxA
D
− Kp
( 1
2
ρu|u|
)
A
dx
. (iii)
Equation (iv) calculated mass flow rate of fuel
ṁDelivery = ηV ρref NRPMVD
(
F
A
)
6
(# CYL)(Pulse width)
. (iv)f
For in-cylinder combustion model, Woschini’s equation in (v) was used [44].
hc(Woschni) =
K1p0.8
w0.8
B0.2TK2
. (v)
In equation (vi), Wiebe’s function for calculating burn rate is shown [44].
Combustion (θ) =
[
1 − e(− WC)(θ− SOC)(E+1)
]
. (vi)
Md.N. Nabi et al.

5
2.2. Fuel preparation
To remove the water content, a hot plate magnetic stirrer was used to heat 500 ml of glycine max oil to 100 ◦
C. After that, the heated
oil was allowed to cool to a temperature of 60◦
Celsius. Later, the methoxide (a combination of methanol and catalyst) was poured into
the heated oil. As a catalyst, potassium hydroxide was utilised (KOH). The molar ratio of methanol to oil was maintained at 6:1, and the
amount of catalyst used was determined using titration. In a magnetic stirrer, the biodiesel and methoxide mixture were swirled at 600
rpm while maintaining a temperature of 60◦
Celsius. The mixture was kept in a separating funnel for gravity separation after an hour of
stirring. 600 mL of glycine max oil was heated using a hot plate magnetic stirrer. Therefore, two phases of glycerol and biodiesel
emerged after 24 h in the container. Biodiesel floated over glycerol in the bottom phase due to its low density. The biodiesel and
glycerol were separated using the separating funnel. Then the biodiesel was washed with water and further heated at 100◦
Celsius to
drive-off the water. Fig. 1(a) shows the different steps of making biodiesel, while Fig. 1(b) illustrates the various stages of tire oil
preparation. At 450 ◦
C, pyrolysis oil was extracted from the scrap tire. To improve the fuel qualities of crude tire oil, the oil was
upgraded by fractional distillation process.
2.3. Engine experiment
All of the tests were carried out in a single-cylinder direct injection diesel engine with natural aspiration. Table 1 lists the primary
characteristics of the engine under test. Fig. 2 depicts an experimental setup. The studies were run at 1600–3200 rpm. For loading and
unloading the engine, a water dynamometer was connected with the engine. CO, CO2, and NOx were sampled using an ENERAC
emissions measurement analyser (Model: ENERAC 700). Electrochemical sensors and sophisticated non-dispersive infrared (NDIR)
technologies were used to measure distinct emission components. The noise of the engine was recorded using a digital sound-level
metre (Model: CEL-240). The sound-level metre can detect sound levels between 30 and 130 dB. The engine was driven for around
30 min to warm up, and data collecting began when the oil temperature reached roughly 70 ◦
C. The accuracy and uncertainty is shown
in Table 2.
Fig. 1. (a). Glycine max biodiesel preparation steps (b). Tire oil preparation stages.
Md.N. Nabi et al.

6
3. Resuls and discussions
Fig. 3, shows the 1
HNMR test results for the neat diesel, neat tire oil, 10% tire oil+90% diesel, 20% tire oil+80% diesel, 10% tire
oil+10% biodiesel+80% diesel and 10% biodiesel+90% diesel. All 1
H NMR measurements for the nine tested fuels were performed
with regard to the 1
H nucleus in the molecules of the studied substances using a Bruker 400TM ASCEND spectrometer. Deuterated
chloroform was used as the test’s solvent, and a frequency of 400 MHz was used. A 296 K test temperature was used. As seen in Fig. 3,
all of the fuels under study had aromatic, aliphatic, and phenolic components. However, the tyre oil and its mixtures have potent
aromatic components. As can be observed in Fig. 3, aliphatic compounds have a chemical shift range of 0.45–1.8 ppm, 1.85–3.5 ppm
for aliphatic groups next to aromatic/alkene groups, 3.5–4.55 ppm for aliphatic compounds next to oxygen/hydroxyl groups, and
4.55–6.85 ppm for either phenolic (OH) or olefinic groups. There are aromatic chemicals between 6.85 and > 7.00 ppm [45].
Fig. 4(a–f) show the influence of speed on various performance parameters like brake torque, brake power, brake mean effective
pressure (BMEP), brake thermal efficiency and brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC). The waste tire-oil blends show no significant
deterioration of all performance parameters except the 30T10B blend. This blend contains 30 vol% tire oil, 10 vol% biodiesel, and 60
vol% diesel. A close look at the fuel property table (Table 3) reveals that this blend has the lowest heating value among all seven blends.
The heating value is the amount of heat energy created when a unit quantity of fuel is burned. This means that the higher the fuel’s
energy content, the greater the engine brake torque, brake power, and BMEP. As shown in the Figure, the brake torque (Fig. 4(a)),
Table 1
Key specifications of the tested engine.
Engine TQ Tech-Japan
Type of Engine Direct injection (four-stroke)
Cylinder (− ) 1
Compression ratio (− ) 22:1
Bore × stroke (mm) 69 × 62
Crank radius (mm) 31
Length of connecting rod (mm) 104
Rated torque @1300 rpm (N.m) 21.4
Maximum power @3600 rpm (kW) 3.5
Engine Capacity (litres) 0.232
Injection timing (◦
, before top dead centre) 10
Injector Unit injector
Number of holes 4
Diameter of nozzle hole (mm) 0.26
Type of aspiration Naturally aspirated
Dynamometer Water-cooled
Oil type Multigrade SAE S W-40
Oil capacity 0.9 L (standard engine)
Table 2
Accuracy and uncertainty of measuring instruments.
Instrument Accuracy Uncertainty percentage
CO ±2 ppm ±0.20
CO2 ±0.3% Vol ±0.15
NO ±5 ppm ±0.20
Engine rotational speed ±5 rpm ±0.10
Smoke Opacity measurement ±0.1% ±0.10
Fig. 2. Experimental set-up.
Md.N. Nabi et al.

7
brake power (Fig. 4(b)) and BMEP (Fig. 4(c)) increase as the engine speed increases. This is due to an increased fuel injection into the
combustion chamber. The increased amount of fuel injection with an increased engine speed is revealed in Fig. 7(c), which indicates
lower excess air factors at higher engine speeds. This Figure demonstrates higher excess air factors at lower engine speeds. The higher
Fig. 3. 1
HNMR for (a). Neat diesel (100% diesel), (b). Neat tire oil (100% tire oil), (c). 10% tire oil +90% diesel, (d). 20% tire oil +80% diesel, (e). 10% tire oil +10%
biodiesel +80%diesel, (f). 10% biodiesel +90% diesel [45].
Fig. 4. Effect of engine speed on (a) Brake torque; (b) Brake power; (c) Brake mean effective pressure; (d) Brake thermal efficiency; (e) Brake specific energy con
sumption; and (f) Brake specific energy consumption for diesel and six blends.
Md.N. Nabi et al.

8
excess air factors at lower engine speeds are the indicators of the fuel-lean condition, which is also favourable for NOx formation. On
the contrary, the lower excess air factors at higher speeds indicate fuel-rich conditions. As fuel injection increases at higher engine
speeds, all fuels increase brake torque, brake power, and BMEP. Compared to reference diesel, the five fuel blends, like 10T, 20T, 30T,
10 TB, and 10B, show a similar or a slightly lower brake torque than diesel, but the blend 30T10B delivers the minimum brake torque
due to its lowest heating value. A maximum of 32% lower brake torque is realised with 30T10B relative to diesel at an engine speed of
3200 rpm.
For legends in other Fig. 4(a), (c), 4(d), 4(e), and 4(f), readers are referred to the legends of Fig. 4(b). Like Fig. 4(a), the brake power
and BMEP for all five fuel blends in Fig. 4(b) and (c) exhibit a similar trends at all engine speeds. However, compared to reference
diesel, at 3200 rpm, the blend 30T10B reduced a maximum of 34% and 33% brake power and BMEP, respectively.
The brake power was estimated using equation (vii)
Brake power (kW) =
2πTN
60
(vii)
where T is the brake torque in kN.m.
N is the engine speed in revolution per minute (rpm).
The BMEP was computed using equation (viii)
BMEP (MPa) =
120 × Brake power
laNk × 103
(viii)
where l is the stroke length in m.
a is the area of cylinder in m2
N = N
2 for a four-stroke engine
k is the cylinder number.
The brake thermal efficiency was calculated using equation (ix)
Brake thermal efficiency (%) =
100 × Brake power
mf × Heating value
(ix)
where, mf is the mass flow rate of fuel in kg/s.
The heating value of a fuel is in kJ/kg.
The BSFC was estimated by equation (x)
BSFC (g / kWh) =
3.6 × mf
Brake power
(x)
The BSEC was calculated by equation (xi)
BSEC (MJ / kWh) =
BSFC × Heating value
106
(xi)
The brake thermal efficiency and BSFC were computed using equations (ix) and (x), respectively. The brake thermal efficiency is a
ratio of output power available in the shaft and fuel power. In other words, it shows what proportion of given input energy from a fuel
can be turned into meaningful work. As seen in Fig. 4(d), the brake thermal efficiency decreases as engine speed increases, while BSFC
in Fig. 4(e) increases as speed increases for all fuels. Brake specific energy consumption (BSEC) was computed from equation (xi) which
is directly proportional to BSFC and heating value. The BSEC for all fuels shows similar trends to BSFC. Also, compared to reference
diesel, all fuel blends show a slight decrease in brake thermal efficiency and higher BSFC at all engine speeds. However, blend 30T10B
shows the highest BSFC and BSEC (Fig. 4(f)) and lowest brake thermal efficiency due to its lower power output. All other blends,
including 10% biodiesel, show almost similar brake thermal efficiencies, BSFCs and BSECs due to their similar properties to diesel fuel.
Table 3
Test fuels, notations, and properties.
Properties Diesel
100%
Tire oil
10%+ diesel
90%
Tire oil
20%+ diesel
80%
Tire oil
30%+ diesel
70%
Tire oil 10%+
biodiesel 10%+
diesel 80%
Tire oil 30%+
biodiesel 10%+
diesel 60%
Biodiesel
10%+ diesel
90%
Abbreviations for test fuels 100D 10T 20T 30T 10 TB 30T10B 10B
Density@40 ◦
C (g/cm3
)
[ASTM D1298]
0.823 0.825 0.836 0.826 0.822 0.830 0.820
K. viscosity@@40 ◦
C (mm2
/
s) [ASTM D445]
2.86 2.85 2.83 2.58 2.56 2.33 2.64
Higher heating value (MJ/
kg) [ASTM D2015]
44.88 42.50 40.10 39.50 42.40 37.42 42.90
Cetane number (− ) [ASTM
D613]
53.50 52.70 51.20 50.02 53.90 51.27 54.80
Md.N. Nabi et al.

9
At 1600 and 3200 rpm, the 30T10B blend produced 19.9% and 17% lower thermal efficiency, respectively, compared to diesel fuel at
the same engine speeds. Yadav et al. [46] also reported lower thermal efficiencies with biodiesel. The basic performance parameters
with tire oil-diesel and tire oil-diesel-biodiesel blends, except 30T10B, suggest the suitability for compression ignition engine fuels.
Fig. 5 is a comparison of experimental results with that of simulation results. The simulation was conducted with commercial
Gamma Technology software. The results displayed in Fig. 5 is for diesel fuel. The experimental results for brake thermal efficiency,
BSFC, brake torque, brake power and BMEP agree with the simulation results for the same five performance parameters. The variations
of five different performance parameters between experimental and simulation results were within 10%. As shown in Fig. 5, for brake
torque, a maximum variation of 8% between experiment and simulation results was noticed. The maximum differences for the other
four parameters, including brake power, brake mean effective pressure, brake thermal efficiency and brake specific fuel consumption,
were 9.1%, 8.77%, 9.8%, and 9.5%, respectively.
Engine noise is considered as emissions and measured in the current investigation for the seven test fuels. A CEL-240 m was used to
determine engine noise at five different speeds. To confirm the data accuracy for all seven fuels/blends, the sound level meter was
placed at 1.5 m and 6 m apart from the engine. All measurements were taken at room temperature with air pressure. As seen in Fig. 6,
the engine noise shows higher at higher engine speeds for both cases. Also, a careful look at both Figures (6a and 6b) reveal that the
engine noise is higher when the sound level meter is placed at 1.5 m apart from the engine than 6 m apart from the engine. Although
diesel shows a slightly lower engine noise, both figures indicate no significant variations in noise emissions among the fuels.
Fig. 7(a) illustrates the NOx emissions for seven test fuels for a wide range of engine speeds. The formation of NOx emissions
depends on several factors. The main contributors to NOx formations are the gas flame temperature, fuel injection time, residence time,
fuel properties, and fuel oxygen [47]. Fig. 7(a) shows that NOx emissions decrease as engine speeds increase, regardless of the fuels
used. At all engine speeds, reference diesel emits less than all other fuels. The greater NOx emissions with six fuel mixes than diesel
might be due to the higher flame temperatures of the binary and ternary blends. The greater NOx emissions with biodiesel-tire oil-
diesel mixes are also attributable to the biodiesel blends’ extra fuel oxygen. The increased molecular oxygen causes higher NOx
emissions in the fuel mixes. Moreover, lower cetane number tire oil blends (Table 3) could cause a higher premixed combustion peak,
leading to higher NOx emissions with lower cetane number fuels. The higher NOx emission at lower engine speed is associated with the
higher excess air factor (Fig. 7(c)). The higher excess air factor, meaning the fuel-lean mixture is a favourable condition for NOx
emissions. In other words, increasing the excess air factor makes more air available for combustion, favouring higher NOx formation
[48].
On the other hand, CO2 emissions in Fig. 7(b) decrease at an increase in engine speed for all seven test fuels. As indicated in Fig. 7
(c), the higher engine speed leads to a fuel-rich mixture, which eventually increases CO2 emissions. In general, the more fuel is burnt,
the more CO2 is produced. Concerning CO2 emissions, diesel is not the least CO2 producer. 30T10B blend made the lowest CO2
emissions at all engine speed running conditions. 30T10B shows a maximum CO2 reduction of 17.86% compared to diesel. The lower
C/H ratio (6.21) of 30T10B compared to the C/H ratio of diesel (6.38) is the reason for lower CO2 emissions. Similarly, the C/H ratios
for the other fuel blends are higher compared to those of diesel, resultingly in the other blends showing higher CO2 emissions.
Fig. 8(a–c) show the influence of engine speed on in-cylinder pressure, rate of heat release, and cumulative heat release for diesel
fuel. A 1-dimensional (1D) model was developed using GT-Suite for a compression ratio of 22. For the modelling, the test engine’s
specification data were used. The bore and stroke of the engine were taken as 69 mm and 62 mm. The engine specification and model
data input details are referred to in Table 1 and reference [44]. As indicated in Fig. 8(a), the cylinder pressure is higher at higher engine
speeds because much fuel is injected into the combustion chamber. The Figure shows that 3200 rpm shows the highest cylinder
pressure while 1600 rpm indicates the lowest. Like cylinder pressure, the heat release and cumulative heat release rate are also higher
at higher engine speed. A maximum of 14.56 MPa cylinder pressure at 1◦
CA ATDC (after top dead centre) for an engine speed of 3200
rpm was observed. For engine speeds of 2800, 2400 and 2000 rpm (engine speed), the maximum cylinder pressures were observed to
be 14.30 MPa, 14.15 MPa, and 13.85 MPa at the same crank angle.
For the rate of heat release in Fig. 8(b), with 1600 rpm, the premixed peak (first peak) was observed to be 2.979 J/degree, and the
diffusion peak (second peak) was observed to be 8.08 J/degree. The premixed peaks for the other rpms, including 2000 rpm, 2400 rpm,
2800 rpm and 3200 rpm, were 2.82 J/degree, 2.91 J/degree, 3.03 J/degree, 3.33 J/degree, respectively. The diffusion peaks for the
five rpms (1600–3200) were observed to be 9.58 J/degree, 9.21 J/degree, 8.83 J/degree, 8.46 J/degree, and 8.08 J/degree. Regarding
the gross heat release in Fig. 8(c), all engine speeds follow the same trends as cylinder pressure and heat release patterns, meaning
Fig. 5. Comparison of (a) Brake thermal efficiency and BSFC; (b) Brake torque, brake power and BMEP between experimental and simulation data.
Md.N. Nabi et al.

10
3200 rpm showed the highest and 1600 rpm showed the lowest values. In Fig. 8(d), the exhaust gas temperature increases with speed
and has no significant differences among the tested fuels. As the engine speed rises, the in-cylinder pressure, heat release rate, and gross
heat release all rise, meaning more fuel is injected and burnt in the combustion chamber.
In this section, some fundamental exergy, energy, and sustainability parameters for the neat diesel and the other blends are
discussed.
The following assumptions were made, and equations were used for the exergy and energy analysis [47]:
− A control volume is an engine that has been tested and runs at a steady state.
− Both intake air and exhaust gas are considered ideal gas.
Fig. 6. Engine noise emissions when the sound level meter is placed (a) 1.6 m apart from the engine, and
(b) 5 m apart from the engine using seven test fuels.
Fig. 7. (a) NOx emissions, and (b) CO2 emissions for seven test fuels, and
(c) Excess air factor for diesel fuel.
Fig. 8. Effect of engine speed on (a) Cylinder pressure; (b) Rate of heat release; (c) Cumulative heat release for diesel fuel and (d) Changes in exhaust temperature with
engine speed for seven test fuels.
Md.N. Nabi et al.

11
− Variations in potential and kinetic energy are insignificant.
− Fuel with a lower heating value is considered since the exhaust product contains water vapour.
The fuel energy was estimated using equation (xii)
Fuel energy
(
Qf
)
= mf × LHV. (xii)
where LHV is the lower heating value.
The engine output power (W) was calculated using equation (vii).
Fuel exergy was estimated using equation (xiii)
Fuel exergy rate = mf × LHV × φ (xiii)
where φ is the exergy factor, which was estimated using equation (xiv)
φ =
[
1.0401 + 0.1728
H
C
+ 0.0432
O
C
+ 0.2169
S
C
(
1 − 2.0628
H
C
)]
(xiv)
The combustion efficiency was calculated by equation (xv)
Combustion efficiency
(
%
)
=
(hP − hR) ×100
mf × heating value of fuel
(xv)
where hP and hR are enthalpies of combustion products and reactants, respectively.
The exergetic efficiency was computed by equation (xvi)
Exergetic efficiency (%) =
Exergy associated with the work transfer
mf × φ × heating value of fuel
(xvi)
The cost index is estimated by equation (xvii) [49].
Cost index =
Fuel exergy
Exergy associated with the work transfer
(xvii)
Sustainability index and depletion potential were estimated with equations (xviii) and (xix), respectively [50].
Sustainability index = 1/depletion factor (xviii)
Depletion factor (potential) = 1 - exergetic efficiency (xix)
As shown in Fig. 9(a–b), both exergy and energy increase with the increase in engine speed. This is due to the higher amount of fuel
Fig. 9. Effect of engine speed on (a) Exergy; and (b) Energy; (c) Relationship between energy and exergy; (d) Relationship between energetic efficiency and exergetic
efficiency; (e) Relationship between brake specific fuel consumption and exergetic efficiency; (f) Effect of engine speed on combustion efficiency.
Md.N. Nabi et al.

12
injection into the engine cylinder. A close look at both Figures shows that the exergy and energy are slightly higher for neat diesel than
those of the binary and ternary blends. This is associated with the fuels’ energy content (heating value). Fig. 9(c) indicates the
relationship between energy and exergy for all tested fuels. Interestingly, the energy and exergy have a good relationship with an R-
squared value of unity. Although energetic efficiency and exergetic efficiency are not shown separately, their relationship is depicted in
Fig. 9(d). Like Fig. 9(c), the energetic and exergetic efficiencies have a strong correlation with an R2
value of unity. The variations of
brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) with respect to exergetic efficiencies are depicted in Fig. 9(e). As can be seen in the Figure, the
BSFC decreases as exergetic efficiency increases for all fuels. This is because BSFC and exergetic efficiency has a reciprocal relationship,
as shown in equations (x) and (xvi), respectively. Among the fuels, although there are some variations in BSFCs and exergetic effi
ciencies, these variations are not notable. The correlation coefficient R2
for BSFC and exergetic efficiency ranges from 0.869 to 0.9987,
indicating a strong correlation between BSFC and exergetic efficiency. Fig. 9(f) presents the influence of engine rotational speed on
combustion efficiency for the tested fuels. Combustion efficiency has little effect on engine speed, as it is slightly declining with
increasing engine speed. Compared to neat diesel, 10B shows higher combustion efficiencies, followed by 10 TB. This is because
additional oxygen in their molecular structure helps better combustion than other fuels without fuel oxygen.
Fig. 10(a–b) show the unitary cost index and sustainability index for the six fuels tested in this investigation for a wide range of
speed variations. Fig. 10(a) exhibits the effect of engine speed on the unitary cost index. The unitary cost index denotes the minimum
amount of exergy required by an internal combustion engine to produce one exergy unit of product [49]. This index was estimated
using equation (xvii). As seen in the Figure, there is an insignificant variation in cost index among the tested fuels. This indicates the
economical sustainability of diesel, biodiesel, and tire oil blends.
On the other hand, in Fig. 10(b), for all five engine speeds, compared to neat diesel (100D), all blends show similar and, in some
cases, better sustainability indices. One of the new findings of this investigation is to analyse the sustainability and cost indices for the
tire oil blends. These two factors help to take a decision or recommend binary and ternary blends of diesel, tire oil, and biodiesel as the
substitute for petroleum diesel. However, before implementing these blends as engine fuels, further investigations are required to
reduce NOx emissions by introducing exhaust gas recirculation and optimising fuel injection timing.
Table 4 illustrates the contributions of the current study compared with those of the previous studies. Although several fuel blends
were investigated, the comparison in Table 4 was made only for 10% and 20% waste tire pyrolysis oil to make a comparison with the
published articles. As can be seen from Table 4, the current investigation is in close alignment with those of the published literature.
4. Conclusions and recommendations
Currently, there is an increasing amount of research on alternative fuels for engines, and due to energy, environmental, and
economic problems, it is necessary to encourage studies on alternative fuels to reduce the amount of primary fuel consumption. For the
adoption of TPO gained from the pyrolysis process for compression ignition engines, it is necessary to study the effects of various
factors. Therefore, this research aims to investigate the effects of ternary blends (TPO/Diesel/Biodiesel) on the characteristics of
combustion, exhaust emissions, and engine performance. The outcome of this research can promote ternary blends (TPO/Diesel/
Biodiesel) as an alternative fuel for diesel engines and accords with alternative energy development plans. The findings of this
investigation are summarised as follows:
− Engine performance parameters, including brake power, brake torque, and brake mean effective pressure, are lower for the binary
and ternary blends than the reference diesel fuel. The deterioration of these parameters was associated with the lower energy
content in the blends.
− Relative to reference diesel, the brake thermal efficiency for the binary and ternary blends were almost identical, whereas the brake
specific fuel consumption was higher for the same blends due to their lower heating values.
− The experimental data for the brake thermal efficiency, brake specific fuel consumption, brake torque, brake power and brake
mean effective pressure were compared with simulation data. The maximum variations of these data between the simulation and
experimental data were within the acceptable range (within10%).
− Engine noise for all blends was similar to diesel fuel at a wide operating engine speed when noise measurements were conducted at
a distance of 1.5 m and 6 m apart from the engine.
− The NOx emissions were higher for the blends than the reference diesel. This could be due to their higher flame temperature for the
different blends. The higher NOx emissions at increasing engine speeds were associated with the higher gross heat release.
− CO2 emissions for two ternary blends were lower at all engine speeds than diesel fuel.
− Besides the engine performance parameters mentioned above, exergy, energy, exergetic and energetic efficiency for all fuels were
identical. Their relationship shows a straight-line, meaning exergy and energy has a strong correlation between them. Similarly,
exergetic and energetic efficiency has a good correlation between them.
− Unitary cost and sustainability indices were similar for all tested blends compared to the reference diesel. These indices suggest that
the blends are sustainable.
− This study examines a thorough investigation of diesel engine performance and exhaust emissions with special emphasis on
fundamental exergy and energy parameters using different waste tire pyrolysis oil blends (binary and ternary) in a compression
ignition engine. Besides the engine performance and emissions results, fundamental exergy and energy parameters for the blends
were determined and compared with those of a reference diesel fuel. Although some blends show promising results regarding
engine performances, exhaust emissions, and energetic and exergetic efficiencies, no specific trends were found between fuel
blends and the performance, emission, exergy, and energy parameters and thus required further investigation.
Md.N. Nabi et al.

13
Authorship statement
Conception and design of study: Md Nurun Nabi.
Acquisition of data: Md Nurun Nabi, Hasan Mohammad Mostofa Afroz; Adib Bin Rashid, A.N.M. Mominul Islam Mukut.
Analysis and/or interpretation of data: Md Nurun Nabi, Wisam K. Hussam, Hasan Mohammad Mostofa Afroz; Adib Bin Rashid,
A.N.M. Mominul Islam Mukut.
Drafting the manuscript: Md Nurun Nabi, Wisam K. Hussam, Adib Bin Rashid, Jahidul Islam.
Revising/Editing the manuscript critically for important intellectual content: Md Nurun Nabi, Wisam K. Hussam, Hasan
Mohammad Mostofa Afroz, Adib Bin Rashid; Jahidul Islam; A.N.M. Mominul Islam Mukut.
Approval of the version of the manuscript to be published: Md Nurun Nabi, Wisam K. Hussam, Hasan Mohammad Mostofa
Afroz; Adib Bin Rashid, Jahidul Islam, A.N.M. Mominul Islam Mukut.
Fig. 10. (a) Unitary cost index and (b) sustainability index for tested fuels.
Diagram 1. Methodology block diagram.
Md.N. Nabi et al.

14
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
The Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of Sciences (CR19-45EM-01) and Central Queensland University (RSH/5221) pro
vided partial funding for this study. The authors thank Bangladesh’s Military Institute of Science and Technology (MIST) and Dhaka
University of Engineering & Technology (DUET) for assisting with the experimental facilities.
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Table 4
Contribution of current study compared with previous studies.
Ref Test conditions Fuels Main Effects (compared to traditional diesel)
Increase(s) (↑) and Decrease(s) (↓)
Thermal
efficiency
Specific fuel
consumption
HC CO NOx
[51] Constant speed, different
loads
10% TPO ↓ ↑ ↓ ↓ ↑
20% TPO ↓ ↑ ↓ ↓ ↑
loads
10% TPO ↓ ↑ - - -
20% TPO ↓ ↑ - - -
[53] Constant load, different
speeds
10% TPO + 10% waste cooking oil
biodiesel
↓ ↑ - ↑ ↓
loads
10% TPO ↓ ↑ - ↓ ↑
loads
10% TPO ↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↓
Current
study
Constant load, different
speeds
10% TPO ↓ ↑ - ↑ ↓
20% TPO ↓ ↑ - ↑ ↓
Md.N. Nabi et al.

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