• Interpret the results of the following studies a. An odds ratio .pdf
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• Interpret the results of the following studies a. An odds ratio of 1.2 (95% confidence interval: 0.8-1.5) is found for the association of low socioeconomic status and occurrence of obesity. b. A relative risk of 3.0 is reported for the association between consumption of red meat and the occurrence of colon cancer. The p-value of the association is 0.15. c. An odds ratio of 7 (95% confidence interval: 3.0 – 11.4) is found for the association of smoking and lung cancer. Solution A. An odds ratio of 1.2 suggests that those with low socioeconomic status are 1.2 times as likely to suffer from obesity as those without low SES. However, since the confidence interval contains 1.0, we cannot be sure if low SES has an effect on obesity rates; we could be seeing a result as high as 1.2 just due to chance. Plese post others as separate questions.
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You have just finished a health education in-service to the communit.docx
You have just finished a health education in-service to the community on the hazards of smoking. A representative of the tobacco industry is present at your in-service and makes the following comment regarding your presentation: "You gave a nice presentation. However, I disagree with you that smoking can cause lung cancer. There is still not enough evidence to indicate that smoking can cause cancer."
Your task is as follows:
1. Respond to his statement and indicate why there is a cause-effect relationship between smoking and lung cancer using the
five criteria for causality
.
2. What is your interpretation of the evidence on how smoking affects lung cancer?
READ: FIVE CRITERIA FOR CAUSALITY
Assignment Expectations, in order to earn full credit:
Please write your paper in your own words. That is the only way I can evaluate your level
Analytic epidemiology is defined as the study of the determinants of disease or reasons for relatively high or low frequency in specific groups. Analytic epidemiology answers questions regarding why the rate is high or low in a particular group. Observations of differences lead to formation of hypotheses.
Analytic Studies
There are basically two types of studies: experimental and observational. In an experimental study, the exposure has not occurred yet. The investigator controls the exposure in the study groups and studies the impact. For example, he may immunize one group with an experimental vaccine that has been developed for a disease and compare the frequency with which the disease develops to the control group (which had no modification). In an observational study, the exposure has already occurred. The exposures and outcomes are observed and analyzed, not created experimentally. Observational studies are often more practical and continue to provide the major contribution to our understanding of diseases. There are two main types of observational studies: cohort (prospective) and case-control (retrospective) studies.
In a cohort study, a group of people who share a common experience within a defined time period (cohort) are categorized based upon their exposure status. For example, individuals at a work place where an asbestos exposure occurred would be considered a cohort. Another example would be individuals attending a wedding where a foodborne illness occurred. Cohort studies have well-defined populations. Often, cohort studies involve following a cohort over time in order to determine the rate at which a disease develops in relation to the exposure.
In a cohort study, relative risk is used to determine whether an association exists between an exposure and a disease. Relative risk is defined as ratio of the incidence rate among exposed individuals to the incidence rate among unexposed individuals.
To calculate the relative risk, you would use the following formula:
(a/a+b) / (c/c+d)
where:
a = the number of individuals with a disease who were exposed.
b = the number of individ.
Analysing Case-Control Studies Adjusting For Confounding
Professional Writing Service
http://HelpWriting.net/Analysing-Case-Control-Studies--Adjusti 👈
Association and Causation
At the end of this session, the students shall be able to, Define Cause
Define Association
Define Correlation
Types of association
Additional criteria for judging causality
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Analytic StudiesThere are basically two types of studies experi.docx
Analytic Studies
There are basically two types of studies: experimental and observational. In an experimental study, the exposure has not occurred yet. The investigator controls the exposure in the study groups and studies the impact. For example, he may immunize one group with an experimental vaccine that has been developed for a disease and compare the frequency with which the disease develops to the control group (which had no modification). In an observational study, the exposure has already occurred. The exposures and outcomes are observed and analyzed, not created experimentally. Observational studies are often more practical and continue to provide the major contribution to our understanding of diseases. There are two main types of observational studies: cohort (prospective) and case-control (retrospective) studies.
In a cohort study, a group of people who share a common experience within a defined time period (cohort) are categorized based upon their exposure status. For example, individuals at a work place where an asbestos exposure occurred would be considered a cohort. Another example would be individuals attending a wedding where a foodborne illness occurred. Cohort studies have well-defined populations. Often, cohort studies involve following a cohort over time in order to determine the rate at which a disease develops in relation to the exposure.
In a cohort study, relative risk is used to determine whether an association exists between an exposure and a disease. Relative risk is defined as ratio of the incidence rate among exposed individuals to the incidence rate among unexposed individuals.
To calculate the relative risk, you would use the following formula: (a/a+b) / (c/c+d) where:
a = the number of individuals with a disease who were exposed.
b = the number of individuals without a disease who were exposed.
c = the number of individuals with a disease who were NOT exposed.
d = the number of individuals without a disease who were NOT exposed.
In a case-control study, the sample is based upon illness status, rather than exposure status. The researcher identifies a group of people who meet the case definition and a group of people who do not have the illness (controls). The objective is to determine if the two groups differ in the rate of exposure to a specific factor or factors.
In contrast to a cohort study, the total number of people exposed in a case-control study is unknown. Therefore, relative risk cannot be used. Instead, an odds ratio or risk ratio is used. An odds ratio measures the odds that an exposed individual will develop a disease in comparison to an unexposed individual. Please click the button below to learn how to calculate an odds ratio.
To calculate an odds ratio, you would use the following formula: ad/bc
where:
a = the number of individuals with a disease who were exposed.
b = the number of individuals without a disease who were exposed.
c = the number of individu.
ASTHMA CORRELATES AMONG ADOLESCENCE IN COUNTRY: AN ORIGINAL RESEARCH
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You have just finished a health education in-service to the communit.docx
You have just finished a health education in-service to the community on the hazards of smoking. A representative of the tobacco industry is present at your in-service and makes the following comment regarding your presentation: "You gave a nice presentation. However, I disagree with you that smoking can cause lung cancer. There is still not enough evidence to indicate that smoking can cause cancer."
Your task is as follows:
1. Respond to his statement and indicate why there is a cause-effect relationship between smoking and lung cancer using the
five criteria for causality
.
2. What is your interpretation of the evidence on how smoking affects lung cancer?
READ: FIVE CRITERIA FOR CAUSALITY
Assignment Expectations, in order to earn full credit:
Please write your paper in your own words. That is the only way I can evaluate your level
Analytic epidemiology is defined as the study of the determinants of disease or reasons for relatively high or low frequency in specific groups. Analytic epidemiology answers questions regarding why the rate is high or low in a particular group. Observations of differences lead to formation of hypotheses.
Analytic Studies
There are basically two types of studies: experimental and observational. In an experimental study, the exposure has not occurred yet. The investigator controls the exposure in the study groups and studies the impact. For example, he may immunize one group with an experimental vaccine that has been developed for a disease and compare the frequency with which the disease develops to the control group (which had no modification). In an observational study, the exposure has already occurred. The exposures and outcomes are observed and analyzed, not created experimentally. Observational studies are often more practical and continue to provide the major contribution to our understanding of diseases. There are two main types of observational studies: cohort (prospective) and case-control (retrospective) studies.
In a cohort study, a group of people who share a common experience within a defined time period (cohort) are categorized based upon their exposure status. For example, individuals at a work place where an asbestos exposure occurred would be considered a cohort. Another example would be individuals attending a wedding where a foodborne illness occurred. Cohort studies have well-defined populations. Often, cohort studies involve following a cohort over time in order to determine the rate at which a disease develops in relation to the exposure.
In a cohort study, relative risk is used to determine whether an association exists between an exposure and a disease. Relative risk is defined as ratio of the incidence rate among exposed individuals to the incidence rate among unexposed individuals.
To calculate the relative risk, you would use the following formula:
(a/a+b) / (c/c+d)
where:
a = the number of individuals with a disease who were exposed.
b = the number of individ.
Analysing Case-Control Studies Adjusting For Confounding
Professional Writing Service
http://HelpWriting.net/Analysing-Case-Control-Studies--Adjusti 👈
Association and Causation
At the end of this session, the students shall be able to, Define Cause
Define Association
Define Correlation
Types of association
Additional criteria for judging causality
Differentiate between association and causation
Analytic StudiesThere are basically two types of studies experi.docx
Analytic Studies
There are basically two types of studies: experimental and observational. In an experimental study, the exposure has not occurred yet. The investigator controls the exposure in the study groups and studies the impact. For example, he may immunize one group with an experimental vaccine that has been developed for a disease and compare the frequency with which the disease develops to the control group (which had no modification). In an observational study, the exposure has already occurred. The exposures and outcomes are observed and analyzed, not created experimentally. Observational studies are often more practical and continue to provide the major contribution to our understanding of diseases. There are two main types of observational studies: cohort (prospective) and case-control (retrospective) studies.
In a cohort study, a group of people who share a common experience within a defined time period (cohort) are categorized based upon their exposure status. For example, individuals at a work place where an asbestos exposure occurred would be considered a cohort. Another example would be individuals attending a wedding where a foodborne illness occurred. Cohort studies have well-defined populations. Often, cohort studies involve following a cohort over time in order to determine the rate at which a disease develops in relation to the exposure.
In a cohort study, relative risk is used to determine whether an association exists between an exposure and a disease. Relative risk is defined as ratio of the incidence rate among exposed individuals to the incidence rate among unexposed individuals.
To calculate the relative risk, you would use the following formula: (a/a+b) / (c/c+d) where:
a = the number of individuals with a disease who were exposed.
b = the number of individuals without a disease who were exposed.
c = the number of individuals with a disease who were NOT exposed.
d = the number of individuals without a disease who were NOT exposed.
In a case-control study, the sample is based upon illness status, rather than exposure status. The researcher identifies a group of people who meet the case definition and a group of people who do not have the illness (controls). The objective is to determine if the two groups differ in the rate of exposure to a specific factor or factors.
In contrast to a cohort study, the total number of people exposed in a case-control study is unknown. Therefore, relative risk cannot be used. Instead, an odds ratio or risk ratio is used. An odds ratio measures the odds that an exposed individual will develop a disease in comparison to an unexposed individual. Please click the button below to learn how to calculate an odds ratio.
To calculate an odds ratio, you would use the following formula: ad/bc
where:
a = the number of individuals with a disease who were exposed.
b = the number of individuals without a disease who were exposed.
c = the number of individu.
ASTHMA CORRELATES AMONG ADOLESCENCE IN COUNTRY: AN ORIGINAL RESEARCH
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Distribution of lifestyle risk factor for oral cancer, by sex amon.docx
Distribution of lifestyle risk factor for oral cancer, by sex among cases (n=xx) and controls (n=xx)
Risk Factors
Males
Females
Total
Cases
Control
Cases
Control
Cases
Control
n (%)
n (%)
n (%)
n (%)
n (%)
n (%)
Cigarette Smoking
Never
Ever
Current
Past
Bidi Smoking
Never
Ever
Cigar smoking
Never
Ever
Others smoking
Never
Ever
Alcohol
Never
Ever
Socio-economic status
Low
Medium
High
Table 4. Risk of oral cancer associated with the lifestyle risk factors among both sexes (X cases, X controls) derived from conditional logistic regression (conditioned on age and sex).
Risk Factors
Cases n (%)
Controls n (%)
OR¹ (95% CI)
OR² (95% CI)
Socio-economic status
Low
Medium
High
Smoking
Never
Ever
Alcohol
Never
Ever
Chewing
Never
Ever
Current
Past
Tobacco Pack Years
0
1-10
10-2
>20
Second Hand Smoke
Yes
No
OR 1: Basic Model conditioned for age and sex OR2: Basic model adjusted for other variables.
Table 4: Use and risk of oral cancer among men (x cases, x controls), crude and adjusted risk estimates from simple logistic regression.
Risk Factors
Cases
Controls
OR¹ (95% CI)
OR² (95% CI)
n
%
n
%
Smoking Habit
Never
Ever
Current
Past
Tobacco Pack Years
0
1-10
10-2
>20
Bidi Smoking
Ever
Never
Others smoking type
Ever
Never
OR1: Crude Odds Ratio, OR2: Adjusted For age, sex, smoking and alcohol, CI: Confidence interval
Risk Factors
Cases
Controls
OR¹ (95% CI)
OR² (95% CI)
n
%
n
%
Smoking Habit
Never
Ever
Current
Past
Tobacco Pack Years
0
1-10
10-2
>20
Bidi Smoking
Ever
Never
Others smoking type
Ever
Never
OR 1: Crude Odds Ratio, OR2: Adjusted for age, sex, SES, smoking and alcohol, CI: Confidence Interval
Table: Characteristics of oral cancer patients and controls
Characteristics
Males
Females
Cases
Controls
Cases
Controls
(n=)%
(n=)%
(n=)%
(n=)%
Age
<50
50-59
60-69
≥70
Educationᵃ (yr)
≤12
12
13-15
≥16
Religion ᵇ
Hindu
Buddhist
Christian
Other/none
Smokingᶜ
Never
Current
Former
Cigarettes/dayᵈ
1-20
21-39
≥40
Alcoholᵉ
0-1/wk
Occasional
1-4/day
4-6/day
≥7/day
Table 5-3. Cigarette smoking and the risk of oral cancer (odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals)
Cases
Controls
Crude OR (95% CI)
Adjusted OR* (95% CI)
Adjusted OR** (95% CI)
Cigarette smoking
No smoking
Ever smoking
Pack years of smoking
Continuous (20 years)
No smoking
119
20-39
≥40
Years since quitting smoking
No smoking
≥20 years
5-19 year
1-4 years
Current smoking
Age at initiation of smoking
No smoking
≥20
18-19
16-17
...
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this presentation takes you through the concept of association observed between variables in a study and how could it become a causative association in step-wise manner.Exemplify using Bradford hill criteria. slides after references are extra slides not covered in the presentation.
Excelsior College PBH321 1 Confounding .docx
Excelsior College PBH321
1
Confounding is a mixing of effects of extraneous factors (confounders) with the effect of the exposure of
interest. The association between exposure and disease is distorted because it is mixed with the effect
of another factor that is also associated with the disease. A confounder is therefore an alternative
explanation for the observed association between an exposure and disease. The result of confounding is
to distort the true association either towards or away from the null. Many epidemiologists refer to
confounding as a type of bias.
Example: Who can run faster, men or women?
Exposure: gender
Outcome: speed
Hypothesis: The average running speed of men is faster than the average running speed of women.
All men and women in one town invited to participate in a road race. On race day, both men and
women come and race. The average running time for the men is faster than the women.
CONCLUSION: Men run faster than women, because of their gender.
But wait! Someone notices that women with young children did not race. In fact, women who ran
the race were, on average, older than men who ran. For example, the average age of women was 50
years while the average age of men was 25 years. CONCLUSION: Perhaps men were faster not
because of their gender, but because they were younger.
Another race is held, this time making sure that the ages in the two groups (men and women) are
comparable. In other words, the men and women have same distribution of ages. Race result: Once
again, men are faster. CONCLUSION: Controlling for age, men are still faster than women.
But wait! Someone points out that the men are, on average, taller than the women. CONCLUSION:
Perhaps men were faster not due to their gender, but because their legs are longer.
Another race is held, this time making sure both heights and ages in the two groups (men and
women) are comparable. Race result: Once again, men are faster. CONCLUSION: Men are faster
than women, regardless of age or height.
But wait! Someone points out that 50% of the women had hair longer than their shoulders, and
only 5% of the men did! CONCLUSION: Long hair made the women run slower? (Is this a reasonable
conclusion?)
The point of this exercise is to demonstrate that there are in fact often many alternative explanatory
factors for the association between an exposure and an outcome. Properly considering potential
confounding factors is an important part of any epidemiologic analysis.
Criteria for confounding
Let’s review the meaning of association. If a characteristic is associated with disease, then the risk of
disease is different among people with the characteristic compared to those without. If the
CONFOUNDING
Excelsior College PBH321
2
characteristic is associated with exposure, then the distribution of the characteristic is different among
people with the exposure compared to people witho ...
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Lead Levels in Canned and Fresh-Frozen Food.
) were on average more than 29 times higher than those in fresh-frozen samples of the same food in 1982-1983; by 1984-1985 this value had declined to 14. All the pairs fell within the "produce" classification of the U.S. Department of Agriculture; however, we found similar ratios of the average lead levels in canned to those in fresh-frozen food in other USDA categories (Table 2TABLE 2
Average Lead Levels in Canned and Fresh-Frozen Food.
).4
On the basis of the USDA's average daily intake figures for each of the categories shown in Table 2, a person consuming canned products from each category whenever the option existed would have a daily lead intake of 107 and 40 Μg in 1982-1983 and 1984-1985, respectively. For a person who avoided canned foods whenever possible, daily dietary lead intake would have decreased fivefold (from 107 to 26 μg) in 1982-1983 and to less than threefold (40 to 17.4 Μg) in 1984-1985. This illustrates the importance of continuing efforts to reduce the use of lead solde
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• Determine what you believe to be the major obstacles to the conver.pdf
• Determine what you believe to be the major obstacles to the convergence process. Recommend
two (2) strategies that the IASB could use in order to improve the convergence process overall.
Justify your response.
Solution
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO HAVE MORE COMPARABLE GLOBAL ACCOUNTING
STANDARDS? HOW DOES THAT EFFORT FIT WITH THE FASB’S MISSION?
The first priority of the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) is to improve financial
reporting for the benefit of investors and other users of financial information in U.S. capital
markets. We do that by striving to set the highest-quality standards, which collectively are
known as Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP). By highest quality, we mean
standards that provide users of financial statements with information that is clear, useful, and
relevant to their needs, while considering whether the expected benefits of that information
justify the costs of providing and using it.
The FASB believes that seeking more comparable global accounting standards—improving the
quality of accounting standards used around the world while reducing differences among those
standards—is consistent with its core mission. Investors, companies, auditors, and other
participants in the U.S. financial reporting system benefit from the increased comparability that
can result from the closer alignment of standards used internationally. More comparable
standards have the potential to reduce costs for both users and preparers of financial statements
and make worldwide capital markets more efficient. The Securities and Exchange Commission
(SEC) expects the FASB to consider, in developing standards, the extent to which international
comparability is necessary or appropriate in the public interest and for the protection of
investors.
HOW DOES THE FASB SEEK GREATER COMPARABILITY?
As we conclude the bilateral convergence program begun in 2002 by the FASB and the
International Accounting Standards Board (IASB), the FASB has implemented a three-part
strategy for seeking greater comparability in accounting standards internationally:
Developing High Quality GAAP Standards
The FASB continually strives to meet the needs of investors and other users of GAAP-based
financial reports, both within and outside the United States, by improving the quality of GAAP.
The FASB believes that the high-quality standards it develops will continue to influence the
shape and future direction of international standards, as they have for more than 40 years. By
creating high-quality standards through a best-in-class standard-setting process, the FASB serves
as a reference point and benchmark for others. In other words, we will continue to lead by setting
an example of excellence.
As it undertakes standard-setting projects, the FASB carefully evaluates whether U.S. financial
reporting would be improved by implementing approaches consistent with particular IFRS
standards. This also would enhance international comparability for the benefit of inves.
• Give a brief definition and an example of the following a. Desc.pdf
• Give a brief definition and an example of the following:
a. Descriptive Statistics
Solution
Descriptive statistics is the discipline of quantitatively describing the main features
of a collection of data. Descriptive statistics are distinguished from inferential statistics (or
inductive statistics), in that descriptive statistics aim to summarize a data set, rather than use the
data to learn about the population that the data are thought to represent. This generally means
that descriptive statistics, unlike inferential statistics, are not developed on the basis of
probability theory.
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Similar to • Interpret the results of the following studies a. An odds ratio .pdf
Distribution of lifestyle risk factor for oral cancer, by sex amon.docx
Distribution of lifestyle risk factor for oral cancer, by sex among cases (n=xx) and controls (n=xx)
Risk Factors
Males
Females
Total
Cases
Control
Cases
Control
Cases
Control
n (%)
n (%)
n (%)
n (%)
n (%)
n (%)
Cigarette Smoking
Never
Ever
Current
Past
Bidi Smoking
Never
Ever
Cigar smoking
Never
Ever
Others smoking
Never
Ever
Alcohol
Never
Ever
Socio-economic status
Low
Medium
High
Table 4. Risk of oral cancer associated with the lifestyle risk factors among both sexes (X cases, X controls) derived from conditional logistic regression (conditioned on age and sex).
Risk Factors
Cases n (%)
Controls n (%)
OR¹ (95% CI)
OR² (95% CI)
Socio-economic status
Low
Medium
High
Smoking
Never
Ever
Alcohol
Never
Ever
Chewing
Never
Ever
Current
Past
Tobacco Pack Years
0
1-10
10-2
>20
Second Hand Smoke
Yes
No
OR 1: Basic Model conditioned for age and sex OR2: Basic model adjusted for other variables.
Table 4: Use and risk of oral cancer among men (x cases, x controls), crude and adjusted risk estimates from simple logistic regression.
Risk Factors
Cases
Controls
OR¹ (95% CI)
OR² (95% CI)
n
%
n
%
Smoking Habit
Never
Ever
Current
Past
Tobacco Pack Years
0
1-10
10-2
>20
Bidi Smoking
Ever
Never
Others smoking type
Ever
Never
OR1: Crude Odds Ratio, OR2: Adjusted For age, sex, smoking and alcohol, CI: Confidence interval
Risk Factors
Cases
Controls
OR¹ (95% CI)
OR² (95% CI)
n
%
n
%
Smoking Habit
Never
Ever
Current
Past
Tobacco Pack Years
0
1-10
10-2
>20
Bidi Smoking
Ever
Never
Others smoking type
Ever
Never
OR 1: Crude Odds Ratio, OR2: Adjusted for age, sex, SES, smoking and alcohol, CI: Confidence Interval
Table: Characteristics of oral cancer patients and controls
Characteristics
Males
Females
Cases
Controls
Cases
Controls
(n=)%
(n=)%
(n=)%
(n=)%
Age
<50
50-59
60-69
≥70
Educationᵃ (yr)
≤12
12
13-15
≥16
Religion ᵇ
Hindu
Buddhist
Christian
Other/none
Smokingᶜ
Never
Current
Former
Cigarettes/dayᵈ
1-20
21-39
≥40
Alcoholᵉ
0-1/wk
Occasional
1-4/day
4-6/day
≥7/day
Table 5-3. Cigarette smoking and the risk of oral cancer (odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals)
Cases
Controls
Crude OR (95% CI)
Adjusted OR* (95% CI)
Adjusted OR** (95% CI)
Cigarette smoking
No smoking
Ever smoking
Pack years of smoking
Continuous (20 years)
No smoking
119
20-39
≥40
Years since quitting smoking
No smoking
≥20 years
5-19 year
1-4 years
Current smoking
Age at initiation of smoking
No smoking
≥20
18-19
16-17
...
Association vs causation
this presentation takes you through the concept of association observed between variables in a study and how could it become a causative association in step-wise manner.Exemplify using Bradford hill criteria. slides after references are extra slides not covered in the presentation.
Excelsior College PBH321 1 Confounding .docx
Excelsior College PBH321
1
Confounding is a mixing of effects of extraneous factors (confounders) with the effect of the exposure of
interest. The association between exposure and disease is distorted because it is mixed with the effect
of another factor that is also associated with the disease. A confounder is therefore an alternative
explanation for the observed association between an exposure and disease. The result of confounding is
to distort the true association either towards or away from the null. Many epidemiologists refer to
confounding as a type of bias.
Example: Who can run faster, men or women?
Exposure: gender
Outcome: speed
Hypothesis: The average running speed of men is faster than the average running speed of women.
All men and women in one town invited to participate in a road race. On race day, both men and
women come and race. The average running time for the men is faster than the women.
CONCLUSION: Men run faster than women, because of their gender.
But wait! Someone notices that women with young children did not race. In fact, women who ran
the race were, on average, older than men who ran. For example, the average age of women was 50
years while the average age of men was 25 years. CONCLUSION: Perhaps men were faster not
because of their gender, but because they were younger.
Another race is held, this time making sure that the ages in the two groups (men and women) are
comparable. In other words, the men and women have same distribution of ages. Race result: Once
again, men are faster. CONCLUSION: Controlling for age, men are still faster than women.
But wait! Someone points out that the men are, on average, taller than the women. CONCLUSION:
Perhaps men were faster not due to their gender, but because their legs are longer.
Another race is held, this time making sure both heights and ages in the two groups (men and
women) are comparable. Race result: Once again, men are faster. CONCLUSION: Men are faster
than women, regardless of age or height.
But wait! Someone points out that 50% of the women had hair longer than their shoulders, and
only 5% of the men did! CONCLUSION: Long hair made the women run slower? (Is this a reasonable
conclusion?)
The point of this exercise is to demonstrate that there are in fact often many alternative explanatory
factors for the association between an exposure and an outcome. Properly considering potential
confounding factors is an important part of any epidemiologic analysis.
Criteria for confounding
Let’s review the meaning of association. If a characteristic is associated with disease, then the risk of
disease is different among people with the characteristic compared to those without. If the
CONFOUNDING
Excelsior College PBH321
2
characteristic is associated with exposure, then the distribution of the characteristic is different among
people with the exposure compared to people witho ...
Association of Lifestyle and Genetic Risk With Incidence of Dementia
Older adults who maintained a healthy lifestyle were significantly less likely to develop dementia late in life than those who had less healthy lifestyles, even among those with high genetic risk, researchers reported in the Journal of the American Medical Association and at the Alzheimer's Association annual meeting. Other studies presented at the meeting showed a 60% lower risk of Alzheimer's dementia among those who practiced 4 in 5 healthy lifestyle behaviors, compared with those who only practiced no more than one healthy habit, while dementia was significantly more likely later in life among women who were alcoholics, and cognitive impairment was two times more likely among smokers.
Can Personalized Medicine Save the Health Care System?
Sandeep Vijan, MD, MS
LDI Research Seminar- September 30, 2011
concept of risk
introduction to various aspects of risk, attributable and relative risk,odds ratio,confidence interval, experimental event rate and control event rate
Risk factors in Multiple Sclerosis: Detection and Treatment in Daily Life
Risk factors in Multiple Sclerosis: Detection and Treatment in Daily LifeSwiss Multiple Sclerosis Society
Risk factors in Multiple Sclerosis: Detection and Treatment in Daily Life
Caroline Pot and Patrice Lalive
Unit of Neuroimmunology and Multi Sclerosis Geneva University HospitalDescriptive epidemiology
The STUDY of the DISTRIBUTION & DETERMINANTS of HEALTH-RELATED STATES in specified POPULATIONS, and the application of this study to CONTROL of health problems.
The Long-Term Effects of Exposure to Low Doses of Lead in Childhood - 1991
Lead in food, particularly in processed food, is a major source of overall lead intake in the entire population. Lead contaminates food through the deposition of airborne lead, the use of lead-bearing water and equipment in processing, the use of lead-based solders in canning, and contact with serving vessels glazed with lead-containing compounds. In 1986, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) attributed most of the contribution to atmospheric deposition (50 percent) and solder (42 percent).1 We have analyzed Food and Drug Administration data from the 1982-1983 and 1984-1985 Total Diet Studies (based on an analysis of market baskets) to ascertain whether solder and other lead sources — for example, gasoline additives — remain important sources of lead in the U.S. food supply. Since the early 1980s, voluntary food-industry programs to replace lead solder were assumed to be sufficient to protect the food supply. However, about 20 percent of domestically filled food cans are still soldered with lead.2
In the United States, the impetus to ban lead additives in motor vehicle fuels has been delayed on the grounds that leaded fuels are important for farm vehicles. Plants grown near highways and other sources of lead are significantly contaminated largely by surface deposition). Despite EPA efforts to phase out leaded gasoline, first- and second-quarter figures for 1988 show that leaded gasoline accounts for nearly 20 percent of the gas sold in the United States.3 The declining use of lead solder and gasoline additives is reflected in reductions of lead contamination in food over the years 1982 through However, the FDA data indicate that these two sources of lead in food are still problems. Of the 234 categories in the 1982-1983 and 1984-1985 market-basket surveys, we found seven pairs for which the only difference was whether or not the foods were canned. Lead levels in the canned samples (Table 1TABLE 1
Lead Levels in Canned and Fresh-Frozen Food.
) were on average more than 29 times higher than those in fresh-frozen samples of the same food in 1982-1983; by 1984-1985 this value had declined to 14. All the pairs fell within the "produce" classification of the U.S. Department of Agriculture; however, we found similar ratios of the average lead levels in canned to those in fresh-frozen food in other USDA categories (Table 2TABLE 2
Average Lead Levels in Canned and Fresh-Frozen Food.
).4
On the basis of the USDA's average daily intake figures for each of the categories shown in Table 2, a person consuming canned products from each category whenever the option existed would have a daily lead intake of 107 and 40 Μg in 1982-1983 and 1984-1985, respectively. For a person who avoided canned foods whenever possible, daily dietary lead intake would have decreased fivefold (from 107 to 26 μg) in 1982-1983 and to less than threefold (40 to 17.4 Μg) in 1984-1985. This illustrates the importance of continuing efforts to reduce the use of lead solde
Multiple Linear Regression
case study by using multiple linear regression..how to full fill the assumption to use this method..
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• Determine what you believe to be the major obstacles to the conver.pdf
• Determine what you believe to be the major obstacles to the convergence process. Recommend
two (2) strategies that the IASB could use in order to improve the convergence process overall.
Justify your response.
Solution
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO HAVE MORE COMPARABLE GLOBAL ACCOUNTING
STANDARDS? HOW DOES THAT EFFORT FIT WITH THE FASB’S MISSION?
The first priority of the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) is to improve financial
reporting for the benefit of investors and other users of financial information in U.S. capital
markets. We do that by striving to set the highest-quality standards, which collectively are
known as Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP). By highest quality, we mean
standards that provide users of financial statements with information that is clear, useful, and
relevant to their needs, while considering whether the expected benefits of that information
justify the costs of providing and using it.
The FASB believes that seeking more comparable global accounting standards—improving the
quality of accounting standards used around the world while reducing differences among those
standards—is consistent with its core mission. Investors, companies, auditors, and other
participants in the U.S. financial reporting system benefit from the increased comparability that
can result from the closer alignment of standards used internationally. More comparable
standards have the potential to reduce costs for both users and preparers of financial statements
and make worldwide capital markets more efficient. The Securities and Exchange Commission
(SEC) expects the FASB to consider, in developing standards, the extent to which international
comparability is necessary or appropriate in the public interest and for the protection of
investors.
HOW DOES THE FASB SEEK GREATER COMPARABILITY?
As we conclude the bilateral convergence program begun in 2002 by the FASB and the
International Accounting Standards Board (IASB), the FASB has implemented a three-part
strategy for seeking greater comparability in accounting standards internationally:
Developing High Quality GAAP Standards
The FASB continually strives to meet the needs of investors and other users of GAAP-based
financial reports, both within and outside the United States, by improving the quality of GAAP.
The FASB believes that the high-quality standards it develops will continue to influence the
shape and future direction of international standards, as they have for more than 40 years. By
creating high-quality standards through a best-in-class standard-setting process, the FASB serves
as a reference point and benchmark for others. In other words, we will continue to lead by setting
an example of excellence.
As it undertakes standard-setting projects, the FASB carefully evaluates whether U.S. financial
reporting would be improved by implementing approaches consistent with particular IFRS
standards. This also would enhance international comparability for the benefit of inves.
• Give a brief definition and an example of the following a. Desc.pdf
• Give a brief definition and an example of the following:
a. Descriptive Statistics
Solution
Descriptive statistics is the discipline of quantitatively describing the main features
of a collection of data. Descriptive statistics are distinguished from inferential statistics (or
inductive statistics), in that descriptive statistics aim to summarize a data set, rather than use the
data to learn about the population that the data are thought to represent. This generally means
that descriptive statistics, unlike inferential statistics, are not developed on the basis of
probability theory.
“The use of internettechnology has given rise to crimes which could .pdf
“The use of internettechnology has given rise to crimes which could not be conceived ofa few
years ago. Such crimes more suitably called cybercrimes.
Discuss any two cybercrimes and also discuss some measurements how to deal with
themkeeping in view the environment of Pakistan.”
Solution
Alot of cybercriminals use the internet b/c they can get away withstuff due to
jurisdiction restriction. For example, there are a lotof fake websites that sell stuff and do not
deliver. THen ifsomeone complains nothign can be done about it b/c there in adifferent country.
Another example is of course identity theft ormusic pirating. I mean we were always able to
share music but onceit became easy due to the internet now it is stealing notsharing..
True FalseThe government intervenes in monopolies wh.pdf
True
FalseThe government intervenes in monopolies when social welfare is negative, or when
the monopoly makes a dollar at a cost of numerous dollars to consumers.
Solution
Ans : True
Reason : There are monopolies like public utilities which are beneficial to the consumers as they
provide service at reasonable price . But when the social welfare is negative or when the
monopoly is squeezing away too much of money from thee consumers , govt intervenes..
Shipping costs are constant There is only one transp.pdf
Shipping costs are constant
There is only one transportation route between source and destination
There is only one transportation mode between source and destination
Actual supply and actual demand must be equalWhich of the following assumptions is not
an assumption of the transportation model? (Points : 1)
Solution
There is only one transportation mode between source and destination.
The major assumptions of the transportation model are the following :
1. Items are homogeneous
2. Shipping cost per unit is the same no matter how many units are shipped( Shipping costs are
constant)
3. Only one route is used from place of shipment to the destination.(There is only one
transportation route between source and destination).
4. Actual supply and actual demand must be equal.
Shipping costs per unit are constant. There is one t.pdf
Shipping costs per unit are constant.
There is one transportation route between each source and destination.
There is one transportation mode between each source and destination.
Actual total supply and actual total demand must be equal.Which of the following
assumptions is not an assumption of the transportation model? (Points : 1)
Solution
As per the assumptions of a transportation model,.
LIFO FIFO Weighted Average None of.pdf
LIFO
FIFO
Weighted Average
None of the abov
quick ratio
inventory turnover
days’ sales in receivables
asset turnover(TCO D) Which inventory method reports the most up-to-date cost on the
balance sheet? (Points : 5)
Solution
Answer: FIFO inventory method reports the most up-to-date cost on the balance sheet.
Answer:A common ratio to measure profitability is the Asset Turnover ratio,
The return on assets (ROA) (aka return on total assets, return on average assets) is one of the
most widely used profitability ratios because it is related to both profit margin and asset turnover,
and shows the rate of return for both creditors and investors of the company. ROA shows how
well a company controls its costs and utilizes its resources..
PDA Personal Digital Assistant HDTV High Definit.pdf
PDA ? Personal Digital Assistant
HDTV ? High Definition Televisions
DVD recorders
Disposable CameraWhich of the following would most likely be considered a functional
product?
@Feedback: Chapter 4 (Points : 1)
Solution
Disposable Camera.
Cutoff Existence Occurrence Valuat.pdf
Cutoff
Existence
Occurrence
Valuation8. Which audit assertion is met when testing for unrecorded accounts payable?
(Points : 1)
Solution
Audit assertion met when testing for unrecorded accounts payable is existence . In this assertion
we test the validity of the existence of assets and liabilities in the balance sheet on balance sheet
date ..
translate the sentence into symbols using propositional logicAlth.pdf
translate the sentence into symbols using propositional logic
Although Susan and Josh are not going to the movies, I am, along with Kevin.
Symbols that may be used are: ->, &, v (or), - (not)
Dictionary:
I – I am going to the movies.
K – Kevin is going to the movies
S – Susan is going to the movies.
J – Josh is going to the movies.
Solution
(-(S&J))&(I&K).
translate the sentence into symbols using propositional logic If .pdf
translate the sentence into symbols using propositional logic
If Susan goes to the movies, but not Josh, then I’m going to the movies with Kevin.
Symbols that may be used are: ->, &, v (or), - (not)
Dictionary:
I – I am going to the movies.
K – Kevin is going to the movies
S – Susan is going to the movies.
J – Josh is going to the movies.
Solution
(S & -J) -> (I & K) On the left side, we have S (Susan goes to the movies) and not J
(Josh going to the movies) implies I (I go to the movies) and K (Kevin goes to the movies)..
I am trying to find out how to find the Median of 19 24 22 16 15 27.pdf
I am trying to find out how to find the Median of 19 24 22 16 15 27 22 27 I know that you are
suppose to arrange the numbers from least to most do I put the 27 together?
Solution
please rate - thanks I am trying to find out how to find the Median of 19 24 22
1615 27 22 27 I know that you are suppose to arrange the numbers fromleast to most do I put the
27 together? 15 16 19 22 22 24 27 27 there are 8 items, so the median is the average of the
center2. (22+22)/2=22 the median is 22.
Fill in the blank using a number of terms listed below (@1 point).pdf
Fill in the blank using a number of terms listed below (@1 point).
After-tax, Average, Before-tax, Bird-in-the-hand theory, Bond-yield-plus-risk-premium, Book,
CAPM, Clientele effect, Common equity, DCF, Debt, Dividend- irrelevance- theory, DRIP, Ex-
dividend date, Information content of- dividends, Interest, Long-term, Market, Market price,
Not-tax-deductible, Optimal-distribution, Par value, Positive, Preferred stock, Residual
distribution model, Short-term, Stock dividend, Stock split, Target capital structure, Tax-
deductible, Tax preference theory, Treasury stock, Undervalued
11. The _ ____________________ is a theory which holds that investors regard dividend
changes as “signals” of management forecasts. Thus, when dividends are raised, this is viewed
by investors as recognition by man-agement of future earnings increases.
12. The ____________________ is the attraction of companies with specific dividend policies to
those investors whose needs are best served by those policies. Thus, companies with high
dividends will have a clientele of investors with low marginal tax rates and strong desires for
current income.
13. The _________________ __ states that firms should make distributions only when more
earnings are available than needed to support the optimal capital budget.
14. The _ _______________is the date when the right to the dividend leaves the stock. This date
was established by stockbrokers to avoid confusion and is ___________(how many days?)
business days prior to the holder of record date. If the stock sale is made prior to the ex-dividend
date, the dividend is paid to the buyer.
15. _ ________ _allow stockholders to automatically purchase shares of common stock of the
paying corporation in lieu of receiving cash dividends. There are two types of plans--one
involves only stock that is already outstanding, while the other involves newly issued stock.
16. _ ___________ usually occur when the stock price is outside of the optimal trading range.
Stock repurchases occur when a firm repurchases its own stock. These shares of stock are then
referred to as _ ______________ .
17. Stock repurchase announcements are viewed as _______________ signals by investors
because the repurchase is often motivated by management’s belief that the firm’s shares are
_________________.
II. True or False
18. ______The cost of capital used in capital budgeting should reflect the average cost of the
various sources of long-term funds a firm uses to acquire assets.
19. _____The cost of debt is equal to one minus the marginal tax rate multiplied by the interest
rate on current debt.
20 ______Funds acquired by the firm through retaining earnings have no cost because there are
no dividend or interest payments associated with them, and no flotation costs are required to
raise them, but capital raised by selling new stock or bonds does have a cost.
21. ______If a firm\'s marginal tax rate is increased, this would, other things held constant, lower
the cost of d.
i have to write an arugmenative reaserch paper about a big event t.pdf
i have to write an arugmenative reaserch paper about a big event that has happen in 2008 til
now..i cant think of anything can u help me out?..i just need a topic to talk about to get me
started!
Solution
how about the big government bail out for all the conpanies weather or not it should
ahve been done in the first place.
A. Any independent variable only explains a portion of the variat.pdf
A. Any independent variable only explains a portion of the variation in the dependent variable.
B. The coefficients have significance levels that achieve the confidence level desired.
C. The coefficients represent the average change in the dependent variable per unit change in the
independent variable holding all other things constant.
D. Both 1 and 2 above.
E. Each variable has an equal share in the explanation of Y.What is meant when we refer to
multiple regression coefficients as partial or net regression coefficients?
Solution
A. Any independent variable only explains a portion of the variation in the dependent variable..
{Exercise 19.19}Samples of starting annual salaries for individual.pdf
{Exercise 19.19}
Samples of starting annual salaries for individuals entering the public accounting and financial
planning professions follow. Annual salaries are shown in thousands of dollars.MeanStandard
deviation
Solution
n1=10, n2=10
Mean (Mw) =.
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