Vaccination is undoubtedly a miracle of modern medicine. In the past 50 years, it's saved more lives worldwide than any other medical product. However, the story of vaccination goes back all the way to Ancient Greece.The story of vaccines did not begin with the first vaccine–Edward Jenner’s use of material from cowpox pustules to provide protection against smallpox. Instead, it begins with the long history of infectious disease in humans, and with early uses of smallpox material to provide immunity to that disease.
Vaccination is undoubtedly a miracle of modern medicine. In the past 50 years, it's saved more lives worldwide than any other medical product. However, the story of vaccination goes back all the way to Ancient Greece.The story of vaccines did not begin with the first vaccine–Edward Jenner’s use of material from cowpox pustules to provide protection against smallpox. Instead, it begins with the long history of infectious disease in humans, and with early uses of smallpox material to provide immunity to that disease.
Influenza Update to the Chicago Board of Health, January 16, 2013Daniel X. O'Neil
Facts, figures, and steps taken re: 2012-13 influenza season in the City of Chicago, as promulgated to the Chicago Board of Public Health on January 16, 2013.
See original document here: http://www.cityofchicago.org/content/dam/city/depts/cdph/policy_planning/Board_of_Health/BOHJan162013FluUpdate.pdf
Influenza Update to the Chicago Board of Health, January 16, 2013Daniel X. O'Neil
Facts, figures, and steps taken re: 2012-13 influenza season in the City of Chicago, as promulgated to the Chicago Board of Public Health on January 16, 2013.
See original document here: http://www.cityofchicago.org/content/dam/city/depts/cdph/policy_planning/Board_of_Health/BOHJan162013FluUpdate.pdf
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
2. General information
In 1918 a major pandemic occurred world wide
Veterinarian J.S. Koen discovered Influenza in 1918 after seeing the same
virus in a pig as the virus in spain
This pandemic killed 50 million, and almost 40% of the world’s population
was infected with Influenza
This Pandemic lasted a year, until everybody was immune, or dead.
3. The Host
The virus is breathed in through the patient's nose and mouth. It then goes
down into the throat where the bristles on the virus’s surface latch on to a
healthy cell then the unknowing cell takes the virus in and reproduces virus.
After the virus leaves the cell the cell dies. The virus keeps on doing this until
the immune system defeats it or the patient dies. When the Flu gets worse it
weakens the lungs making it an easier target for Pneumonia to invade. More
often than not the patient dies from Pneumonia than the Flu.
6. The Host...Continued
Treatments...continued
Take medicine such as Ibuprofen
Did you know that the flu shot is made up of three to four dead viruses to
stimulate your body being attacked by a virus, so that your immune system
will build up an immunity to it
7. The Pathogenic Agent
Influenza is a virus
Because influenza is a virus, it does not have cells
A single virus looks like a round ball with knobby keys
It reproduces by going into a healthy throat cell and going into the nucleus.
There the virus is copied by a molecule and sent out.
This virus is spread through the air, most often when an infected person
talks, sneezes, or coughs. This viruses would travel through through
8. The Pathogenic Agent… continued
To kill the virus the immune system employs its adaptive immunity. The
adaptive immunity is made up of two cells, B cells, and T cells. T cells are
like the front line fighters when it comes to fighting virus. b cells develop
immunities to viruses so you can not get them again.T cells have three
jobs, number one, kill infected cells with a protein on the surface of the cell
called CD8, number two, activate B cells to make an immunity to is so the
next time the virus comes into the body the immune system will be able to
kill it easily, and number three, activate other virus fighting cells.
9. The Environment
Influenza season is from october to may for the northern hemisphere, and
April to September, however in tropical countries the flu can be spread all
year long.
Did you know that you can go to any place in the world and not have an
increased risk of getting the flu, however it is possible if you go to tropical
or southern hemisphere countries you could get the flu outside of the
normal flu season for the US.
10. Influenza Fun Facts
Did you know that the reason you have to get flu shots every year is because
the flu virus each year is different than past years.
Over 200,000 people each year are put in hospitals because of the flu.
Around 49,000 people die from the flu each year
People over 65 should get a stronger flu shot because as you get older your
immune system gets weaker, as you get older.
Did you know that in the common flu shot there are three different types of
11. Influenza Fun facts...Continued
Influenza affects more than 5% of the US population each year
Did you know that there is a vaccine in the form of a nasal spray! This comes
in handy if you’re really afraid of needles (like me).
12. Sources
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"Flu (Influenza)." Flu (Influenza). N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Dec. 2015.
"The Flu Vaccine: Get the Facts." WebMD. WebMD, n.d. Web. 20 Dec. 2015.
"The Influenza Epidemic of 1918." National Archives and Records Administration. National Archives and Records Administration, n.d. Web. 20 Dec. 2015.
"Influenza (flu)." - Mayo Clinic. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Dec. 2015.
"Influenza (Flu)." Influenza (Flu). N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Dec. 2015.
"Influenza." Influenza. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Dec. 2015.
"1918 Flu Pandemic." History.com. A&E Television Networks, n.d. Web. 20 Dec. 2015.
"Pneumonia." KidsHealth - the Web's Most Visited Site about Children's Health. Ed. Rupal Christine Gupta. The Nemours Foundation, 01 Aug. 2014. Web. 20 Dec. 2015.
"Public Health." Treatment of Flu -. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Dec. 2015.
Reference, Wendy C. FriesWebMD Medical. "Flu Vaccine Tip Sheet."WebMD. WebMD, n.d. Web. 20 Dec. 2015.
Sample, Ian. "Nature Publishes Details of Bird Flu Strain That Could Spread among People." The Gardian. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Dec. 2015.
"Seasonal Influenza: Flu Basics." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 25 Aug. 2015. Web. 20 Dec. 2015.
Shmoop Editorial Team. "Immune Defense Against Viruses - Shmoop Biology." Shmoop.com. Shmoop University, Inc., 11 Nov. 2008. Web. 20 Dec. 2015.
