10. Understanding Individual Behavior
Employee Behavior Managerial Challenge
As a result, managers
are challenged to
understand and
recognize the
importance of
individual differences
in their employees.
An individual’s
behavior will be
determined to a great
extent by several
internal elements, such
as attitudes,
personalities,
perceptions, and
abilities.
11. Why Study Individual Differences?
Individual
Differences
Perception
Motivation
Learning
Individual
Behavior
• Individual differences (personality, abilities,
values, & attitudes) affect how you and those
around you see the world and react to it.
13. The Nature of Ability
Ability is mental or physical capacity to do something
• COGNITIVE ABILITY
• PHYSICAL ABILITY
14. Ability
• Ability
– Defined as an existing capacity to perform
various tasks needed in a given situation.
– Ability may be classified as mental,
mechanical, and psychomotor.
– In the organizational setting, ability and effort
are key determinants of employee behavior
and performance.
16. COGNITIVE ABILITIES
ABILITY DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE OF JOB
Verbal Ability Ability to understand and use written and spoken
language
Teacher, lawyer, writers
Numerical
Ability
Ability to solve arithmetic problems and deal with
number
Waiters, investment
bankers,engineers,
accountant
Reasoning
Ability
Ability to come up with solution for problems and
understand the principles by which different
problems can be solved
Therapists, interior
designers, car mechanics,
comp. software designers
Deductive
Ability
Ability to reach appropriate conclusions from an
array of observation
Medical researchers,
detectives, scientists,
Ability to see
relationship
Ability to see how two things are related to each
other and apply this knowledge to other
relationship
Anthropologists, travel
agents, consultants,
wedding planners
Ability to
remember
Ability to recall things ranging from simple
associations to complex groups of statements or
sentences
Translators, salespeople,
managers researchers
Spatial
Ability
Ability to determine the location of objects in
relation to one’s own position and imagine how
an object would appear if its position in space
were altered
Air traffic controllers,
architects, clothing
designers, astronauts
Perceptual Ability to uncover visual patterns and see
relationship within across patterns
Prof. Photographers,
pilots, landscape
designers, captains
17. PHYSICAL ABILITY
• MOTOR SKILL – ability to physically
manipulate objects in an environment
• PHYSICAL SKILL – a person’s fitness and
strength
20. WHAT DO WE MEAN BY
PERSONALITY?
You have a strong need for other people to like you and for
them to admire you. At times you are extroverted, affable,
sociable, while at other times you introverted, wary, and
reserved. You have a great deal of unused energy, which
you have not turn to your advantage. While you have some
personality weaknesses, you are generally able to
compensate for them. You prefer certain amount of change
and variety and become dissatisfied when hemmed in by
restrictions and limitations. You pride yourself on being
independent thinker and do not accept others’ opinion
without satisfactory proof. You have a tendency to be critical
of yourself. Some aspirations tend to be pretty unrealistic.
21. WHAT DO WE MEAN BY
PERSONALITY?
• We all like to think of ourselves as unique
• No two people are exactly alike in terms of
temperament
• Study of personality is concerned with “individual
differences”
e.g.why do some people achieve success and other don’t
why do some people perceive things in different ways?
why do some people suffer stress and others don’t?
22. WHAT DO WE MEAN BY
PERSONALITY?
Definition
Those characteristics of the individual that
account for enduring, pervasive and
distinctive of patterns of behavior
23.
24. Personality
• Describes how you naturally tend to act
or react across situations.
• Consists of psychological traits that
don’t change much over time.
• Nature vs. Nurture?
• Thousands of personality traits exist,
but only some predict behavior at work.
26. HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF
PERSONALITY
• Thales (624-550 B.C) water as ultimate reality
• Empedocles (490-435 B.C) four basic element:
fire, air, water,and earth
• Hippocrates (460- 370 B.C) human are made of
element
• Galen (130-200) temperament model of human
behavior
27. Galen (130-200 AD)
temperament model of human behavior
FIRE BLOOD SANGUINE warm,
hearted, volatile
EARTH BLACK MELANCHOLIC sad,
melancholy
AIR YELLOW CHALORIC quick to anger,
WATER PHLEGM PHLEGMATIC slow to act,
cool, calm
29. HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF
PERSONALITY MEASUREMENT
SIGMUND FREUD
• Father of ‘psychoanalytic theory’
• Behavior is the result of interplay between motives, drives,
needs and conflicts
• Stresses the importance of unconscious mind
• Characteristics such as anxiety or depression are a respond
of unconscious conflict and disruption
30. Freudian Theory
Levels of
consciousness
– Conscious
• What we’re aware of
– Preconscious
• Memories etc. that
can be recalled
– Unconscious
• Wishes, feelings,
impulses that lies
beyond awareness
Structures of
Personality
– Id
• Operates according to
the “pleasure
principle”
– Ego
• Operates according to
the “reality” principle
– Superego
• Contains values and
ideals
33. Freudian Theory
Anxiety occurs when:
– Impulses from the id threaten to get out of
control
– The ego perceives danger from the
environment
The ego deals with the problem through:
– coping strategies
– defense mechanisms
35. Trait theory
Personality traits defined as
• Dimensions of individual differences in
tendencies to show consistent patterns of
thoughts, feelings, and actions
• Traits often masked by mood and
environment
• First impressions of traits are powerful but
often misleading
40. Personality Theories
• Learning Oriented Approach – The process by which
lasting changes in behavior are made through our experiences with
the world.
– Experience is the essential focus of this theory
• We are what we learn…
• 2 Types of Learning
– Instrumental – Praise that reinforces behaviors
– Punishment - Negative reinforcement that reduces desired
behaviors
41. Personality Theories
• Humanistic Oriented Approach --
Emphasis is on positive aspects of personality.
According To The Humanistic Approach:
* Cannot predict individual behavior based on
environmental variables
* Must understand individual subjective
points of view
* Must be optimistic about the capacity of
humans to accept responsibility, acquire
new skills, and behave in constructive
ways…
42. Cognition and Personality
A Combination Approach
“ A theory that assumes that an individual’s
ideas about the world around them act to
guide or influence their perceptions,
thoughts, and behaviors”.
______________________________________
And:
It’s a theory that uses cognitive processes
such as memory and attention to produce
individuality.
43. Mischel’s Cognitive Social
Learning Theory
Cognitive and
behavioral competencies
Encoding strategies
And personal constructs
Subjective stimulus value
Self-regulatory
Systems and plans
Affects
Thoughts Behavior
46. The Big “5”
Adult Personality Traits
• Extroversion vs. Introversion
• Agreeableness vs. Antagonism
• Conscientiousness vs. Undirectness
• Emotional Stability vs. Instability
• Openness vs. Reservedness
Occur Across Different Cultures,
Languages, Genders and Occupations
47. The Big-Five Model
1. Extroversion - Comfort level with
relationships
2. Agreeableness - Propensity to defer to
others
3. Conscientiousness - Measure of reliability
4. Emotional stability - Ability to withstand
stress
5. Openness to experience - Range of
interests & fascination with novelty
48. Other Key Personality Traits
Locus of control - Belief that life is controlled by
oneself vs. outsiders
Machiavellianism - Tendency to manipulate and
maintain emotional distance
Self-esteem - Degree one likes or dislikes
oneself
Self-monitoring - Sensitive to external cues to
behave differently
Risk propensity - Willingness to take chances
Type A personality - Incessantly struggling to
achieve more
50. Personality:
It’s Impact At Work
• Type A Personality
40% of Population
– Hard Driving
– Competitive
– Impatient
– Aggressive
• Type B Personality
60% of Population
– Relaxed
– Easygoing
– Sociable
– Not Competitive
Oil Water
51. Type A vs The Job
• Health Concerns
– Twice as likely to
have heart disease
– Responds to
stress in more
physical ways
• Performance
– Works Faster
– Seeks more
challenge
– Selects more
difficult tasks
DANGER!
52. Type A Modified
vs.
Type B Modified
• Type A with good
emotional
adjustment
– Charismatic
– Vigorous
• With poor emotional
adjustment
– Hostile
– Impatient
• Type B with good
emotional
adjustment
– Content
– Calm
• With poor emotional
adjustment
– Tense
– Inhibited
53. Matching Personalities & Jobs
• Six-Personality-Types Model:
– Employee satisfaction with & propensity to leave job
depend on degree of personality matching
occupational environment
• Six major personality types have been identified
55. Person-Environment Fit
• Person-Job Fit:
– A person’s abilities & personality meet the
demands of a job and/or a person’s needs are met
by the job.
– Vocational choice inventories.
• Person-Organization Fit:
– A person’s values, personality, and abilities are
similar to others’ in the organization, and/or the
person and organization meet each others’ needs.
– Value and culture profiles.
56. Holland’s Personality-Job Fit Theory
Type Personality Occupations
Realistic
Investigative
Social
Conventional
Enterprising
Artistic
Shy, Stable, Practical
Analytical, Independent
Sociable, Cooperative
Practical, Efficient
Ambitious, Energetic
Imaginative, Idealistic
Mechanic, Farmer,
Assembly-Line Worker
Biologist, Economist,
Mathematician
Social Worker,
Teacher, Counselor
Accountant, Manager
Bank Teller
Lawyer, Salesperson
Painter, Writer,
Musician
57. Six Personality Types & Sample Occupations
Type Personality Characteristics Sample Occupation
Realistic: Prefers physical
activities that require skill,
strength, & coordination
Shy, genuine, persistent,
stable, conforming,
practical
Mechanic, drill press
operator, assembly-line
worker, farmer
Investigative: Prefers
activities involving
thinking, organizing, &
understanding
Analytical, original,
curious, independent
Biologist, economist,
mathematician, news
reporter
Social: Prefers activities
that involve helping &
developing others
Sociable, friendly,
cooperative,
understanding
Social worker, teacher,
counselor, clinical
psychologist
Conventional: Prefers rule-
regulated, orderly, &
unambiguous activities
Conforming, efficient,
practical, unimaginative,
inflexible
Accountant, corporate
manager, bank teller,
file clerk
Enterprising: Prefers
verbal activities where
there are opportunities to
influence others & attain
power
Self-confident, ambitious,
energetic, domineering
Lawyer, real estate
agent, public relations
specialist, small
business manager
Artistic: Prefers
ambiguous &
unsystematic activities
that allow creative
expression
Imaginative, disorderly,
idealistic, emotional,
impractical
Painter, musician,
writer, interior decorator
Source: Based on J. L. Holland, Making Vocational Choices: A Theory of Vocational Personalities and Work Environments, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice Hall, 1985).
60. Does Personality Influence
Success on the Job?
• What is an Effective Hire?
– Demonstrate honesty and integrity
– Interpersonally “skilled”
– Able to build and lead a team
– Show respect for others & pride in yourself
– Be punctual in attendance
– Be intelligent
– Strong Problem-Solving skills
– Ability to learn and adapt
61. Does Personality Influence
Success on the Job?
• What is an Effective Hire?
– Demonstrate honesty and integrity
– Interpersonally “skilled”
– Able to build and lead a team
– Show respect for others & pride in yourself
– Be punctual in attendance
– Be intelligent
– Strong Problem-Solving skills
– Ability to learn and adapt
62. Planting the Seed
• Managers’ Perceptions of Job
Relatedness of Personality Traits and
Intelligence
•Most Important Attribute across all
Jobs:
–Intelligence
•Some Personality Traits matter:
–Work Motivation (Conscientiousness)
–Emotional Control (Emotional
Stability)
63. Does Personality Matter?
• Basic Premise: People do have long
term, dispositional traits that influence
their behavior in work settings.
• Old Conventional Wisdom – Not
Related to Job Success
• New Conventional Wisdom –
Some Traits Do Predict Performance
– Need to Consider Specific Traits
– Need to Consider Job Demands
64. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
• Extroversion versus introversion (EI)
– An individual’s orientation toward the inner world of
ideas (I) or the external world of the environment (E).
• Sensing versus intuitive (SN)
– An individual’s reliance on information gathered from
the external world (S) or from the world of ideas (N).
• Thinking versus feeling (TF)
– One’s preference for evaluating information in an
analytical manner (T) or on the basis of values and
beliefs (F).
• Judging versus perceiving (JP)
– Reflects an attitude toward the external world that is
either task completion oriented (J) or information
seeking (P).
• Potential problem with personality tests like MBTI:
– A strong tendency to stereotype, pigeonhole or typecast
people, limiting growth opportunities.
66. Myers Biggs Type Inventory (MBTI Types)
Intuitive Thinkers (NT)
Architects of progress & ideas
See relationship among departments
Focus on possibility & analyze objectively
Change agent
Responsive to creativity
Straightforward and open
Enjoy intellectual activities
Enjoy problem solving
Unaware of others’ feeling
Judge other on intellectual achievement
Unreasonable expectations
Intuitive Feelers (NF)
Personal charisma & commitment to others
Good communicators
Comfortable with uncertainty and change
Patient with complications
Open to ideas and to changes
Relate well to others
Seek social and personal contact
Need to much approval to others
Burn out and need periods of rest
Have trouble implementing ideas
Sensation Thinkers (ST)
Establish rule and regulation
Focus on fact and figure
Decisive & excellent decision maker base
on fact
Preserve toward realistic goals
Focus on effectiveness and efficiency
Push others to get to the point
Give and receive concrete reward
Impatient with delay
Jump into action too quickly
Tense when things don’t go as plan
Sensation Feelers (SF)
Pragmatic and methodical
Troubleshooters and diplomats
Good at working the system
Understand organization well
Respond well to concrete ideas
Predictable and easy to get along with
Reward out come rather than effort
Reluctant to accept change
Over-reliance on rules and regulations
Too much focus on the present
THINKING (T)
FEELING (F)
INTUITIVE
(N)
67. Tell Me Why I Should Care
• Value of Effective Hires?
Gain in Productivity
90
120
150
180
210
Low Med High
Job Complexity
Performance
vs.
Standard
Best
85th
Avg
68. Tell Me Why I Should Care
Strategically, our People are More
Important Today than ever before.
Why?
1. The Quality or Service Challenge
2. Role of Knowledge and Innovation
3. Changing Jobs and Flatter Firms
Our Employees Provide a Source of
Competitive Advantage
69. Tell Me Why I should Care
about Personality?
• Personality is NOT Strongly Related
to any Behavior most Organizations
Care About
• YET
70. Why I should Care (Cont)
• Personality IS Moderately related to
Many Behaviors Firms Care About
– Regularly coming to work on time
– Staying with the Organization (not quitting)
– Contributing more positive “Citizenship
Behaviors” (going “above & beyond”)
* Helping others; Mentoring newcomers
– Maintaining Personal Discipline
– Overall Job Performance
71. Why I Should Care (Cont)
• Personality Matters for a Long Time
– Over a 50 year time period, a study
reveals the best predictors of Career
Success (Pay, Promotions) and Career
Satisfaction were:
•Intelligence
•Personality, specifically:
–Work Motivation (Conscientiousness)
–Emotional Control (Emotional Stability)
72. Which Personality Traits Matter?
• Thousands of Personality Traits Exist
• Recent Research --> Well-Accepted
Structure of Personality
–Five Factor Model: Extraversion,
Agreeableness, Conscientiousness,
Emotional Stability, Openness to
Experience
73. Conclusions: The Predictive
Validity of the FFM
• 2 Traits are Useful Predictors in nearly all Jobs
– Conscientiousness = Work Related Motivation
• Dependable, Organized, Hardworking, Achievement
– Emotional Stability = Especially Emotional
Control - Influences Motivation at Work
• Calm, Self-Confident, Resilient
• In Work Situations, these two traits are “General
Competencies” that are Important Across Jobs
74. Conclusions: The Predictive
Validity of the FFM
• Other Traits are Relevant for some Jobs or some
Criteria:
– Extraversion - Social Jobs (eg Sales & Mgmt)
and for Training
– Agreeableness - Cooperation is Critical (Teams)
or with large Customer Service demands
– Openness to Experience – Training, Creativity
• These Traits are relevant only in Specific
“Niches”
75. How does the Situation Affect
this Relationship?
• 2 Perspectives To Trait -Situation
Interaction
– Traits Are Correlated With Behaviors
Only In Relevant Situations
– People Will Choose Situations That
“Match” Their Traits
77. Emotional Intelligence (EQ)
• Some data suggests that EQ contributes to
personal success, above and beyond IQ.
• Competencies
– Personal: Self-Awareness, Self-Regulation,
Motivation
– Social: Empathy, Social Skills
• Gender differences:
– Women score higher on empathy & social skills;
whereas men score higher on self control aspects.
• Unlike IQ, EQ can be learned.
