1. The document discusses the rapid expansion of Islam and the Arab empire from the 7th to 8th centuries, conquering large areas of the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Europe and Asia.
2. It then examines some of the cultural problems for information security in modern Saudi Arabia, including strict gender segregation policies that prevent direct communication between unrelated men and women.
3. The challenges of the Saudi culture add complexity for securing information systems in organizations in the country, and sensitivity is needed to appropriately address the issues.
The Meaning of the Qur'an is a fresh English rendering of Tafhim-ul-Qur’an, Maulana Syed Abu Ala Moududi’s monumental and masterly Urdu translation of the Qur’an and a selection of his commentary. The translator has undertaken the delicate and difficult task of rendering this work in English under the guidance of the Maulana himself. Here is a work with a difference, by a dedicated scholar of an entirely different sort. An immense wealth of profound understanding of the Qur’an is here, a vast treasure of knowledge and deep insight, and a valuable exposition of some social, political, economic and legal teachings of the Qur’an.
This comprehensive Tafsir answers contemporary questions, and makes the Qur’an fully relevant to the concerns of day, yet it loses nothing of its timelessness nor sacrifices any of the traditional understanding. It demonstrates the unity and coherence of the Qur’an by centring everything on its message, like gems hung on a single string.
This Tafsir is particularly suitable for Muslims with no direct access to the Arabic original.
Illuminating the darkness blacks and north africans in islam by habeeb akandedocsforu
ILLUMINATING THE DARKNESS is about the status of blacks and North
Africans in Islam. The book is divided into two sections: Part I of the book
explores the concept of race, ‘blackness’, slavery, interracial marriage
and racism in Islam in the light of the Qur’an, Hadith and early historical
sources. Part II of the book consists of a compilation of short biographies
of noble black and North African Muslim men and women in Islamic
history including Prophets, Companions of the Prophet $ and more recent
historical figures. The reader is given a fascinating glimpse into the lives of
truly noble characters, from luminous scholars to leaders of whole African
civilisations.
The reader needs no other discrimination while reading this book than
the one the author strives to make clear throughout: the din of Islam is not
only free of racism but is utterly opposed to it as the most aberrant form
of jahiliyyah (ignorance).
HABEEB AKANDE Born in London, England, Habeeb Akande graduated
from Kingston University with a First Class BA with Honours degree in
Business and Film Studies. After his graduation, Habeeb travelled to Cairo,
Egypt in pursuit of studying traditional Islamic sciences. A student of the
Maliki school of Jurisprudence, Habeeb studied Arabic, Islamic Law and
Islamic History at al-Azhar High School and University.
The Meaning of the Qur'an is a fresh English rendering of Tafhim-ul-Qur’an, Maulana Syed Abu Ala Moududi’s monumental and masterly Urdu translation of the Qur’an and a selection of his commentary. The translator has undertaken the delicate and difficult task of rendering this work in English under the guidance of the Maulana himself. Here is a work with a difference, by a dedicated scholar of an entirely different sort. An immense wealth of profound understanding of the Qur’an is here, a vast treasure of knowledge and deep insight, and a valuable exposition of some social, political, economic and legal teachings of the Qur’an.
This comprehensive Tafsir answers contemporary questions, and makes the Qur’an fully relevant to the concerns of day, yet it loses nothing of its timelessness nor sacrifices any of the traditional understanding. It demonstrates the unity and coherence of the Qur’an by centring everything on its message, like gems hung on a single string.
This Tafsir is particularly suitable for Muslims with no direct access to the Arabic original.
Illuminating the darkness blacks and north africans in islam by habeeb akandedocsforu
ILLUMINATING THE DARKNESS is about the status of blacks and North
Africans in Islam. The book is divided into two sections: Part I of the book
explores the concept of race, ‘blackness’, slavery, interracial marriage
and racism in Islam in the light of the Qur’an, Hadith and early historical
sources. Part II of the book consists of a compilation of short biographies
of noble black and North African Muslim men and women in Islamic
history including Prophets, Companions of the Prophet $ and more recent
historical figures. The reader is given a fascinating glimpse into the lives of
truly noble characters, from luminous scholars to leaders of whole African
civilisations.
The reader needs no other discrimination while reading this book than
the one the author strives to make clear throughout: the din of Islam is not
only free of racism but is utterly opposed to it as the most aberrant form
of jahiliyyah (ignorance).
HABEEB AKANDE Born in London, England, Habeeb Akande graduated
from Kingston University with a First Class BA with Honours degree in
Business and Film Studies. After his graduation, Habeeb travelled to Cairo,
Egypt in pursuit of studying traditional Islamic sciences. A student of the
Maliki school of Jurisprudence, Habeeb studied Arabic, Islamic Law and
Islamic History at al-Azhar High School and University.
Educational system in the Time of the ProphetMuQeet
Prophet Muhammad as a Teacher, Dean and Rector, An important reference material to learn about the value of Education in Islam and Muslim society. Authored by Dr. M Hamidullah, this is a feature in Islamic Scholarship.
The Meaning of the Qur'an is a fresh English rendering of Tafhim-ul-Qur’an, Maulana Syed Abu Ala Moududi’s monumental and masterly Urdu translation of the Qur’an and a selection of his commentary. The translator has undertaken the delicate and difficult task of rendering this work in English under the guidance of the Maulana himself. Here is a work with a difference, by a dedicated scholar of an entirely different sort. An immense wealth of profound understanding of the Qur’an is here, a vast treasure of knowledge and deep insight, and a valuable exposition of some social, political, economic and legal teachings of the Qur’an.
This comprehensive Tafsir answers contemporary questions, and makes the Qur’an fully relevant to the concerns of day, yet it loses nothing of its timelessness nor sacrifices any of the traditional understanding. It demonstrates the unity and coherence of the Qur’an by centring everything on its message, like gems hung on a single string.
This Tafsir is particularly suitable for Muslims with no direct access to the Arabic original.
Pre-publication of Part Eight and Chapter XXII of my forthcoming book “Turkey is Iran and Iran is Turkey – 2500 Years of indivisible Turanian – Iranian Civilization distorted and estranged by Anglo-French Orientalists”; Part Eight (The Distorted Term ‘Persianate’) consists exclusively of Chapter XXII. The book is made of 12 parts and 33 chapters.
--------------------
First published on 7th November 2021 here:
https://megalommatis.wordpress.com/the-fake-persianization-of-the-abbasid-caliphate-2/
The Meaning of the Qur'an is a fresh English rendering of Tafhim-ul-Qur’an, Maulana Syed Abu Ala Moududi’s monumental and masterly Urdu translation of the Qur’an and a selection of his commentary. The translator has undertaken the delicate and difficult task of rendering this work in English under the guidance of the Maulana himself. Here is a work with a difference, by a dedicated scholar of an entirely different sort. An immense wealth of profound understanding of the Qur’an is here, a vast treasure of knowledge and deep insight, and a valuable exposition of some social, political, economic and legal teachings of the Qur’an.
This comprehensive Tafsir answers contemporary questions, and makes the Qur’an fully relevant to the concerns of day, yet it loses nothing of its timelessness nor sacrifices any of the traditional understanding. It demonstrates the unity and coherence of the Qur’an by centring everything on its message, like gems hung on a single string.
This Tafsir is particularly suitable for Muslims with no direct access to the Arabic original.
Educational system in the Time of the ProphetMuQeet
Prophet Muhammad as a Teacher, Dean and Rector, An important reference material to learn about the value of Education in Islam and Muslim society. Authored by Dr. M Hamidullah, this is a feature in Islamic Scholarship.
The Meaning of the Qur'an is a fresh English rendering of Tafhim-ul-Qur’an, Maulana Syed Abu Ala Moududi’s monumental and masterly Urdu translation of the Qur’an and a selection of his commentary. The translator has undertaken the delicate and difficult task of rendering this work in English under the guidance of the Maulana himself. Here is a work with a difference, by a dedicated scholar of an entirely different sort. An immense wealth of profound understanding of the Qur’an is here, a vast treasure of knowledge and deep insight, and a valuable exposition of some social, political, economic and legal teachings of the Qur’an.
This comprehensive Tafsir answers contemporary questions, and makes the Qur’an fully relevant to the concerns of day, yet it loses nothing of its timelessness nor sacrifices any of the traditional understanding. It demonstrates the unity and coherence of the Qur’an by centring everything on its message, like gems hung on a single string.
This Tafsir is particularly suitable for Muslims with no direct access to the Arabic original.
Pre-publication of Part Eight and Chapter XXII of my forthcoming book “Turkey is Iran and Iran is Turkey – 2500 Years of indivisible Turanian – Iranian Civilization distorted and estranged by Anglo-French Orientalists”; Part Eight (The Distorted Term ‘Persianate’) consists exclusively of Chapter XXII. The book is made of 12 parts and 33 chapters.
--------------------
First published on 7th November 2021 here:
https://megalommatis.wordpress.com/the-fake-persianization-of-the-abbasid-caliphate-2/
The Meaning of the Qur'an is a fresh English rendering of Tafhim-ul-Qur’an, Maulana Syed Abu Ala Moududi’s monumental and masterly Urdu translation of the Qur’an and a selection of his commentary. The translator has undertaken the delicate and difficult task of rendering this work in English under the guidance of the Maulana himself. Here is a work with a difference, by a dedicated scholar of an entirely different sort. An immense wealth of profound understanding of the Qur’an is here, a vast treasure of knowledge and deep insight, and a valuable exposition of some social, political, economic and legal teachings of the Qur’an.
This comprehensive Tafsir answers contemporary questions, and makes the Qur’an fully relevant to the concerns of day, yet it loses nothing of its timelessness nor sacrifices any of the traditional understanding. It demonstrates the unity and coherence of the Qur’an by centring everything on its message, like gems hung on a single string.
This Tafsir is particularly suitable for Muslims with no direct access to the Arabic original.
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HE MOMENTOUS EVENTS OF EIGHTH-CENTURY EUROPE WERE
first set in train by the death of Muhammad, the Prophet
who bore the Revelation of submission to God that is
Islam. The story of Muhammad's transformation, from ordinary
citizen of Mecca to charismatic military leader and radical
founder of a religious and civil order, played itself out in a cor-
ner of our ancestral world about which we know precious little.
The Arabs of the steppes and deserts of the Arabian peninsula
were more or less settled in the oases that provided what scant
water there was to be had. Some few were traders, serving as
connections between one settlement and another. The most
powerful were the nomads, the Bedouin. The desert culture of
these peoples-who also had historic connections with the
adjacent cultures of the Fertile Crescent-was itself strongly
marked by two features that gave distinctive shape to the religion
18 ffi THE oRNAMENT oF THE woRLD
that Muhammad's revelations brought into existence. On the one
hand, the pagan and idol-worshiping religions of the desert were
the target for this new and utterly uncompromising monothe-
ism, which begins with the starkest possible declaration on the
matter: "There is no god but God."* On the other hand, not only
conserved but fully appropriated from the culture whose ritual
center was Mecca was the loving cultivation-some would say
adoration-of language, and of poetry as the best that men did
with the gift of language. Muhammad's revelation, preserved in
the Quran, embraced the poetry-besotted universe of his ances-
tors and contemporaries, and thus ensured the survival of the
pre-Islamic poetic universe, with its many blatant contradictions
of what would become normative lslamic belief.
The vexed question at the heart of the story we are follow-
ing, the one that will take us to Europe's remarkable transforma-
tions in the medieval period, lies not in Muhammads life but in
his death. (The lslamic calendar hinges neither on Muhammad's
birth nor on his death, but on the turning point in the story, in
622,when Muhammad and his followers moved from Mecca to
Medina, a journey known as the hijra, or hegira.) Muhammad
had died in Medina in 632 without an obvious successor. He had
left behind, first and foremost, a powerful revelation, a combina-
tion of tradition and revolution. Islam was nothing less than the
return to the pristine monotheism of Abraham-abandoned or
misunderstood by Jews and Christians alike, the revelations as-
serted, and unknown altogether to the benighted pagans of the
desert. All this came forth not in Muhammad's own words but
through his transmission of the direct language of God, his
nOne of the inappropriate and alienating ways we speak about lslam in English is to use
the Arabic word Allah, God, as if it were a proper name, creating the false impression-
ironlc and horrifying for a Muslim.
Abbasid caliphate and the golden age of IslamThe Gol.docxSALU18
Abbasid caliphate and the golden age of Islam
The Golden Age
Abbasid Caliphate 750-1258 AD overthrew the Umayyads
Under Abbasid leadership, the Islamic world flourished, leading to a Golden Age
A centralized government dominated by a theocratic outlook helped create a sense of unity and purpose for the new caliphate
The unity of the empire allowed for the flourishing of the arts
The Golden Age
Byzantine and Sasanian knowledge was spread throughout the vast empire and impacted many European kingdoms
Persian becomes the language of the court
Stressed conversion and turned against the Shi’a and other allies to support a less tolerant Sunni Islam.
Large bureaucracy worked under the vizir, or chief administrator.
The Golden Age
The Muslim conquerors inherited a rich and diverse world from Byzantium and the Persians
At first, the new Arab rulers let the political and governmental structures in place—they just ruled over them
One of the first measures they took was to develop schools
The primary function of this was to teach and organize the practices of Islam
The Quran served as the primary text to teach people how to read
Sunna
Sunna is the oral tradition passed down of those early Muslims living in Medina
Despite the expansion and migration of Muslims across the Mediterranean, the Medinese community still provided the most important example
This is because they formed the Companions of Muhammad—those who observed the Prophet
Muslims looked at their lifestyle for guidance on how to practice Islam
These observations were known as sunna
Hadith
Out of the Islamic schools came the hadiths
Hadiths are important collections of sayings or teachings that are attributing to Muhammad
These are linked through an isnad, which is a chain of people that links the saying back to someone who heard the prophet say it or do it.
Major schools of Islamic thought developed around the study and practice of hadiths
In Sunni Islam there are four major schools, though others exist, Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’I, and Hanbali
Sharia
The study of the Quran and sunna, the Islamic legislation, led to the creation Sharia
Sharia means path or way
It is a system of laws based upon the study of the Quran and hadith
Sharia’s main function is to instruct the believer on how to live properly and worship Allah
These new laws and regulations also led to new spiritual and ascetic practices in Islam
Here the influence of Christian, Hindi, and Zoroastrian monks are seen upon Islam such as celibacy
Possible Evolution of the Lesser Jihad
As the boundaries of the caliphate stopped growing (Battle of Tours 732 and failed sieges of Constantinople 717), new perspectives on jihad emerged
With the rise of Sufism, Islamic mystics, jihad began to take on notions of spiritual warfare
By the ninth century, two hundred years after Muhammad, ideas that jihad was an internal war against passions emerged in the writings al-Dunya and al-Muhasibi
These writings on th.
A Geographical History of the Quran
Written by Dr. Syed Muzzafar ud Din Nadvi (based on his teacher Syed Suleiman Nadvi's book - Tareekh Ardh Al Quran)
14 The Expansive Realm of Islamben06937.Ch14_344-373.qxd .docxmoggdede
14 The Expansive Realm of Islam
ben06937.Ch14_344-373.qxd 8/27/07 8:19 AM Page 344
In 632 C.E. the prophet Muhammad visited his native city of Mecca from his home in exile at
Medina, and in doing so he set an example that devout Muslims have sought to emulate ever
since. The hajj—the holy pilgrimage to Mecca—draws Muslims by the hundreds of thousands
from all parts of the world to Saudi Arabia. Each year Muslims travel to Mecca by land, sea,
and air to make the pilgrimage and visit the holy sites of Islam.
In centuries past the numbers of pilgrims were smaller, but their observance of the hajj
was no less conscientious. By the ninth century, pilgrimage had become so popular that Mus-
lim rulers went to some lengths to meet the needs of travelers passing through their lands.
With the approach of the pilgrimage season—the last month of the Islamic lunar calendar—
crowds gathered at major trading centers such as Baghdad, Damascus, and Cairo. There they
lived in tent cities, surviving on food and water provided by government officials, until they
could join caravans bound for Mecca. Muslim rulers invested considerable sums in the mainte-
nance of roads, wells, cisterns, and lodgings that accommodated pilgrims—as well as castles
and police forces that protected travelers—on their journeys to Mecca and back.
The hajj was not only solemn observance but also an occasion for joy and celebration.
Muslim rulers and wealthy pilgrims often made lavish gifts to caravan companions and others
they met en route to Mecca. During her famous hajj of 976–977, for example, the Mesopota-
mian princess Jamila bint Nasir al-Dawla provided food and fresh green vegetables for her fel-
low pilgrims and furnished five hundred camels for handicapped travelers. She also purchased
freedom for five hundred slaves and distributed fifty thousand fine robes among the common
people of Mecca.
Most pilgrims did not have the resources to match Jamila’s generosity, but for common
travelers, too, the hajj became a special occasion. Merchants and craftsmen made acquain-
tances and arranged business deals with pilgrims from other lands. Students and scholars ex-
changed ideas during their weeks of traveling together. For all pilgrims, participation in ritual
activities lent new meaning and significance to their faith.
The word Islam means “submission,” signifying obedience to the rule and will of Allah, the
only deity recognized in the strictly monotheistic Islamic religion. An individual who accepts
the Islamic faith is a Muslim, meaning “one who has submitted.” Though it began as one man’s
expression of unqualified faith in Allah, Islam quickly attracted followers and took on political
and social as well as religious significance. During the first century of the new faith’s existence,
Islam reached far beyond its Arabian homeland, bringing Sasanid Persia and parts of the
Byzantine empire into its orbit. By the eighth century the realm of Islam an ...
Chinese & islamic contributions to global civilization enJoe Carter
This presentation is a brief overview of humanity's collective development. It points to the crucial contributions made, in earlier stages, of China and Islam. It portrays globalization as a process of the integration of humanity into One World drawing on our collective social, scientific and spiritual heritage.
Initially published on the 26th June 2004 in the Iraq Net Forum (Index - IraqNet Discussions - Politics)
Republished (along with the cover letter) and highlighted by the Aram Nahrin Portal (Aram Nahrin Organization / Arameans of Aram-Nahrin Organisation) on 1st August 2004
https://www.aramnahrin.org/English/Muhammad_Shamsaddin_Iraq.htm
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Impact of gender and generational differences in Arab culture report
1. 1
Project report on
Impact of Gender and Generational
Differences in Work Values and
Attitudes in an Arab Culture
Submitted by
Ambrish Ratna (1226114103)
Mohammed Naseer Khan (1226114117)
Malllela Udaya Naga Kartheek(1226114122)
Saka Sandesh(1226114132)
Ashish Pradhan (1226214101)
2. 2
Executive summary
Saudi Arabia has seen a rapid expansion of information systems. However, the
culture in Saudi Arabia has the effect of making the security of this information
very vulnerable which, in turn, can have an effect on the success ofSaudi
organisations. This paper has shown that Saudi Arabian culture adds an
additional layer of complexity to the security of any information system. A
number of problems specific to Saudi Arabian culture have been identified. The
question now arises as to what should be done about these problems. This is the
subject of ongoing research.
Other problems in Saudi Arabian information system security may prove more
difficult to solve. However, IT itself is already helping to overcome some
problems such as the use of email to enable male-female communication. It is
possible that IT may provide yet more possible ways to overcome the security
problems of Saudi Arabia, but this is for future investigation. Information
systems security should be a concern of every company and organisation.
However, this paper has highlighted additional problems created by the culture
in Saudi Arabia. It is believed that any organisation working in Saudi Arabia
should note the potential risks to IT security reported in this paper and should
address the problems with care and sensitivity to take the culture into account.
This paper has made some suggestions on ways forward for investigation to
resolve the problems identified
3. 3
Introduction:-
The Arab conquests:7th century:-
One of the most dramatic and sudden movements of any people in history is the
expansion, by conquest, of the Arabs in the 7th century (only the example of the
Mongols in the 13th century can match it). The desert tribesmen of Arabia form
the bulk of the Muslim armies. Their natural ferocity and love of warfare,
together with the sense of moral rectitude provided by their new religion, form
an irresistible combination. When Muhammad dies in 632, the western half of
Arabia is Muslim. Two years later the entire peninsula has been brought to the
faith, and Muslim armies have moved up into the desert between Syria and
Mesopotamia.
The great Christian cities of Syria and Palestine fall to the Arabs in rapid
successionfrom635. Damascus, in that year, is the first to be captured. Antioch
follows in 636. And 638 bring the greatest prize of all, in Muslim terms, when
Jerusalem is taken after a year's siege.
It is a moment of profound significance for the young religion, for Islam sees
itself as the successorofJudaism and Christianity. The city of the people of
Moses, in which Jesus also preaches and dies, is a holy place for Muslims too.
Moses and Jesus are Muhammad's predecessors as prophets. A Muhammad
himself will also soonemerge in Jerusalem.
Muslim Persia:637-751
Persia falls to the Arabs as a consequenceof the battle of Kadisiya, close to the
Euphrates, in 637. After their victory the Arabs sack the city of Ctesiphon
(carefully sharing out the famous spring). The last Sassanian emperor,
Yazdegerd III, is five at the time. He and his court escape to the east, but he is
eventually assassinated, in 651, at Merv. His name remains, even today, in use
in the chronology of the Parsees. They number their years from the start of his
reign in 632.
Meanwhile the Arabs win another victory over Persian forces at Nahavand in
641. They capture Isfahan in 642 and Herat in 643. Persia becomes, for a
century, part of the Umayyad. The final push eastwards for Islam, in the central
Asian plateau, is in more difficult terrain and is more protracted. Throughout the
second half of the 7th century there is fighting in and around the Hindu Kush,
4. 4
but by the early years of the 8th century the Arabs control the full swathe of
territory from the Arabian Sea in the south (they enter Sind and move
into India as far north as Multan by 712), up through Kandahar and Balkh
(either side of the Hindu Kush) to Bukhara and Samarkand in the north, beyond
the Amu Darya. At this northern extreme they are neighbours of the T'ang
Chinese. The eventual clash between these two powers, an encounter won by
the Arabs, comes in 751 at the Talas River.
Muslim North Africa: from642
The Arab conquestof Egypt and North Africa begins with the arrival of an army
in640 in front of the Byzantine fortified town of Babylon (in the area which is
now Old Cairo). The Arabs capture it after a siege and establish their own
garrison town just to the east, calling it Al Fustat.
The army then moves on to Alexandria, but here the defences are sufficient to
keep them at bay for fourteen months. At the end of that time a surprising treaty
is signed. The Greeks of Alexandria agree to leave peacefully; the Arabs give
them a year in which to do so. In the autumn of 642, the handover duly occurs.
One of the richest of Byzantine provinces has been lost to the Arabs without a
fight. The Arabs continue rapidly westwards along the coastof North Africa,
capturing Cyrenaica in 642 and Tripoli in 643. But these remain largely
ineffective outposts.Fornearly three decades the Arabs make little progress in
subduing the indigenous Berber inhabitants of this coastal strip.
The turning point comes in 670 with the founding of a new Arab garrison town
at Kairouan, about sixty miles south of the Byzantine city of Carthage. From
this secure base military controlbecomes possible. Carthage is destroyed (yet
again) in 698. By the early 8th century northwest Africa is firmly in Arab hands.
In 711 an Arab general takes the next expansionist step. With a Berber army he
crosses the straits of Gibraltar and enters Spain.
Arabs in Spain and France:711-732
The short journey across the water from Africa, bringing an army into Spain in
711, begins the final thrust of Arab expansionism in the west. In a frequently
repeated pattern of history the invaders, invited to assist one side in a quarrel,
rapidly take control and suppress bothsquabbling parties. Within a few months
5. 5
the Arabs drive the Visigoths from their capital at Toledo.
Soongovernors appointed by the caliph in Damascus are ruling much of Spain.
The Arabs press on northwards. Their armies move into Gaul, and here at last
they are halted - near Poitiers in 732.
The Arabs and Constantinople:674-717
in the overwhelming assault on the Byzantine Empire by the Arabs during the
7th century, only one campaign is consistently unsuccessful. This is their
frequently repeated attempt to capture Constantinople itself.
The city is first unsuccessfully attacked, by sea and land, in669. The last of
several expeditions ends in disaster for the Arabs in 717, when a fleet of some
2000 ships is destroyed by a storm and the army straggles homewards through a
wintry Anatolia. From the mid-670s the Byzantines have one strong
psychological advantage - a mysterious new device in their armoury which
becomes known as Greek fire.
Greek fire: 674
In674 a Muslim fleet enters the Bosphorus to attack Constantinople. It is
greeted, and greatly deterred, by a new weapon which can be seen as the
precursorof the modern flamethrower. It has never been discovered precisely
how the Byzantine chemists achieve the jet of flame for their 'Greek fire'. The
secret of such a lethal advantage is jealously guarded.
Contemporary accounts imply that the inflammable substanceis petroleum-
based, floats on water, and is almost impossible to extinguish. It can be lobbed
in a canister. But in its most devastating form it is projected, as a stream of
liquid fire, from a tube mounted in the prow of a ship. Sprayed among a wooden
fleet, its destructive potential is obvious.
Arabs and Muslims: 8th century:-
during the explosive first century of Arab expansion, the relationship subtly
changes between two concepts - Arab and Muslim. At first they are inseparable.
The Muslim armies are made up entirely of Arab tribesmen, and it is taken for
granted that only Arabs can be Muslims. Between campaigns the Arab armies
stay together in winter camps or garrison towns. They are an occupying force,
6. 6
having little link with the inhabitants of the conquered territories. But by the
early 8th century, when the Muslim expansion has reached something
approaching its peak, there are not enough Arabs to provide the troops.
Out of necessity, people of other groups begin to be received into Islam,
fighting alongside the Arabs. Berbers do so in the west and Persians in the east.
Inevitably there are resentments. Non-Arabs often feel they are treated as
second-class Muslims, particularly when it comes to sharing out loot after a
campaign. And the conversion of outsiders to Islam brings a financial burden.
Non-Muslims are charged a poll tax, which is not paid by believers. The spread
of the faith is a drain on the treasury. These various tensions, and the inevitable
difficulty of controlling the vast new empire, result in a rebellion in 747 against
the Umayyad caliph.
Culture problems in Saudi Arab
Gender communication in Arab:-
In addition to gender hierarchy issues, according to the interpretation of the
Islamic religion in Saudi Arabia, physical gender segregation in society and
organisations is essential. This means that males and females who are not
related should not have direct contact with each other. Women in Saudi Arabia
7. 7
can work in male/female organisations but they must not interact with men.
Most women work in all female settings where they do not have to interact with
men. Women tend to work in girls’ schools, women’s sections of universities
and banks catering for female clients, social work and development
programmes for women, medicine and nursing for women, television and radio
programming, and computer and library work .For organisations such
segregation does have an impact on efficiency of service provisioning, if only
through the duplication of services for differing genders. Although Princess
Nora bin Abdul Rahman University (PNU) is an all-female university, some of
the high level operational management is handled by men. As a result of the
non-communication culture, even senior women employees usually struggle to
communicate with men. Most of the communication is conducted either online,
via email or verbal communication via land lines phones and mobiles. Because
of Saudi culture, direct communication is effectively forbidden, not by the PNU
management, but by the female’s spouses. Poor communication between female
employees and male employees who control the information systems at PNU
could easily jeopardize the security of the information held.
Right to Education
As a worldly religion, taking into consideration the practical aspects of life,
Islam gives women the right to have an education. In fact, it emphasizes the
value of education for both men and women. Arab countries supportthis right in
their legislation. The last fifty years have witnessed a significantly rising rate of
female literacy, as education expanded in the Arab region. According to the
Arab Human Development Report2002, Arab women's literacy rates have
expanded threefold since 1970. Moreover, female primary and secondary
enrolment rates have more than doubled. This period is especially significant for
the Gulf States, since it marks the beginning of the oil boom, which led them to
launch programs of development in all spheres, particularly in the field of
education. However, even with steps taken to expand educational opportunities
for all, the actual situation of the educational status of the females in the Arab
countries reveals a discrepancy with respect to gender. In the first place, the
illiteracy rate is higher among females. In the second place, the numbers of
males in all the stages exceed those of females in most countries. As an
indication of the educational status in the Arab countries as above given, the
following table presents the gender inequality in education, with respect to the
8. 8
literacy rate, as well as the combined primary, secondary, and tertiary gross
enrolment ratio in education.
In the above table, male literacy is seen higher than female literacy. The gap
appears smaller in those Gulf countries like Bahrain and Kuwait. In Qatar, it is
interesting to note, that the literacy rate is higher among females than it is
among males, as represented by 82.6 and 80.1 respectively----an exceptional
situation difficult to explain. Gross enrolment in education does not reflect any
variation between the sexes in Qatar and the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, as
represented by75 and 92 respectively for both sexes. In addition, the gap in this
respect is not wide between the two sexes in most other countries, except in
Yemen where it is represented by 29 for female’s and72 for males.
It is interesting to note that schoolenrolment for females appears higher in some
countries than that of males-e.g., Bahrain, seen in83 for females as opposed to
77 for males; Kuwait, as represented by 61 and 57 respectively; Lebanon, with
figures 81 and 76 respectively; and Jordan, with57 and 53 respectively. This
situation can be explained by the fact that a significant number of males from
these countries study abroad, hence their absencefrom the national registered
data. Females do not always enjoy this privilege, again for cultural reasons.
The following table gives another dimension of gender inequality in education,
as seen from another given perspective----namely, adult literacy and net
enrolment in the primary and secondary levels, as well as gross tertiary
enrolment, given separately.
9. 9
ARAB Perspective vs. WESTERN Perspective:-
ARAB ƒ
Family – Center of everything. (Father has first and last word.) ƒ
Friends – Periphery, but courteous to all. Honour – Very Important amongst
Arabs. Honour will be protected and defended at all costs. Shame (especially
against family) – avoided at all costs, insults and criticism taken very seriously.
ƒ
Time – less rigid Approach to time is much more relaxed and slower than that
in Western cultures.
Religion – Central to all things Society – Family / tribe is most important ƒ
Government – Most governments are secular, but still emphasize religion. ƒ
Age and Wisdom honoured. ƒ Wealth honoured in both cultures.
WESTERN ƒ
Family – Important but not as central to individual. ƒ
Friends – Core to some, important to most. ƒ
Honour – Typically not as importantƒ
Shame – Typically not as important Time- Very structured, deadlines must be
met. ƒ Religion – Varies by individual, very personal, not discussed in polite
conversation. ƒ
Society – Individual rights. ƒ Government – Purpose is to protect rights and
improve standard of living. ƒ Youth and Beauty praised. ƒ Wealth honoured in
both cultures.
THE IMPACT OF MUSLIM CULTURE ON GENDER:-
Culture is an inevitable element impacting both gender identity and
communication. The importance of this issue is escalated when communication
takes place between people with different cultural backgrounds and as a result,
different views of gender. The impact of inter-cultural behaviours can be very
effective on relationships, businesses, definitions of masculinity and femininity,
10. 10
and in general, communication. Through this research paper and the five
articles, I will consider the different aspects of Islamic cultural exposure on
communication abilities and identifying gender among different people. The
significant point about this topic is highlighting facts that are least observed in
the Muslim communities, and learning how to deal with people with other
cultures and religions especially Islam. All the articles relate to people with
Islamic culture background and their challenges and how they negotiate their
gender in the United States. The first article titled as
Gender Role Identity among Adolescent Muslim Girls Living in the U.S. is a
research on ninety-six Muslim female students living in US; three different
measurements has been performed and their levels of masculinity vs. femininity
attributes as well as the role of religion on their gender identity has been
reported. The second article titled Gender Identity and Religious Practices of
First-Generation Muslim Women Immigrants in the U.S.
Discusses gender and religious identities perceived by 33 Muslim women living
in U.S. and how they interpret their Islamic background facing the American
culture. The women in this study are surveyed based on the overload of
conflicting cultural norms that they are faced in their everyday life. The third
article named
Dynamics of Religion and Gender amongst Young British Muslims is and
interesting article, interviewing British Asian Muslim men and women. Using
snowball sampling, this article concentrates on how the men and women define
their masculinity/femininity from their Islamic perspective, and how they
implement that towards their gendered lives in the Islamic society of London.
The forth article is titled Muslim American Identities and Diversity which is a
research that examines the first generation as well as the second generation
Muslims in the united states and observes the impact of media as well as the
American culture on them. The fifth article titled Young American Muslim
Identities discusses the tensions that different groups of Muslims in the Unites
States have together and how they socialize together as well as to the American
society. The main purpose of this paper is to understand the issues that Muslims
in the Unites States are facing, and determine how this exposure to the
American culture gives rise to gender identity and communication problems.
11. 11
The GenerationGap in the Arab World:-
If anyone remembers the Generation Gap of the 1960’s in the United States, a
similar phenomenon is now sweeping the Middle East and Arab World.
Here is an example:
Traditionally in Middle Eastern culture, women do not “date.” A man who sees
a woman he likes in the street that he is attracted to is supposed to go and
propose marriage to her family before he is allowed to get to know her. (This is
one of the reasons why the incidence of cousin marriage remains relatively
high–people ARE aware of birth defects caused by it; however, men are often
afraid to take a chance on marrying a woman they don’t know at all. So they
settle for marrying their first cousin, whom they have been allowed to get to
know in a family setting.)
Now, almost all young girls are in school with boys and talking to boys, even if
they are in rural schools.
In the cities, many girls in schools are having boyfriends (which doesn’t mean
they are actually dating) as in classroom romances between children. Even if a
girl doesn’t have a boyfriend, all of them have boys they “like” in the class.
Boys also have the girls they “like.” All this starts in early elementary school.
By the time kids get into junior high and high school, kids in the richer high
schools are actually dating. In many cases, the mothers know their daughters
have boyfriends, but they keep it a secret from the fathers (who tend to “go
ballistic”). I n a few cases, the fathers know and don’t care, but this is very rare.
So, even girls in elementary school are having boyfriends even if they are not
dating at that age. Due to modern television programs from the West, many
middle-school girls now ask their parents when they can start “dating.” The
most common answer which girls I know have recently been getting from their
parents is, “When you finish the university, and are ready to get married, then it
would be OK to go out on a few dates, such as to a restaurant or a movie.”
This seems like a quite liberal idea to the parents and especially fathers who are
answering in this way, as it is so much further advanced over what their
generation was allowed to do (men currently in their 40’s). Yet, to the children
and teenagers, this idea seems so far behind the times as to be laughable.
12. 12
So is the Generation Gap a real phenomenon? Yes, I think it is. It happened in
America in a time of great social change; it is happening in the Middle East in a
time a great social change. In the West, the changes were driven by the pill; and
by sex, drugs and rock-and-roll.
In the Middle East, the change is driven by education, particularly of girls.
This is the first generation where girls are being educated even in rural and
mountain areas. Before, girls were kept in the house except to go to the market
and public bath. Now girls are out going to and from schoolevery day,
unsupervised and unaccompanied by their parents and family members while in
school, and free to talk with boys at school. They have opportunities for
freedom never before available to Middle Eastern girls. So yes, the Generation
Gap does exist.
Sex education is mostly absent in Middle Eastern societies (after all, no need is
seen for it since girls are not supposed to be doing anything at all before they
are married). The result of this is that more out-of-wedlock pregnancies are
happening. Even paediatricians are being pro-active in bringing up the subject
of birth control pills with high school girls and their mothers. In my view, it
takes at least a full generation for the Generation Gap to close a bit. Teenagers
will always want to be different from their parents; no matter how “hip” their
parents were in their own time. But this type of difference is far less than the
amount of difference in generation Gap. I predict that today’s Generation
Gap in the Middle East will last another 30 years.
Evolution of work values:-
The Tribal Stage:
(Before 622 C.E.)
The early Arabs had a low appreciation for the work of craftsmen and artisans
(Issawi, 1950), and a higher appreciation for trade and commerce. Their tribal
life and work within the primitive Bedouin environment emphasized the
significance of endurance and communal cohesion. Under such conditions,
group coordination and perseverance were necessary conditions for survival.
The society valued the concepts of brotherhood, cooperation, and loyalty but
within the same tribal unit only (Baali & Wardi, 1981). In relation to others, the
values that dominated were those of rivalry and revenge, show and
13. 13
rapaciousness, in addition to hospitality and generousness (Almaney, 1981; Ali,
1986-87).
(2) The Islamic (Prophetic) Stage:
(622-661 C.E.)
The year 622 C.E. marked the creation of the first Muslim community in
Medina -in today's Saudi Arabia-under the leadership of Prophet Muhammad
(Denny, 1987). This represented the establishment of a new Community where
many of the concepts, values, and conditions of the Arabs were radically
transformed. While still emphasizing the importance of endurance and
communal cohesion, it was made clear that these values should be applied
among all believers in the society, and not only within the individual tribal
structures. In addition, the attitude toward certain professions -like manual
labour- was drastically changed. Prophet Muhammad preached to his new
followers that "the one who betrays (in his work) is not one of us," thus trying to
encourage the transformed Arabs into applying their religious teachings into
their daily life. The hand of the worker became "a hand loved by God and His
messenger "and "whoever goes to bed exhausted because of hard work, he has
thereby caused his sins to be absolved" (Prophet Muhammad in Abdul-Rauf,
1984: p. 10).The emphasis put on the spiritual aspects (e.g. forgiveness of sins,
love of God...etc.) did not mean a denial of this world in one's work. The
traditions of the early Muslims advocated such a balanced approach between
this life and the life to come: "Work for this world as if your life in it is eternal;
work for the other life as if you were to die tomorrow" (Haykal, 1976). The
'Islamic-Prophetic' stage ends roughly in the year 661 C.E. which witnessed the
end of the reign of the four leaders who succeeded Prophet Muhammad after he
died in 632.
(3) The Post-Prophetic Stage
: (661-1850s C.E.)This era is characterized by a series of dynasties and empires.
The positive and action-oriented approach to work dominated through most of
that period. Hajazi (1979) describes the prevalent value systems at the
'medieval' times as being "dynamic, flexible, assertive, and tolerant" (Ali, 1986-
87: p. 95). During that era, workers' associations were organized and existed till
the beginning of the nineteenth century (El-Banna, 1983). These associations,
known as 'brotherhoods' or 'fraternities', regulated the various crafts and
established rules of practice. This outlook, which was an application and an
14. 14
extension of the work philosophy in the Prophetic stage, culminated in the great
accomplishments of the Arab-Islamic civilization during the Abbasid dynasty
(750-1258 C.E.). During that era, "art and architecture flourished, as did crafts,
trade, military tactics, and strategy." (Denny, 1987: p. 35-36).This stage ends
roughly in the middle of the nineteenth century when the European interest in
the Arab countries intensified and the Muslim empire started to disintegrate.
(4) The Current Stage
: (1850s-current)This stage is characterized by dynamic political and economic
changes in the Arab world which are manifested in the creation of about twenty
one states, and the discovery of oil which had major impacts on the Arab
society.Hofstede (1984), based on an empirical cross-cultural research study on
work values in forty countries, categorizes the Arab countries among those
which have low individualism (i.e. a tightly integrated society), large power
distance (i.e. inequalities in power are tolerated), strong uncertainty avoidance
(i.e. a desire for clear and structured work environment), and high masculinity
(i.e. distinct social roles are expected for men and women). The following
sections describe the existing work values in the Arab culture.
CURRENT WORK VALUES:-
Abbas has made a strong effort to develop a line of research pertaining to work
values in the Arab culture (e.g.Abbas, 1989). His studies included samples from
Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Morocco, Bahrain, and UAE among others.
The studies seem to strengthen the suggestion that Arab managers prefer the
consultative style of decision-making and are not comfortable with delegation
(Weir, 2000). Saudi and Iraqi managers seem to avoid responsibility and risks
taking, are highly concerned about job stability, and are reluctant to delegate
authority (Abbas, 1989). Salem (2000) highlighted the paradoxical
characteristics of Egyptian managers, which makes it hard to categorize the
managerial style of a typical Egyptian manager. In an empirical study on the
work values of Arab executives, Ali (1986-87) indicates that the sociocentric
value (high need for affiliation with little concern for wealth) is the most
dominant system in the Arab society. The society is also characterized by being
predominantly outer-directed with some inclination toward inner-directness.
The outer-directed person "likes structure, and accepts rules, policies and group
norms...[and] prefers a stable environment and job and tends not to set goals,
but rather lives according to someone else's plan" (Ali, 1986-87: p.96). The
15. 15
inner-directed person, on the other hand, sets goals and tries to influence his
surroundings.
Women and Work in the Arab Culture:-
:Hofstede (1984) categorizes the Arab countries among those countries which
are high on the masculinity index. This brings up the issue of the work of
women which has been the centre of heated debate for the last one hundred
years in the Arab world. The efforts of progressive thinkers and feminist
movements, as well as political and social changes in the past century improved
–relatively- the situation of women. Women's education and right to work in
traditional jobs such as medicine, teaching, and nursing has become undisputed
in most of the Arab world and is allowed in religious circles. Arab human
development reports point out that there have been important advancements
relating to women’s development in the Arab world (Arab Human Development
Report, 2002).Progress in Arab female education was the highest relative to any
other region with female literacy increasing three-fold in the past thirty years.
Despite such enormous efforts, female adult literacy in the Arab countries in
2000 was 50% and female literacy rate as a percentage of male rates was 68%
(Human Development Report, 2002).
It should be noted that educational progress has varied from one Arab country
to the other. In the United Arab Emirates, for example, in the year 2000, female
literacy rate as a percentage of male rates reached 106% in the year 2000 while
in Yemen it was only 37%.Such progress was paralleled by similar
advancements at the social level. Metle (2002) indicated, for example, that
Kuwaiti women are negatively influenced by the prevailing traditions. Abdalla
(1996) noted how Arabian Gulf women are stranded in restrictive long-
established functions. Mostafa (2003) came across noteworthy disparities
between males' and females' perceptions pertaining to roles in the Egyptian
society. Women in the Arab world, with varying degrees among different
countries, still experience severe limitations on their ability to get involved in
economic and social matters and access to work opportunities. Noting that the
conditions of women differ from one Arab country to the other, we expect the
following: P5: In Arab countries that emphasize sex-segregation in the work-
place, this segregation is likely to remain in the foreseeable future.P6: In the
16. 16
poorer countries the work of women is likely to persist mostly because of the
economic need (e.g. Egypt and Lebanon).
The New Outlook to Work Values
: Haddad (1984) notes how the contemporary Islamic literature looks on the
individual as a responsible dynamic agent of God who dwells in this earth "for
the purpose of managing, building, and caring for it" (p. 156). An individual
helps in shaping destiny within the laws God has set for the universe. From this
outlook we see a departure from the concepts of total dependence on and
submissiveness to predestination where man has no say in the affairs of his life.
Qutb (1983), under a chapter entitled 'positiveness', explains that it is a duty of
the 'believer' to view the universe from a positive active perspective. He asserts
that there is a balance between the will of God and actions of man. Belief in
God's omnipotence does not mean that man has no choice as this contradicts
what God says in the Qur’an (Holy book of Islam) about the duty of man being
an agent of God on earth. In addition, Ali (1987) indicates that “work in Islam is
considered a virtue in light of man's needs...Islam stands, therefore, not for life-
denial but for life-fulfilment" (p. 576). Based on the above research we propose:
P7: Workers who adopt the re-interpreted religious attitude (which emphasizes
the external and internal louses of control) toward work will be more productive
than those who adhere to the concept of predestination (an external locus of
control).
17. 17
Conclusion:-
This paper has tried to shed light on gender inequalities in the Arab countries, a
situation which has been the subject of much criticism not only by the non-Arab
world, but also among Arabs who have a good understanding of their religion,
and are aware of the legal rights of women in those societies that guarantee the
equality of all citizens.
Such criticism may be due to the fact that the Arab countries are currently
caught in the midst of more than one current, which contradict gender
inequality. On the one hand, there is the growing global trend calling for the
equality of women in all spheres of life, in this case equating these rights with
the concerns of development Moreover, the increasing call for observing human
rights necessarily includes women's rights as an integral part. Arab countries
have been participating in the international forums with this agenda, as has
already been mentioned. On the other hand, the official religion in these
countries is Islam, a religion whose teachings clearly guarantees women their
rights. Moreover, many of these countries have legal systems which stipulate
the equality of all citizens irrespective of race, religion, or gender. The actual
situation, however, reveals gender inequality in more than one sphere, as
apparent in opportunities, numbers, and status. Education, employment,
political participation are examples of the discrepancy between males and
females. The male -dominated traditional backboneprevails over the culture.
The strength of this cultural heritage permeates all aspects ofsociety in such a
way that to the layman, there is that confusion between what is dictated by
religion and what is required by tradition. To the non -Moslem, all aspects of
inequality are blamed on Islam, which is believed to be the basis of the
legislative system that may include aspects of gender inequality in some cases,
as above presented.
The degree of inequality among women varies from one Arab country to
another, at the same time that the kind of inequality may likewise reflect
variation. If women in Saudi Arabia are forbidden to drive, women in Egypt are
banned from the position of judge. Kuwaiti women are deprived of their right to
political participation, much as this issue has been subjected to debate. In this
18. 18
respect, it is seen that Tunisia has gone a long way beyond Arab countries,
addressing, with much courage, aspects of discrimination against women.
Suffices to say here that it has succeeded in promulgating a Personal Status
Codewhich prohibits polygamy. In general, it is seen that Tunisia has gone in
strides in the rights granted to women, the liberal trend initiated by the feminist
movement having succeeded where other countries have failed. The result is felt
on more than one level. In the first place, women constitute nearly one quarter
of the labour force. On the level of the legislative power and advisory bodies,
the proportions of female representation are;11.5% in the Chamber of Deputies;
16.7 on the municipal councils; 11% on the economic and Social Council;
13.3% on the Higher Council of the Magistracy; and 12% among ministry
department staff. (Human Rights in Tunisia: Options and Accomplishments:
2000)
The variation in the attitude of the Arab countries towards women's rights
appears in the ratification of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW).Eight Arab countries did not ratify
the convention. Most Gulf States fall in this category. They are Bahrain, United
Arab Emirates, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and Oman. Out of the twenty two (22)
Arab states, the eight countries represent one third of all countries that have not
ratified CEDAW.(Arab Human Development Report2002)
It follows that gender inequality in the Arab countries, as it is in other Islamic
states, tends to taint those societies with a negative image. To the West, in
particular, women in these societies live under conditions of
repression/oppression. They are marginalized, secluded, and kept from any form
of participation in public life. The situation is not that dim. Neither is it grim.
Women are active members in society. In the family they have an important role
in decision-making. Where they are employed, they receive equal pay. There is
no gender discrimination as to wages.
The fact remains that there is an ongoing struggle for women's rights in the
Arab world-one that is strongly held back by the dictates of tradition. How far
can the impact of the global currents affect the result of this struggle, leading it
to a more liberal direction, remains to be seen, probably not in the near future,
but on a longer term, considering the known resistance of traditionalism to
change.
More so, how far can the strong hold of the culture maintain its influence in the
face of the global trend is subject to much speculation, especially with the
19. 19
rigidity of the ever-increasing reactionary tide. In the midst of these conflicting
trends in the region, the question is raised as to where would the situation of
gender equality be, among other concerns of development.