If the CIO is to be valued as a strategic actor, how can he bring to the table the ethos of alignment, bound to the demands of process strategic planning to move IT to the forefront of the organization's future? Is there a lack of information on strategic planning? Nope. I think the process of planning is poorly understood, and rarely endorsed. The reasons are simple enough. Planning requires a commitment of resources (time, talent, money); it requires insight; it requires a total immersion in the corporate culture. While organizations do plan, planning is invariably attached to the budget process. It is typically here that the CIO lays out his/her vision for the coming year Now a few years ago authors began writing on the value of aligning IT purpose to organizational purpose. They wrote at a time when enterprise architectural planning was fairly new, and enterprise resource management was on the lips of every executive. My view is that alignment is a natural process driven by the availability of the tools to accomplish it. Twenty years ago making sense of IT was more about processing power, and database management. We are in a new age of IT, and it is the computer that is the network, not the network as an independent self-contained exchange of information. If you will spend some time reviewing the basic materials I provided on strategic planning and alignment, we can begin our discussions for the course. Again, here is the problem I would like for us to tackle: If the CIO is to be valued as a strategic actor, how can he bring to the table the ethos of alignment, bound to the demands of process strategic planning to move IT to the forefront of the organization's future? Most of the articles I bundled together for this week are replete with tables and charts. These can be a heavy read. Your approach should be to review these articles for the "big ideas" or lessons that are take away. I think these studies are significant enough that we will conclude our first week with an understanding of the roles between executive leaders, and how they see Information Technology playing a role in shaping a business strategy.
Read the articles to answer the question. Please No Plagerism or verbatim but you are allowed to quote from the article.
Achieving and Sustaining
Business-IT Alignment
Jerry Luftman
Tom Brier
I
n recent decades, billions of dollars have been invested in intormation tech-
nology (IT). A key concern of business executives is alignment—applying IT
in an appropriate and timely way and in harmony with business strategies,
goals, and needs. This issue addresses both how IT is aligned with the busi-
ness and how the business should be aligned with IT Frustratingly, organizations
seem to find it difficult or impossible to harness the power of information tech-
nology for their own long-term benefit, even though there is worldwide evi-
dence that IT has the power to transform whole industries and markets.' How
can companies.
Nicholas Carr’s, Does IT Matter? asks the question – “isn’t it enough for IT to enable companies to operate more efficiently or deliver better services, to reduce costs or heighten customer satisfaction?” [1, p. 7]. This question is the infrastructure question. Carr suggests the investments in IT have “gone to waste” after the collapse of the Internet Bubble. While much has been wasted to what were probably poor business choices, IT investment as a strategic initiative still has merit. This merit needs to be connected to the financial performance of the business. The measurement and valuation of these investments must take place in the same way other investment decisions are made. Carr’s thesis is IT has become a commodity service and not the basis of a differentiated strategic advantage. As the costs of IT go down, its power increases the capabilities of IT outstrip the company’s needs. Again this is an infrastructure view of IT. Like the railroads and electric utilities, if is only a “utility” it will have difficulty describing its differentiated advantage.
Copyright Notice:
This presentation is prepared by Author for Perbanas Institute as a part of Author Lecture Series. It is to be used for educational and non-commercial purposes only and is not to be changed, altered, or used for any commercial endeavor without the express written permission from Author and/or Perbanas Institute. Appropriate legal action may be taken against any person, organization, or entity attempting to misrepresent, charge, or profit from the educational materials contained here.
Authors are allowed to use their own articles without seeking permission from any person, organization, or entity.
This presentation is prepared by Author for Perbanas Institute as a part of Author Lecture Series. It is to be used for educational and non-commercial purposes only and is not to be changed, altered, or used for any commercial endeavor without the express written permission from Author and/or Perbanas Institute. Appropriate legal action may be taken against any person, organization, or entity attempting to misrepresent, charge, or profit from the educational materials contained here.
Authors are allowed to use their own articles without seeking permission from any person, organization, or entity.
Nicholas Carr’s, Does IT Matter? asks the question – “isn’t it enough for IT to enable companies to operate more efficiently or deliver better services, to reduce costs or heighten customer satisfaction?” [1, p. 7]. This question is the infrastructure question. Carr suggests the investments in IT have “gone to waste” after the collapse of the Internet Bubble. While much has been wasted to what were probably poor business choices, IT investment as a strategic initiative still has merit. This merit needs to be connected to the financial performance of the business. The measurement and valuation of these investments must take place in the same way other investment decisions are made. Carr’s thesis is IT has become a commodity service and not the basis of a differentiated strategic advantage. As the costs of IT go down, its power increases the capabilities of IT outstrip the company’s needs. Again this is an infrastructure view of IT. Like the railroads and electric utilities, if is only a “utility” it will have difficulty describing its differentiated advantage.
Copyright Notice:
This presentation is prepared by Author for Perbanas Institute as a part of Author Lecture Series. It is to be used for educational and non-commercial purposes only and is not to be changed, altered, or used for any commercial endeavor without the express written permission from Author and/or Perbanas Institute. Appropriate legal action may be taken against any person, organization, or entity attempting to misrepresent, charge, or profit from the educational materials contained here.
Authors are allowed to use their own articles without seeking permission from any person, organization, or entity.
This presentation is prepared by Author for Perbanas Institute as a part of Author Lecture Series. It is to be used for educational and non-commercial purposes only and is not to be changed, altered, or used for any commercial endeavor without the express written permission from Author and/or Perbanas Institute. Appropriate legal action may be taken against any person, organization, or entity attempting to misrepresent, charge, or profit from the educational materials contained here.
Authors are allowed to use their own articles without seeking permission from any person, organization, or entity.
We’ve worked with Executives and IT leaders for over 30 years, and the single most common complaint we hear from them is their profound frustration with the lack of results and transparency from their never-ending IT investments.
To add further complexity, the demand for digital products and services has made it increasingly difficult for organizations to make ongoing investments and balance the need for innovation with optimization.
The latest data, combined from global enterprises, big consulting and research firms, makes the case that companies need to urgently act to address the digital disruption of their business and their related skills gaps. The data shows that 70% of digital business initiatives are likely to fail to deliver business growth, due to lack of business process and product innovation, as well as poor organizational adaptability.
Poor governance and legacy product management processes to align business and IT initiatives, coupled with insufficient leadership engagement across the organization, are the main reason most companies are wasting money on IT.
This thought paper speaks to these challenges and how optimizing both technology innovation and cross-organizational engagement will accelerate the positive business outcomes that organizations are looking to achieve especially in lieu of increasing digital disruption.
Authors - Alex Adamopoulos and Bob Kantor
Your Challenge
Organizations have to adapt to a growing number of trends, putting increased pressure on IT to move at the same speed as the business.
The business, seeing that IT is slower to react, looks to external solutions to address its challenges and capitalize on opportunities.
IT and business leaders don’t have a clear and unified understanding or definition of an operating model.
Our Advice
Critical Insight
The IT operating model is not a static entity and should evolve according to changing business needs.
However, business needs are diverse, and the IT organization must recognize that the business includes groups that consume technology in different patterns. The IT operating model needs to support and enable multiple groups, while continuously adapting to changing business conditions.
Impact and Result
Determine how each technology consumer group interacts with IT. Use consumer experience maps to determine what kind of services consumer groups use and if there are opportunities to improve the delivery of those services.
Identify how changing business conditions will affect the consumption of technology services. Classify your consumers based on business uncertainty and reliance on IT to plan for the future delivery of services.
Optimize the IT operating model. Create a target IT operating model based on the gathered information about technology service consumers. Select different implementations of common operating model elements: governance, sourcing, process, and structure.
15
C h a p t e r
2 Developing IT Strategy for Business Value1
1 This chapter is based on the authors’ previously published article, Smith, H. A., J. D. McKeen, and S. Singh.
“Developing IT Strategy for Business Value.” Journal of Information Technology Management XVIII, no. 1 (June
2007): 49–58. Reproduced by permission of the Association of Management.
Suddenly, it seems, executives are “getting” the strategic potential of IT. Instead of being relegated to the back rooms of the enterprise, IT is now being invited to the boardrooms and is being expected to play a leading role in delivering top-
line value and business transformation (Korsten 2011; Luftman and Zadeh 2011; Peslak
2012). Thus, it can no longer be assumed that business strategy will naturally drive IT
strategy, as has traditionally been the case. Instead, different approaches to strategy
development are now possible and sometimes desirable. For example, the capabilities
of new technologies could shape the strategic direction of a firm (e.g., mobile, social
media, big data). IT could enable new competencies that would then make new busi-
ness strategies possible (e.g., location-based advertising). New options for governance
using IT could also change how a company works with other firms (think Wal-Mart
or Netflix). Today new technologies coevolve with new business strategies and new
behaviors and structures (see Figure 2.1). However, whichever way it is developed, if
IT is to deliver business value, IT strategy must always be closely linked with sound
business strategy.
Ideally, therefore, business and IT strategies should complement and support each
other relative to the business environment. Strategy development should be a two-way
process between the business and IT. Yet unfortunately, poor alignment between them
remains a perennial problem (Frohman 1982; Luftman and Zadeh 2011; McKeen and
Smith 1996; Rivard et al. 2004). Research has already identified many organizational
challenges to effective strategic alignment. For example, if their strategy-development
processes are not compatible (e.g., if they take place at different times or involve differ-
ent levels of the business), it is unlikely that the business and IT will be working toward
the same goals at the same time (Frohman 1982). Aligning with individual business
units can lead to initiatives that suboptimize the effectiveness of corporate strategies
(McKeen and Smith 1996). Strategy implementation must also be carefully aligned to
16 Section I • Delivering Value with IT
ensure the integration of business and IT efforts (Smith and McKeen 2010). Finally, com-
panies often try to address too many priorities, leading to an inadequate focus on key
strategic goals (Weiss and Thorogood 2011).
However, strategic alignment is only one problem facing IT managers when they
develop IT strategy. With IT becoming so much more central to the development and
delivery of business strategy, much mor.
15C h a p t e r2 Developing IT Strategy for Business V.docxnovabroom
15
C h a p t e r
2 Developing IT Strategy for Business Value1
1 This chapter is based on the authors’ previously published article, Smith, H. A., J. D. McKeen, and S. Singh.
“Developing IT Strategy for Business Value.” Journal of Information Technology Management XVIII, no. 1 (June
2007): 49–58. Reproduced by permission of the Association of Management.
Suddenly, it seems, executives are “getting” the strategic potential of IT. Instead of being relegated to the back rooms of the enterprise, IT is now being invited to the boardrooms and is being expected to play a leading role in delivering top-
line value and business transformation (Korsten 2011; Luftman and Zadeh 2011; Peslak
2012). Thus, it can no longer be assumed that business strategy will naturally drive IT
strategy, as has traditionally been the case. Instead, different approaches to strategy
development are now possible and sometimes desirable. For example, the capabilities
of new technologies could shape the strategic direction of a firm (e.g., mobile, social
media, big data). IT could enable new competencies that would then make new busi-
ness strategies possible (e.g., location-based advertising). New options for governance
using IT could also change how a company works with other firms (think Wal-Mart
or Netflix). Today new technologies coevolve with new business strategies and new
behaviors and structures (see Figure 2.1). However, whichever way it is developed, if
IT is to deliver business value, IT strategy must always be closely linked with sound
business strategy.
Ideally, therefore, business and IT strategies should complement and support each
other relative to the business environment. Strategy development should be a two-way
process between the business and IT. Yet unfortunately, poor alignment between them
remains a perennial problem (Frohman 1982; Luftman and Zadeh 2011; McKeen and
Smith 1996; Rivard et al. 2004). Research has already identified many organizational
challenges to effective strategic alignment. For example, if their strategy-development
processes are not compatible (e.g., if they take place at different times or involve differ-
ent levels of the business), it is unlikely that the business and IT will be working toward
the same goals at the same time (Frohman 1982). Aligning with individual business
units can lead to initiatives that suboptimize the effectiveness of corporate strategies
(McKeen and Smith 1996). Strategy implementation must also be carefully aligned to
16 Section I • Delivering Value with IT
ensure the integration of business and IT efforts (Smith and McKeen 2010). Finally, com-
panies often try to address too many priorities, leading to an inadequate focus on key
strategic goals (Weiss and Thorogood 2011).
However, strategic alignment is only one problem facing IT managers when they
develop IT strategy. With IT becoming so much more central to the development and
delivery of business strategy, much mor.
E VOLVING STRATEGIC BUSINESS imperatives, trends, and disrupters are driving a seismic shift in the way IT organizations operate. This report-part of a series exploring the merger of business and technology strategies and the reimag- ination of technology's role in the business-aims to address fundamental questions about the future of work in technology
Aligning Business and Technology for Competitive AdvantageDijitle
Until quite recently, I.T. has functioned primarily as a technology implementer for the business. it has focused on providing a robust infrastructure, along with the implementation and integration of package software to automate the main business processes. But now we have entered the age of digital business, where many businesses exist solely because of technologies – in many cases technology is now driving the business rather than being subservient to it.
1 response for each post in APA format with referencesPost 1I.docxjeremylockett77
1 response for each post in APA format with references
Post 1:
Inner correspondence is significant for any association to work viably. Workers should feel that they can without much of a stretch speak with their colleagues just as upper administration, since this adds to productivity and generally speaking outcomes. Makeing sure the significance of compelling correspondence visible.Work with HR to grow new ability desires and roles.Developing relational abilities both officially and casually.
Conversing with business associates and bosses about your IT-driven business thoughts in language they can comprehend is acceptable. Creating marketable strategies about them that address every crowd's specific issues in plain and clear written detail is shockingly better.
Take that thought you had of setting up new server farm foundation to improve scalability and end bottlenecks to business development. Previously, you may have referenced the need to supplant heritage frameworks that are getting old in language totally missing of business-objective setting – and in the process sent your CFO into fits of stress over the IT spending plan experiencing the rooftop. Since you comprehend the corporate five-year plan, however, you can structure your proposition for a tech revive around the undertaking's key goals, for example, driving internet business development.
Put your proposition in that setting in a conventional use case report. Don't simply talk speeds and feeds, yet rather center around how your answer will quicken client collaborations to support purchasing practices and add to income development, and how rapidly it can be actualized. That will go far towards turning your CFO – and your CEO, as well – into huge devotees of your arrangements.
I Agree 4 step process to improve business-IT communication which is most common process to take care the Business technology issues and solutions issues will be Understanding needs, plans, and politics.
- Choosing the suitable specialized strategy (e.g., reports, up close and personal, messages)
Correspondence that is straightforward, precise, moral, and aware.
- Getting the correspondence procedure streaming the two different ways
Reference : McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to human communication: understanding and sharing (p. 6). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
Post 2:
There is an immense importance for any business to maintain and improve the relation between IT and Business. Sound communication between them is necessary to achieve this. To improve these communications following are the recommendations:
· It is important to make sure that the communication is visible. If someone needs attention or pay attention, then it is important that those communication should be well organized (‘Ideas on improving the Business’, 2013). Good communication skills should be appraised by the Firm. Every one of the IT sta ...
Crowe Horwath Jamaica (www.crowehorwath.com.jm) is one of the largest public accounting, consulting, and advisory firms in Jamaica . Crowe uses its deep industry expertise to provide audit services to public and private entities while also helping clients reach their goals with tax, advisory, risk and performance services.
Crowe Horwath Jamaica serves clients worldwide as an independent member of Crowe Horwath International, one of the largest global accounting networks in the world. The network consists of more than 200 independent accounting and advisory services firms in more than 130 countries around the world.
Connecting IT and Business Value Through Balanced ScorecardGlen Alleman
As IT searches for its seat at the table, negotiating IT’s
value to the business and the business’s need for the
value IT provides reveals a visible gap in many organizations.
When the CIO acts like a CTO, he or she provides
the technologies needed for the business but does
not engage in a conversation about the strategic needs
for these technologies. IT then continues to provide services
and focus on operational excellence.
Please readRobert Geraci, Russia Minorities and Empire,” in .docxTatianaMajor22
Please read:
Robert Geraci, “Russia: Minorities and Empire,” in Abbott Gleason, ed., A Companion to Russian History (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), 243-260.
And discuss:
How does Geraci portray the legacy of the early Russian history for the make-up of 18-19th century Russia?
Please read: Leonard Victor Rutgers, “Roman Policy Towards the Jews: Expulsions from the City of Rome during the First Century C.E.,” in Classical Antiquity, Vol. 13, No. 1 (Apr., 1994), pp. 56-74.
And discuss: Rutgers surveys the different reasons historians have given for the expulsion of the Jews from Rome in the first century C.E. Who place did Jews have in Roman society at this time? Were they expelled because of their religious practices, or because they were ‘unruly’ as Rutgers argues? If so, what caused them to act in this way? What kind of historical evidence does the author use?
There are 2 essay, each one should write at least 300-350 words and plus one reference page.
MLA format. Must use quote( “ ”) for every source you use from website. And put (author, page number) behind quote.
Roman Policy towards the Jews: Expulsions from the City of Rome during the First Century
C.E.
Author(s): Leonard Victor Rutgers
Source: Classical Antiquity, Vol. 13, No. 1 (Apr., 1994), pp. 56-74
Published by: University of California Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25011005 .
Accessed: 26/08/2011 13:35
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http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
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University of California Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Classical
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LEONARD VICTOR RUTGERS
Roman Policy towards the Jews:
Expulsions from the City of Rome
during the First Century c. E.
Tant de causes secretes se melent souvent a la cause apparente, tant de ressorts
inconnus servent a persecuter un homme, qu'il est impossible de demeler dans les
siecles posterieures la source cachee des malheurs des hommes les plus consider
ables, a plus forte raison celle du supplice d'un particulier qui ne pouvait etre
connu que par ceux de son parti.
-Voltaire, Traite sur la tolerance (1763)
IN THIS ARTICLE I want to discuss the evidence for expulsions of Jews from
the city of Rome in the first century C.E. Scholars have long been interested in the
reasons underlying these expulsions. Because the anci.
Ford VS ChevroletThere are many reasons that make the Chevy.docxTatianaMajor22
Ford VS Chevrolet
There are many reasons that make the Chevy’s and Ford’s motors two most common trucks. Studies reveal that that they are the most popular vehicles on sales today. It is because they are powerful, versatile and reasonably priced. They also come in a wide variety of configurations and styles. However, many buyers and sellers have questioned themselves on the better vehicle compared to the other in terms of quality, Wi-Fi, price ranges, value, and costs. To compare and contrast on this subject, let us take an example of two vehicles each from each company to facilitate comparison.
Ford offers the full-size track with automatic high-beam control, automatic parallel parking and power-retractable running boards. Fords are elegant, and they are mostly aluminum making them save weight and bolster gas mileage. None of these features are offered Chevy’s. Chevrolets have outstanding quality. They are mostly comprised of steel, for instance, the Chevrolet Silverado. This makes them good for rough roads and difficult terrains.
Fords have employed the use of up to date Wi-Fi technology. Ford intends to provide the Ford Sync, which will provide robust connections for occupants. Latest Chevrolet brands Malibu utilize the 4G LTE Wi-Fi Technology that provides rich in-vehicle experiences. This technology is powerful compared to Ford Sync, and is used for connecting devices and executing few remote operations within the car.
From the value and cost standpoint, Ford can consume a little more, and its payload capacity is a little higher. Additionally, its mileage is too better. The prices vary from nation to nation. Chevrolet seems to be a little cheaper, and reasonably priced going for $33,044, which is slightly less than Ford, but the differences are not serious to propel buyers towards one truck leaving the other
Technophiles are likely to put their preferences on Ford to Chevrolet. On overall, Fords have many features as compared Chevy’s. However, they may be hard to maintain. Compared to Fords, Chevrolets are reliable and cheaper. However, the two brands are equally good performers. It is, therefore, prudent to pick what one thinks would fit his or her usage and preference and personal style
Ethical Systems, Research Paper, Spring 2015, Douglas Green, Page 1 of 1
Ethical
Systems/Final
Research
Paper
2,000
words
minimum,
double-‐spaced
Final
Draft
Due:
Tuesday,
April
28,
12:00
pm
(afternoon)
Please
email
your
final
research
paper
to
me
via
MS
Word
attachment
AND
by
cutting/pasting
the
entire
document
into
the
body
of
your
email.
IF
YOU
DO
NOT
RECEIVE
A
CONFIRMATION
EMAIL
BACK,
I
DID
NOT
RECEIVE
YOUR
ESSAY
AND
YOU
WILL
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NO
LATE
WORK
WILL
BE
ACCEPTED…
PERIOD!
.
More Related Content
Similar to If the CIO is to be valued as a strategic actor, how can he bring.docx
We’ve worked with Executives and IT leaders for over 30 years, and the single most common complaint we hear from them is their profound frustration with the lack of results and transparency from their never-ending IT investments.
To add further complexity, the demand for digital products and services has made it increasingly difficult for organizations to make ongoing investments and balance the need for innovation with optimization.
The latest data, combined from global enterprises, big consulting and research firms, makes the case that companies need to urgently act to address the digital disruption of their business and their related skills gaps. The data shows that 70% of digital business initiatives are likely to fail to deliver business growth, due to lack of business process and product innovation, as well as poor organizational adaptability.
Poor governance and legacy product management processes to align business and IT initiatives, coupled with insufficient leadership engagement across the organization, are the main reason most companies are wasting money on IT.
This thought paper speaks to these challenges and how optimizing both technology innovation and cross-organizational engagement will accelerate the positive business outcomes that organizations are looking to achieve especially in lieu of increasing digital disruption.
Authors - Alex Adamopoulos and Bob Kantor
Your Challenge
Organizations have to adapt to a growing number of trends, putting increased pressure on IT to move at the same speed as the business.
The business, seeing that IT is slower to react, looks to external solutions to address its challenges and capitalize on opportunities.
IT and business leaders don’t have a clear and unified understanding or definition of an operating model.
Our Advice
Critical Insight
The IT operating model is not a static entity and should evolve according to changing business needs.
However, business needs are diverse, and the IT organization must recognize that the business includes groups that consume technology in different patterns. The IT operating model needs to support and enable multiple groups, while continuously adapting to changing business conditions.
Impact and Result
Determine how each technology consumer group interacts with IT. Use consumer experience maps to determine what kind of services consumer groups use and if there are opportunities to improve the delivery of those services.
Identify how changing business conditions will affect the consumption of technology services. Classify your consumers based on business uncertainty and reliance on IT to plan for the future delivery of services.
Optimize the IT operating model. Create a target IT operating model based on the gathered information about technology service consumers. Select different implementations of common operating model elements: governance, sourcing, process, and structure.
15
C h a p t e r
2 Developing IT Strategy for Business Value1
1 This chapter is based on the authors’ previously published article, Smith, H. A., J. D. McKeen, and S. Singh.
“Developing IT Strategy for Business Value.” Journal of Information Technology Management XVIII, no. 1 (June
2007): 49–58. Reproduced by permission of the Association of Management.
Suddenly, it seems, executives are “getting” the strategic potential of IT. Instead of being relegated to the back rooms of the enterprise, IT is now being invited to the boardrooms and is being expected to play a leading role in delivering top-
line value and business transformation (Korsten 2011; Luftman and Zadeh 2011; Peslak
2012). Thus, it can no longer be assumed that business strategy will naturally drive IT
strategy, as has traditionally been the case. Instead, different approaches to strategy
development are now possible and sometimes desirable. For example, the capabilities
of new technologies could shape the strategic direction of a firm (e.g., mobile, social
media, big data). IT could enable new competencies that would then make new busi-
ness strategies possible (e.g., location-based advertising). New options for governance
using IT could also change how a company works with other firms (think Wal-Mart
or Netflix). Today new technologies coevolve with new business strategies and new
behaviors and structures (see Figure 2.1). However, whichever way it is developed, if
IT is to deliver business value, IT strategy must always be closely linked with sound
business strategy.
Ideally, therefore, business and IT strategies should complement and support each
other relative to the business environment. Strategy development should be a two-way
process between the business and IT. Yet unfortunately, poor alignment between them
remains a perennial problem (Frohman 1982; Luftman and Zadeh 2011; McKeen and
Smith 1996; Rivard et al. 2004). Research has already identified many organizational
challenges to effective strategic alignment. For example, if their strategy-development
processes are not compatible (e.g., if they take place at different times or involve differ-
ent levels of the business), it is unlikely that the business and IT will be working toward
the same goals at the same time (Frohman 1982). Aligning with individual business
units can lead to initiatives that suboptimize the effectiveness of corporate strategies
(McKeen and Smith 1996). Strategy implementation must also be carefully aligned to
16 Section I • Delivering Value with IT
ensure the integration of business and IT efforts (Smith and McKeen 2010). Finally, com-
panies often try to address too many priorities, leading to an inadequate focus on key
strategic goals (Weiss and Thorogood 2011).
However, strategic alignment is only one problem facing IT managers when they
develop IT strategy. With IT becoming so much more central to the development and
delivery of business strategy, much mor.
15C h a p t e r2 Developing IT Strategy for Business V.docxnovabroom
15
C h a p t e r
2 Developing IT Strategy for Business Value1
1 This chapter is based on the authors’ previously published article, Smith, H. A., J. D. McKeen, and S. Singh.
“Developing IT Strategy for Business Value.” Journal of Information Technology Management XVIII, no. 1 (June
2007): 49–58. Reproduced by permission of the Association of Management.
Suddenly, it seems, executives are “getting” the strategic potential of IT. Instead of being relegated to the back rooms of the enterprise, IT is now being invited to the boardrooms and is being expected to play a leading role in delivering top-
line value and business transformation (Korsten 2011; Luftman and Zadeh 2011; Peslak
2012). Thus, it can no longer be assumed that business strategy will naturally drive IT
strategy, as has traditionally been the case. Instead, different approaches to strategy
development are now possible and sometimes desirable. For example, the capabilities
of new technologies could shape the strategic direction of a firm (e.g., mobile, social
media, big data). IT could enable new competencies that would then make new busi-
ness strategies possible (e.g., location-based advertising). New options for governance
using IT could also change how a company works with other firms (think Wal-Mart
or Netflix). Today new technologies coevolve with new business strategies and new
behaviors and structures (see Figure 2.1). However, whichever way it is developed, if
IT is to deliver business value, IT strategy must always be closely linked with sound
business strategy.
Ideally, therefore, business and IT strategies should complement and support each
other relative to the business environment. Strategy development should be a two-way
process between the business and IT. Yet unfortunately, poor alignment between them
remains a perennial problem (Frohman 1982; Luftman and Zadeh 2011; McKeen and
Smith 1996; Rivard et al. 2004). Research has already identified many organizational
challenges to effective strategic alignment. For example, if their strategy-development
processes are not compatible (e.g., if they take place at different times or involve differ-
ent levels of the business), it is unlikely that the business and IT will be working toward
the same goals at the same time (Frohman 1982). Aligning with individual business
units can lead to initiatives that suboptimize the effectiveness of corporate strategies
(McKeen and Smith 1996). Strategy implementation must also be carefully aligned to
16 Section I • Delivering Value with IT
ensure the integration of business and IT efforts (Smith and McKeen 2010). Finally, com-
panies often try to address too many priorities, leading to an inadequate focus on key
strategic goals (Weiss and Thorogood 2011).
However, strategic alignment is only one problem facing IT managers when they
develop IT strategy. With IT becoming so much more central to the development and
delivery of business strategy, much mor.
E VOLVING STRATEGIC BUSINESS imperatives, trends, and disrupters are driving a seismic shift in the way IT organizations operate. This report-part of a series exploring the merger of business and technology strategies and the reimag- ination of technology's role in the business-aims to address fundamental questions about the future of work in technology
Aligning Business and Technology for Competitive AdvantageDijitle
Until quite recently, I.T. has functioned primarily as a technology implementer for the business. it has focused on providing a robust infrastructure, along with the implementation and integration of package software to automate the main business processes. But now we have entered the age of digital business, where many businesses exist solely because of technologies – in many cases technology is now driving the business rather than being subservient to it.
1 response for each post in APA format with referencesPost 1I.docxjeremylockett77
1 response for each post in APA format with references
Post 1:
Inner correspondence is significant for any association to work viably. Workers should feel that they can without much of a stretch speak with their colleagues just as upper administration, since this adds to productivity and generally speaking outcomes. Makeing sure the significance of compelling correspondence visible.Work with HR to grow new ability desires and roles.Developing relational abilities both officially and casually.
Conversing with business associates and bosses about your IT-driven business thoughts in language they can comprehend is acceptable. Creating marketable strategies about them that address every crowd's specific issues in plain and clear written detail is shockingly better.
Take that thought you had of setting up new server farm foundation to improve scalability and end bottlenecks to business development. Previously, you may have referenced the need to supplant heritage frameworks that are getting old in language totally missing of business-objective setting – and in the process sent your CFO into fits of stress over the IT spending plan experiencing the rooftop. Since you comprehend the corporate five-year plan, however, you can structure your proposition for a tech revive around the undertaking's key goals, for example, driving internet business development.
Put your proposition in that setting in a conventional use case report. Don't simply talk speeds and feeds, yet rather center around how your answer will quicken client collaborations to support purchasing practices and add to income development, and how rapidly it can be actualized. That will go far towards turning your CFO – and your CEO, as well – into huge devotees of your arrangements.
I Agree 4 step process to improve business-IT communication which is most common process to take care the Business technology issues and solutions issues will be Understanding needs, plans, and politics.
- Choosing the suitable specialized strategy (e.g., reports, up close and personal, messages)
Correspondence that is straightforward, precise, moral, and aware.
- Getting the correspondence procedure streaming the two different ways
Reference : McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to human communication: understanding and sharing (p. 6). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
Post 2:
There is an immense importance for any business to maintain and improve the relation between IT and Business. Sound communication between them is necessary to achieve this. To improve these communications following are the recommendations:
· It is important to make sure that the communication is visible. If someone needs attention or pay attention, then it is important that those communication should be well organized (‘Ideas on improving the Business’, 2013). Good communication skills should be appraised by the Firm. Every one of the IT sta ...
Crowe Horwath Jamaica (www.crowehorwath.com.jm) is one of the largest public accounting, consulting, and advisory firms in Jamaica . Crowe uses its deep industry expertise to provide audit services to public and private entities while also helping clients reach their goals with tax, advisory, risk and performance services.
Crowe Horwath Jamaica serves clients worldwide as an independent member of Crowe Horwath International, one of the largest global accounting networks in the world. The network consists of more than 200 independent accounting and advisory services firms in more than 130 countries around the world.
Connecting IT and Business Value Through Balanced ScorecardGlen Alleman
As IT searches for its seat at the table, negotiating IT’s
value to the business and the business’s need for the
value IT provides reveals a visible gap in many organizations.
When the CIO acts like a CTO, he or she provides
the technologies needed for the business but does
not engage in a conversation about the strategic needs
for these technologies. IT then continues to provide services
and focus on operational excellence.
Please readRobert Geraci, Russia Minorities and Empire,” in .docxTatianaMajor22
Please read:
Robert Geraci, “Russia: Minorities and Empire,” in Abbott Gleason, ed., A Companion to Russian History (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), 243-260.
And discuss:
How does Geraci portray the legacy of the early Russian history for the make-up of 18-19th century Russia?
Please read: Leonard Victor Rutgers, “Roman Policy Towards the Jews: Expulsions from the City of Rome during the First Century C.E.,” in Classical Antiquity, Vol. 13, No. 1 (Apr., 1994), pp. 56-74.
And discuss: Rutgers surveys the different reasons historians have given for the expulsion of the Jews from Rome in the first century C.E. Who place did Jews have in Roman society at this time? Were they expelled because of their religious practices, or because they were ‘unruly’ as Rutgers argues? If so, what caused them to act in this way? What kind of historical evidence does the author use?
There are 2 essay, each one should write at least 300-350 words and plus one reference page.
MLA format. Must use quote( “ ”) for every source you use from website. And put (author, page number) behind quote.
Roman Policy towards the Jews: Expulsions from the City of Rome during the First Century
C.E.
Author(s): Leonard Victor Rutgers
Source: Classical Antiquity, Vol. 13, No. 1 (Apr., 1994), pp. 56-74
Published by: University of California Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25011005 .
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LEONARD VICTOR RUTGERS
Roman Policy towards the Jews:
Expulsions from the City of Rome
during the First Century c. E.
Tant de causes secretes se melent souvent a la cause apparente, tant de ressorts
inconnus servent a persecuter un homme, qu'il est impossible de demeler dans les
siecles posterieures la source cachee des malheurs des hommes les plus consider
ables, a plus forte raison celle du supplice d'un particulier qui ne pouvait etre
connu que par ceux de son parti.
-Voltaire, Traite sur la tolerance (1763)
IN THIS ARTICLE I want to discuss the evidence for expulsions of Jews from
the city of Rome in the first century C.E. Scholars have long been interested in the
reasons underlying these expulsions. Because the anci.
Ford VS ChevroletThere are many reasons that make the Chevy.docxTatianaMajor22
Ford VS Chevrolet
There are many reasons that make the Chevy’s and Ford’s motors two most common trucks. Studies reveal that that they are the most popular vehicles on sales today. It is because they are powerful, versatile and reasonably priced. They also come in a wide variety of configurations and styles. However, many buyers and sellers have questioned themselves on the better vehicle compared to the other in terms of quality, Wi-Fi, price ranges, value, and costs. To compare and contrast on this subject, let us take an example of two vehicles each from each company to facilitate comparison.
Ford offers the full-size track with automatic high-beam control, automatic parallel parking and power-retractable running boards. Fords are elegant, and they are mostly aluminum making them save weight and bolster gas mileage. None of these features are offered Chevy’s. Chevrolets have outstanding quality. They are mostly comprised of steel, for instance, the Chevrolet Silverado. This makes them good for rough roads and difficult terrains.
Fords have employed the use of up to date Wi-Fi technology. Ford intends to provide the Ford Sync, which will provide robust connections for occupants. Latest Chevrolet brands Malibu utilize the 4G LTE Wi-Fi Technology that provides rich in-vehicle experiences. This technology is powerful compared to Ford Sync, and is used for connecting devices and executing few remote operations within the car.
From the value and cost standpoint, Ford can consume a little more, and its payload capacity is a little higher. Additionally, its mileage is too better. The prices vary from nation to nation. Chevrolet seems to be a little cheaper, and reasonably priced going for $33,044, which is slightly less than Ford, but the differences are not serious to propel buyers towards one truck leaving the other
Technophiles are likely to put their preferences on Ford to Chevrolet. On overall, Fords have many features as compared Chevy’s. However, they may be hard to maintain. Compared to Fords, Chevrolets are reliable and cheaper. However, the two brands are equally good performers. It is, therefore, prudent to pick what one thinks would fit his or her usage and preference and personal style
Ethical Systems, Research Paper, Spring 2015, Douglas Green, Page 1 of 1
Ethical
Systems/Final
Research
Paper
2,000
words
minimum,
double-‐spaced
Final
Draft
Due:
Tuesday,
April
28,
12:00
pm
(afternoon)
Please
email
your
final
research
paper
to
me
via
MS
Word
attachment
AND
by
cutting/pasting
the
entire
document
into
the
body
of
your
email.
IF
YOU
DO
NOT
RECEIVE
A
CONFIRMATION
EMAIL
BACK,
I
DID
NOT
RECEIVE
YOUR
ESSAY
AND
YOU
WILL
LOSE
ALL
CREDIT
FOR
THIS
REQUIREMENT.
NO
LATE
WORK
WILL
BE
ACCEPTED…
PERIOD!
.
Fairness and Discipline Weve all been disciplined at one.docxTatianaMajor22
Fairness and Discipline
We've all been disciplined at one time or another by a parent or a teacher. What disciplinary experiences have you had as a child that took a non-punitive approach?
I need paragraph or half page with reference
.
Appendix 12A Statement of Cash Flows—Direct MethodLEARNING .docxTatianaMajor22
Appendix 12A
Statement of Cash Flows—Direct Method
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
6
Prepare a statement of cash flows using the direct method.
To explain and illustrate the direct method, we will use the transactions of Computer Services Company for 2014, to prepare a statement of cash flows. Illustration 12A-1 presents information related to 2014 for Computer Services Company.
To prepare a statement of cash flows under the direct approach, we will apply the three steps outlined in Illustration 12-4.
Illustration 12A-1
Comparative balance sheets, income statement, and additional information for Computer Services Company
STEP 1: OPERATING ACTIVITIES
DETERMINE NET CASH PROVIDED/USED BY OPERATING ACTIVITIES BY CONVERTING NET INCOME FROM AN ACCRUAL BASIS TO A CASH BASIS
Under the direct method, companies compute net cash provided by operating activities by adjusting each item in the income statement from the accrual basis to the cash basis. To simplify and condense the operating activities section, companies report only major classes of operating cash receipts and cash payments. For these major classes, the difference between cash receipts and cash payments is the net cash provided by operating activities. These relationships are as shown in Illustration 12A-2.
Illustration 12A-2
Major classes of cash receipts and payments
An efficient way to apply the direct method is to analyze the items reported in the income statement in the order in which they are listed. We then determine cash receipts and cash payments related to these revenues and expenses. The following pages present the adjustments required to prepare a statement of cash flows for Computer Services Company using the direct approach.
CASH RECEIPTS FROM CUSTOMERS.
The income statement for Computer Services Company reported sales revenue from customers of $507,000. How much of that was cash receipts? To answer that, companies need to consider the change in accounts receivable during the year. When accounts receivable increase during the year, revenues on an accrual basis are higher than cash receipts from customers. Operations led to revenues, but not all of these revenues resulted in cash receipts.
To determine the amount of cash receipts, the company deducts from sales revenue the increase in accounts receivable. On the other hand, there may be a decrease in accounts receivable. That would occur if cash receipts from customers exceeded sales revenue. In that case, the company adds to sales revenue the decrease in accounts receivable. For Computer Services Company, accounts receivable decreased $10,000. Thus, cash receipts from customers were $517,000, computed as shown in Illustration 12A-3.
Illustration 12A-3
Computation of cash receipts from customers
Computer Services can also determine cash receipts from customers from an analysis of the Accounts Receivable account, as shown in Illustration 12A-4.
Illustration 12A-4
Analysis of Accounts Receivable
Illustration.
Effects of StressProvide a 1-page description of a stressful .docxTatianaMajor22
Effects of Stress
Provide a 1-page description of a stressful event currently occurring in your life.
Discuss I am married work a full time job as an occupational therapy assistant am taking two courses
Have to take care of a home feed the animals attend to laundry
Think of my pateitns worry about their well being and what I can do for them ( I bring home my patients issues)
Constantly doing paper work for work such as documentation for billing
I feel like I have no free time for me some days I don’t even eat dinner or lunch because I don’t have time to make anything or am just too tired to cook
On top of this I am married and married ppl do argue and my husband am I have been bunting heads on finances.
Then, referring to information you learned throughout this course, address the following:
· What physiological changes occur in the brain due to the stress response?
· What emotional and cognitive effects might occur due to this stressful situation?
· Would the above changes (physiological, cognitive, or emotional) be any different if the same stress were being experienced by a person of the opposite sex or someone much older or younger than you?
· If the situation continues, how might your physical health be affected?
· What three behavioral strategies would you implement to reduce the effects of this stressor? Describe each strategy. Explain how each behavior could cause changes in brain physiology (e.g., exercise can raise serotonin levels).
· If you were encouraging an adult client to make the above changes, what ethical considerations would you have to keep in mind? How would you address those ethical considerations?
In addition to citing the online course and the text, you are also required to cite a minimum of four scholarly sources. For reputable web sources, look for .gov or .edu sites as opposed to .com sites. Please do not use Wikipedia.
Your paper should be double-spaced, in 12-point Times New Roman font, and with normal 1-inch margins; written in APA style; and free of typographical and grammatical errors. It should include a title page with a running head, an abstract, and a reference page.
The body of the paper should be at least 6 pages in length total
not including the reference or title page
Assignment 1 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Described a stressful event.
20
Explained the physiological changes that occur in the brain due to the stress response.
36
Explained the emotional and cognitive effects that may occur due to this stressful situation.
32
Analyzed potential differences in physiological, cognitive, and emotional responses in someone of a different age or sex.
32
Discussed the physical health risks.
28
Provided three behavioral strategies to reduce the effects of the stressor and explained how each could cause changes in brain physiology.
40
Analyzed ethical considerations in implementing behavioral strategies and offered suggestions for addressing these.
40
Integrated at least two scholarly references .
Design Factors NotesCIO’s Office 5 People IT Chief’s Offi.docxTatianaMajor22
Design Factors
Notes
CIO’s Office
5 People
IT Chief’s Office
5 People
LAN/WAN Maint.
20 People
Reception
4 People
Telecommunications
20 People
LAN Management
50 People
Server Room A
2 Person
Server Room B
4 Person
Equipment:
Patch Cable
Computer to Wall
Patch Cable
LAN Room
Cable Trays/Runs
Horizontal Runs
Cisco Border Router
Research: Attached to 5 Floor Switches
Server Room A
10 Servers
Server Room B
10 Servers
Computers
One Per Person
Standard floor (first floor) Lesson 2 Project Plan info
Design Factors
Notes
CIO’s Office
5 People
IT Chief’s Office
5 People
LAN/WAN Maint.
20 People
Reception
4 People
Telecommunications
20 People
LAN Management
50 People
Server Room A
2 Person
Server Room B
4 Person
Equipment:
Patch Cable
Computer to Wall
Patch Cable
LAN Room
Cable Trays/Runs
Horizontal Runs
Cisco Border Router
Research: Attached to 5 Floor Switches
Server Room A
10 Servers
Server Room B
10 Servers
Computers
One Per Person
Basement floor
Design Factors
Notes
Vertical Riser Run
On Outside Wall of LAN Room on Each Floor.
Fiber-Optic Multimode
Riser Runs: Backbone
SC Connectors
Fiber-Optic Cable
Cisco Catalyst: Switch: WS-C3750G-24PS-S: 24 Ports
Leave a Minimum of four ports free on each switch
Color Laser Printer
Minimum of One per Room or One per 20 people
Vertical Riser Run
On Outside Wall of LAN Room on Each Floor and Server RM B on this floor.
Fiber-Optic Multimode
Riser Runs: Backbone
SC Connectors
Fiber-Optic Cable
Cable Trays/Runs
Horizontal Runs
Horizontal Runs
Leave a Minimum of four ports free on each switch
Applicataion
U.S. Minimum Requirement Ranges
Space per Employee - 1997
Two people, such as a supervisor and an employee, can meet in an office with a table or desk between them
60" to 72" x 90" to 126:/5.78m2 to 11.7m2
280Sq. Ft./26.0m2
Worker has a primary desk plus a return
60" to 72"x60"to 84"/5.78 to 7.8m2
193Sq. Ft./17.9m2
Executive office - three to four people can meet around a desk
105 to 130"x96 to 123"/9.75 to 11.4 m2
142Sq. Ft./13.2m2
Basic workstation such as a call center
42" to 52" x 60" to 72"/3.9 to 6.7 m2
114Sq. Ft./10.6 m2
NT1310: Project
Page 1
PRO JECT D ESC RIPT ION
As the project manager for the Cable Planning team, you will manage the creation of the cable plan for
the new building that will be built, with construction set to begin in six weeks.
The deliverables for the entire Cable Plan will consist of an Executive Summary, a PowerPoint
Presentation and an Excel Spreadsheet. You will develop different parts of each of these in three parts.
The final organization should contain these elements:
The Executive Summary:
o Project Introduction
o Standards and Codes
Cable Standards and Codes
Building Standards and Codes
o Project Materials
o Copper Cable, Tools, and Test Equipment
o Fiber-Optic Cable, Tools, and Test Equipment
o Fiber-Optic Design Considerations
o Basement Server Comp.
Question 12.5 pointsSaveThe OSU studies concluded that le.docxTatianaMajor22
Question 1
2.5 points
Save
The OSU studies concluded that leaders exhibit two main types of behavior: structure behavior and consideration behavior.
True
False
Question 2
2.5 points
Save
Fiedler suggests when there is a mismatch between the type of situation in which leaders find themselves, and the leaders style of leadership:
leaders should shift to situations for which they are best suited
the situation should be changed
immediate training is necessary no matter how long it may take
any leadership style is appropriate
the leaders should be flexible enough to adapt to the new situation
Question 3
2.5 points
Save
The OSU studies concluded that leaders exhibit two main styles of behavior:
employee-centered behavior and job-centered behavior
structure behavior and consideration behavior
boss-centered behavior and subordinate-centered behavior
consideration behavior and job-centered behavior
structure behavior and employee-centered behavior
Question 4
2.5 points
Save
The life cycle theory of leadership maintains that:
as a manager becomes more mature, he/she should become more participatory
the organization should match the individual with a specific leadership situation
a manager's leadership style should be independent of the follower's maturity levels
the leader's abilities will peak when the leader is 45 years old, and decline thereafter
a manager's leadership style will be effective only if it is appropriate for the maturity level of the followers
Question 5
2.5 points
Save
According to the characteristics of the emerging leader versus characteristics of the manager, which of the following would be associated with the leader?
problem-solving
independent
consulting
stabilizing
authoritative
Question 6
2.5 points
Save
Under which of the following conditions would Fiedler say a considerate leader would be most effective?
good leader-member relations, high task structure, and strong leader position power
moderately poor leader-member relations, high task structure, and weak leader position power
moderately poor leader-member relations, weak task structure and weak leader position power
good leader-member relations, high task structure, and weak leader position power
good leader-member relations, weak task structure, and weak leader position power
Question 7
2.5 points
Save
Which approach to leadership suggests successful leadership requires a unique combination of leaders, followers, and leadership situations?
transformational leadership
the trait approach
the situational approach to leadership
contingency approach
the contemporary leader approach
Question 8
2.5 points
Save
According to the Vroom-Yetton-Jago Model, when a manager and subordinates meet as a group to discuss the situation, and the group makes the decision, it is the ________ de.
Case Study 1 Questions1. What is the allocated budget .docxTatianaMajor22
Case Study 1 Questions:
1. What is the allocated budget ? $250,000
2. Where does the server room located? Currently, there is no server room
3. What is the number of users with PCs inside each existing site?
Currently there are
4. What is the current cabling used in each location? (cat5e or cat6) Current cabling does not meet the company’s current and future needs
5. Do want us to upgrade token Ring or use a completely new Ethernet network What is your recommendation and why?
6. regarding the ordering system , it is not clear what the we should do , do you want to talk about how to connect the system to the network or how to built the ordering online system because it is more software engineering than networking . Talk about the kind of network (hardware) you recommend based on the business requirements
7. all the sites should have access to our servers in the main branch? yes
8. Regarding the order software, do you need more details about the way it works or just about its connection with the network? Your solution should be from a network point of view
9. Distances are given in Meters or feet? feet
10. Shipment is done by truck, or ships? Currently, only trucking
11. In Dimebox branch, where are administration offices located? See Business goals # 4
12. What is the current network connectivity status? How many devices are currently on the network? How they are physically laid out? Is cabling running all over the floor, hidden in walls or threaded through the ceiling? What are the switches used and its speed? Currently, only the office is networked (token ring) NOVELL
13. What is the minimum Internet speed wanted? See Business Goals on page 2 – I only can tell you what we need the network for, you must tell me what we need to meet the business needs
14. Will the corporation provide wireless access? If yes will it be in all department and buildings? Wireless access would be helpful if we can justify the cost
15. Are there phones in offices? yes
16. What is the internet speed available now? What speed do you want for future? Internet access is through time warner cable company which is not very reliable
17. Do employees access their emails outside the company? yes
18. Do you have plans for future expansion? We like to increase our customer base by 20% over the next year
REMEMBER, you are the IT expert, I’m only a business person who must rely on your expertise.
Network Design and Performance
Case Study
Dooma-Flochies, Inc. with headquarters located on Podunk Road in Trumansburg, NY, is the sole manufacturer of Dooma-Flochies (big surprise). They currently have a manufacturing facility in, Lake Ridge, NY (across Cayuga Lake) on Cayuga Dr. and have recently diversified by purchasing a company, This-N-That, on Industry Ave. in, Dime Box Texas. This-N-That is the sole competitor of Domma-Flochies with their product Thinga-Ma-Jigs. This acquisition gives Dooma-Flochies, Inc a monopoly in this mark.
Behavior in OrganizationsIntercultural Communications Exercise .docxTatianaMajor22
Behavior in Organizations
Intercultural Communications Exercise Response Paper –
Week 5
The most overt cultural differences, such as greeting rituals and name format, can be overcome most easily. The underlying, intangible differences are very difficult to overcome. In this case, the underlying cultural differences are
· Assumptions about the purpose of the event (is the party strictly for fun and for relationship building, or are their business matters to take care of?).
· Assumptions about the purpose and the nature of business relationship.
· Assumptions about power and leadership relationships (who makes the decisions and how?).
· Response styles (verbal and nonverbal signals of agreement, disagreement, politeness, etc.).
Many (though not all) cultural differences can be overcome if you carefully observe other people, think creatively, remain flexible, and remember that your own culture is not inherently superior to others.
The Scenario
Three corporations are planning a joint venture to sponsor an international concert tour. The corporations are Decibel, an agency representing the musicians (from the US, Britain, and Japan); Images, a marketing firm which will handle sales of tickets, snacks and beverages, clothing, and CDs; and Event, a special events company which will hire the ushers, concessionaires, and security officers; print the programs; and clean up the arenas after the shows. The companies come from three different cultures: Blue, Green, and Red. Each has specific cultural traits, customs, and practices.
You are a manager in one of these companies. You will attend the opening cocktail party in Perth, Australia the evening before a 3-day meeting during which the three companies will negotiate the details of the partnership. Your management team includes a Vice President and a number of other managers.
During the 3-day meeting, the companies have the following goals:
Decibel
· As high a royalty rate as possible on sales of T-shirts, videos, and CDs
· Aggressive marketing and advertising to increase attendance and sales
· Good security, both before and during the show Image
Image
· Well known bands that will be easy to market
· As much income as possible from the concerts
· Smoothly functioning event so that publicity from early concerts is positive
Event
· Bands that are not likely to provoke stampedes, riots, or other antisocial behavior
· Bands that are reliable and will show up on time, ready to play
· As much income as possible from the concerts
The cultures that are assigned to the various companies are:
BLUE CULTURE
Image (Marketing Company)
Beliefs, Values, and Attitudes that Underlie This Culture’s Communication
Believe that fate and luck control most things.
Believe in feelings more than reasoning.
An authoritarian leader makes the ultimate decisions.
Nonverbal Traits of This Culture
Treat time as something that is unimportant. It is not a commodity that can be lost.
Conversation distance is close (about 15 inches, face-.
Discussion Question Comparison of Theories on Anxiety Disord.docxTatianaMajor22
Discussion Question:
Comparison of Theories on Anxiety Disorders
There are numerous theories that attempt to explain the development and manifestation of psychological disorders. Some researchers hold that certain disorders result from learned behaviors (behavioral theory), while other researchers believe that there is a genetic or biological basis to psychological disorders (medical model), while still others hold that psychological disorders stem from unresolved unconscious conflict (psychoanalytic theory). How would each of these theoretical viewpoints explain anxiety disorders? Does one explain the development and manifestation of anxiety disorders better than the others?
200- 400 words please
Three min resources with
in text citations and examples
you can use the following as a module reference
cite as university 2014
Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety disorders such as panic disorder, specific phobias, and social anxiety disorder feature a heightened autonomic nervous system response that is above and beyond what would be considered normal when faced with the object or situation that the person reacts to. For example, a person with a specific phobia of spiders (called arachnophobia) experiences a heightened autonomic response when confronted with a spider (or even an image of a spider). This anxiety response must result in significant distress or impairment. In general, anxiety disorders have been linked to underactive gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the brain, resulting in overexcitability of the amygdala and the anterior cingulate cortex. Additionally, genetic research shows that anxiety disorders demonstrate a clear pattern of genetic predisposition
Charles Darwin's Perspective
We talked about Charles Darwin when discussing evolution and natural selection. Darwin was also very interested in emotions. One of his books published in 1872,The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals, was devoted to this topic.
Darwin believed that emotions play an important role in the survival of the species and result from evolutionary processes in the same way as other behaviors and psychological functions. Darwin's writing on this topic also prompted psychologists to study animal behavior as a way to better understand human behavior.
James–Lange Theory of Emotions
Modern theories of emotion can be traced to William James and Carl Lange (Pinel, 2011). William James was a renowned Harvard psychologist who is sometimes called the father of American psychology. Carl Lange was a Danish physician. James and Lange formulated the same theory of emotions independently at about the same time (1884). As a result, it is called the James–Lange theory of emotions. This theory reversed the commonsensical notion that emotions are automatic responses to events around us. Instead, it proposes that emotions are the brain's interpretation of physiological responses to emotionally provocative stimuli.
Cannon–Bard Theory of Emotions
In 1915, Harvard physiologist Walt.
I have always liked Dustin Hoffmans style of acting, in this mov.docxTatianaMajor22
I have always liked Dustin Hoffman's style of acting, in this movie he takes on a sexually deprived young male just out of college, and has never been with a female, and is duped by horny older woman that feels neglected. Dustin Hoffman takes the characters form of a young male, goofy, respectful virgin and intelligent male, missing something but not really sure at the beginning till Ann Bancroft coaxes him with seduction to fulfill her own needs. In an other movie called "The life of Little Big Man" he plays almost the same character but as a white child raised by the Native Americans and a wise old chief that deeply care and loves him as his own, and Fay Dunaway plays a Holy rollers wife that is older and sexually deprived and feeling neglected by her husband and also she goes through major changes in her life from devoted wife, to a honey bell/ house hooker, whats funny Dustin Hoffman is a awesome actor but has to have his surrounding characters bring his character to life. The Graduate was Dustin Hoffman's first big movie of his career.
I actually liked movie "Little Big man" way better due to he went through major changes in his life, from being a Native boy warrior, captured by Yankees, meets Fay Dunaway who loves to give baths, to finding his sister who teaches him to be a gunslinger and then returns to his Grand Father to be a native again and tells his blind Grand Father the world of the white man is a crazy one, then his see the Psyho Col. Custer and gets his revenge by telling Custer the truth. The movie Little Big Man makes you laugh, teaches you things about people and survial and cry at times... its a must see...
Although a stray away from the Benjamin Braddock written about in the novel The Graduate, Dustin Hoffman does an awesome job with this character on film. When you first meet Ben he is at a party that his parents are throwing in his academic honor upon his graduation from school and return home. The whole night, Hoffman stumbles though various conversations and tries to coyly escape from the festivities. Small things such as this Hoffman did a great job at, conveying the hesitance and crisis that Ben was going through as a graduate. There are multiple times in the movie he hardly expresses anything at all, yet it clearly shows you that Ben is having a very hard time internally with everything going on. Even through his relationships with Mrs. Robinson and her daughter Elaine you see the young man struggling with himself through either failed attempts at affection or lack thereof.
.
Is obedience to the law sufficient to ensure ethical behavior Wh.docxTatianaMajor22
Is obedience to the law sufficient to ensure ethical behavior? Why, or why not? Support your answer with at least three reasons that justify your position.
100 words
Discuss the differences between an attitude and a behavior. Provide 4 substantive reasons why it is important for organizations to monitor and mitigate employee behavior that is either beneficial or detrimental to the organization's goals and existence.
150 words
.
If you are using the Blackboard Mobile Learn IOS App, please clic.docxTatianaMajor22
If you are using the Blackboard Mobile Learn IOS App, please click "View in Browser." V BUS 520Week 9 Assignment 4 Paper
I need the paper as soon as possible
Students, please view the "Submit a Clickable Rubric Assignment" in the Student Center.
Instructors, training on how to grade is within the Instructor Center.
Assignment 4: Leadership Style: What Do People Do When They Are Leading?
Due Week 9 and worth 100 points
Choose one (1) of the following CEOs for this assignment: Larry Page (Google), Tony Hsieh (Zappos), Gary Kelly (Southwest Airlines), Meg Whitman (Hewlett Packard), Ursula Burns (Xerox), Terri Kelly (W.L. Gore), Ellen Kullman (DuPont), or Bob McDonald (Procter & Gamble). Use the Internet to investigate the leadership style and effectiveness of the selected CEO. (Note: Just choose one that is easier for you to right about.) It does not matter to me which CEO you pick
Write a five to six (5-6) page paper in which you:
1. Provide a brief (one [1] paragraph) background of the CEO.
2. Analyze the CEO’s leadership style and philosophy, and how the CEO’s leadership style aligns with the culture.
3. Examine the CEO’s personal and organizational values.
4. Evaluate how the values of the CEO are likely to influence ethical behavior within the organization.
5. Determine the CEO’s three (3) greatest strengths and three (3) greatest weaknesses.
6. Select the quality that you believe contributes most to this leader’s success. Support your reasoning.
7. Assess how communication and collaboration, and power and politics influence group (i.e., the organization’s) dynamics.
8. Use at least five (5) quality academic resources in this assignment. Note: Wikipedia and other Websites do not qualify as academic resources.
Your assignment must follow these formatting requirements:
· Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with one-inch margins on all sides; citations and references must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your professor for any additional instructions.
· Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required assignment page length.
The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:
· Analyze the formation and dynamics of group behavior and work teams, including the application of power in groups.
· Outline various individual and group decision-making processes and key factors affecting these processes.
· Examine the primary conflict levels within organization and the process for negotiating resolutions.
· Examine how power and influence empower and affect office politics, political interpretations, and political behavior.
· Use technology and information resources to research issues in organizational behavior.
· Write clearly and concisely about organizational behavior using proper writing mechanics.
Click here.
Is the proliferation of social media and communication devices a .docxTatianaMajor22
Is the proliferation of social media and communication devices a good thing or a bad thing for society? Use personal examples to support your opinion.
( I’m currently a freshmen in university)
.
MATH 107 FINAL EXAMINATIONMULTIPLE CHOICE1. Deter.docxTatianaMajor22
MATH 107 FINAL EXAMINATION
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. Determine the domain and range of the piecewise function.
A. Domain [–2, 2];
B. Domain [–1, 1];
C. Domain [–1, 3];
D. Domain [–3/2, –1/2];
2. Solve:
A. 3
B. 3,7
C. 9
D. No solution
3. Determine the interval(s) on which the function is increasing.
A. (−1.3, 1.3)
B. (1, 3)
C. (−∞,−1)and (3,∞)
D. (−2.5, 1)and (4.5,∞)
4. Determine whether the graph of y = 2|x| + 1 is symmetric with respect to the origin,
the x-axis, or the y-axis.
A. symmetric with respect to the origin only
B. symmetric with respect to the x-axis only
C. symmetric with respect to the y-axis only
D. not symmetric with respect to the origin, not symmetric with respect to the x-axis, and
not symmetric with respect to the y-axis
5. Solve, and express the answer in interval notation: | 9 – 7x | ≤ 12.
A. (–∞, –3/7]
B. (–∞, −3/7] ∪ [3, ∞) C. [–3, 3/7]
D. [–3/7, 3]
6. Which of the following represents the graph of 7x + 2y = 14 ?
A. B.
C. D.
7. Write a slope-intercept equation for a line parallel to the line x – 2y = 6 which passes through the point (10, – 4).
A.
B.
C.
D.
8. Which of the following best describes the graph?
A. It is the graph of a function and it is one-to-one.
B. It is the graph of a function and it is not one-to-one.
C. It is not the graph of a function and it is one-to-one.
D. It is not the graph of a function and it is not one-to-one.
9. Express as a single logarithm: log x + log 1 – 6 log (y + 4)
A.
B.
C.
D.
10. Which of the functions corresponds to the graph?
A.
B.
C.
D.
11. Suppose that a function f has exactly one x-intercept.
Which of the following statements MUST be true?
A. f is a linear function.
B. f (x) ≥ 0 for all x in the domain of f.
C. The equation f(x) = 0 has exactly one real-number solution.
D. f is an invertible function.
12. The graph of y = f(x) is shown at the left and the graph of y = g(x) is shown at the right. (No formulas are given.) What is the relationship between g(x) and f(x)?
y = f (x) y = g(x)
A. g(x) = f (x – 3) + 1
B. g(x) = f (x – 1) + 3
C. g(x) = f (x + 3) – 1
D. g(x) = f (x + 1) .
I am showing below the proof of breakeven, which is fixed costs .docxTatianaMajor22
I am showing below the proof of breakeven, which is fixed costs/ contribution margin.
We start with the definition of breakeven and proceed using elementary algebra to derive the formula. Breakeven is a number and is created by knowing fixed and variable costs, and the retail sales price. It is thus not a point of discussion but is based on the assumptions of these variables.
Proof of Breakeven
Definition of BreakevenVolume: Total Revenue = Total Expenses
Definition
1.Total Revenue = Total Expenses
Breakdown of Definition
2. Retail Price * Volume = Fixed Expenses + Variable Expenses
Further Analysis
3. Retail Price * Volume = Fixed Expenses + (Volume * Unit Variable Expenses)
Subtract (Volume * Unit Variable Expenses) from both sides
4. Fixed Expenses = (Retail Price * Volume) — (Volume * Unit Variable Expenses)
Factor
5. Fixed Expenses = Volume * (Retail Price – Unit Variable Expenses)
Divide both sides by (Retail Price – Unit Variable Expenses)
6. Volume = Fixed Expenses
(Retail Price – Unit Variable Expenses)
Substitution based on Definition
7. Since (Retail Price — Unit Variable Expenses) is called Contribution Margin,
Therefore:
Breakeven Volume = Fixed Expenses / Contribution Margin
NAME_________________________________________________ DATE ____________
1. Explain some of the economic, social, and political considerations involved in changing the tax law.
2. Explain the difference between a Partnership, a Limited Liability Partnership (LLP) and a Limited Liability Company (LLC). In each structure who has liability?
3. How is “control” defined for purposes of Section 351 of the IRS Code?
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using debt in a firm’s capital structure?
5. Under what circumstances is a corporation’s assumption of liabilities considered boot in a Section 351exchange?
6. What are the tax consequences for the transferor and transferee when property is transferred to a newly created corporation in an exchange qualifying as nontaxable under Section 351?
7. Why are corporations allowed a dividend-received deduction? What dividends qualify for this special deduction?
8. Provide 3 examples of a Constructive Dividend. Are these Constructive Dividends taxable?
9. Discuss the tax consequences of a new Partnership Formation and give details to gain and losses and basis?
10. Provide 2 similarities and 2 differences when comparing Sections 351 and 721 of the IRS Code.
11. What is the difference between inside and outside basis with a partnership?
12. ABC Partnership distributes $12,000 of taxable income to partner Bob and $24,000 of tax-exempt income to Partner Bob. As a result of these two distributions, how does Bob’s basis change?
13. On January 1, Katie pays $2,000 for a 10% capital, profits, and loss interest in a partnership.
Examine the way in which death and dying are viewed at different .docxTatianaMajor22
Examine the way in which death and dying are viewed at different points in human development.
Using only my text as a reference:
Berger, K.S. (2011). The developing person through the life span (8th ed.).
I need 3 detailed PowerPoint slide with very detailed speaker notes. There must be detailed speaker notes on each slide. The 4th slide will be the reference.
.
Karimi 1 Big Picture Blog Post First Draft College .docxTatianaMajor22
Karimi 1
Big Picture Blog Post First Draft
College Girls in Media
Sogand Karimi
Media and Hollywood movies have affected and influenced society’s perception on
female college students. Due to Hollywood movies and media, society mostly recognizes the
negative stereotypes of a college women. Saran Donahoo, an associate professor and education
administration of Southern Illinois University, once said, “The messages in these films
consistently emphasized college as a place where young women come to have fun, engage in
romances with young men, experiment with sex and alcohol, face dilemmas regarding body
image, and encounter difficulties in associating with other college women.” In this essay I will
be talking about the recurring stereotypes and themes portrayed in three hollywood movies,
Spring Breakers, The house bunny and Legally Blond and how these stereotypes affect our
society.
The movie Spring Breakers is about four college girls who are bored with their daily
routines and want to escape on a spring break vacation to Florida. After realizing they don’t have
enough money, they rub a local diner with fake guns and ski masks. They break the laws in order
to get down to Florida, just to break more rules and laws once they’re there. During the film, you
will notice a lot of partying, drugs and sexual activity. The four girls wear bikinis for majority of
the film and are overly sexual. These are some common themes and stereotypes seen in all three
movies. Media and movies like spring breakers have made it a norm to constantly want to party,
get drunk and have sex as a college woman. In an article by Heather Long, she mentions how the
movie can even be seen as supporting rape culture. She believes because of these stereotypes
always being shown in media, it is contributing to the “girls asking for it” excuse when it comes
to rape cases with young girls. Long also said “...never mind the fact that thousands of college
students are spending their spring break not on a beach, but volunteering with groups like Habitat
for Humanity and the United Way, especially after Hurricanes Katrina and Sandy.” THIS shows
how media only displays one side of a certain group or story. Even though not all college girls
like to party and lay on a beach naked for spring break, that’s what media likes to portray. Not
only does this give the wrong message to our society but it influences bigger issues like rape, as
the author mentioned.
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/03/10/alternative-spring-break_n_494028.html
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/03/10/alternative-spring-break_n_494028.html
Karimi 2
The movie House bunny. The House bunny is a movie about an ex playmate or girlfriend
if Hugh Hefner that gets kicked out of the Playboy Mansion due to her aging. She then becomes
a mother of an unpopular sorority with girls that are bit geeky, and unusual compared to other
girls on campus. The story.
Please try not to use hard words Thank youWeek 3Individual.docxTatianaMajor22
Please try not to use hard words Thank you
Week 3
Individual
Problems and Goals Case Study
Select one of the following three case studies in Ch. 6 of The Helping Process:
· Case Susanna
· Case James and Samantha
· Case Alicia and Montford
Identify three to five problems in the case study you have selected.
Write a 500- to 700-word paperthatincludes the following:
· A problem-solving strategy and a goal for each problem
· The services, resources, and supports the client may need and why
· A description of how goals are measurable and realistically attainable for the client
Here is the case studies
Exercise 3: Careful Assessment
The following case studies are about Susanna, James, Samantha, Alicia, and Montford, all
homeless children attending school. The principal of the school has asked you to conduct
an assessment of these children and provide initial recommendations.
Before you begin this exercise, go to the website that accompanies this book: www.
wadsworth.com/counseling/mcclam, Chapter Three, Link 1, to read more about homeless
families and children.
Susanna
Susanna is 15 years old. Th e city where she lives has four schools: two elementary, one
middle, and one high school. Th ere are about 1,500 students enrolled in the city/county
school district and about 450 in the local high school that Susanna is attending. For the
past six months, Susanna has been living with her boyfriend and his parents. Prior to this,
she left her mother’s home and lived on the streets. She is pregnant and her boyfriend’s
parents want her to move out of their home. Her father lives in a town with his girlfriend,
about 50 miles from the city. Her mother lives outside the city with Susanna’s baby brother.
Right now Susanna’s mother is receiving child support for the two children. Susanna wants
to have a portion of the child support so that she can find a place of her own to live. Her
mother says that the only way that Susanna can have access to that money is to move back
home. Susanna refuses to move back in with her mother.
You receive a call from the behavior specialist at Susanna’s high school. Susanna’s
mother is at the school demanding that Susanna be withdrawn from school. Susanna’s
mother indicates that Susanna will be moving in with her and will be enrolling in another
school district.
Currently Susanna is not doing very well in school. She misses school and she tells the
helper it is because she is tired and that she does not have good food to eat. She has not told
the helper that she is looking for a place to live. Right now she is failing two of her classes
and she has one B and two Ds. Her boyfriend has missed a lot of school, too.
James and Samantha
James is 10 years old and he has a sister, Samantha, who is 8. At the beginning of the
school year, both of the children were attending Boone Elementary School. Both children
live with their aunt and uncle; their parents are in prison. In the middle of the scho.
1. Uncertainty that the party on the other side of an agreement.docxTatianaMajor22
1.
Uncertainty that the party on the other side of an agreement will abide by the terms of the agreement is referred to as
a.
price risk.
b.
credit risk.
c.
interest rate risk.
d.
exchange rate risk.
2.
A contract giving the owner the right, but not the obligation, to buy or sell an asset at a specified price any time during a specified period in the future is referred to as a(n)
a.
interest rate swap.
b.
forward contract.
c.
futures contract.
d.
option.
3.
Which type of contract is unique in that it protects the owner against unfavorable movements in the prices or rates while allowing the owner to benefit from favorable movements?
a.
Interest rate swap
b.
Forward contract
c.
Futures contract
d.
Option
4.
For which type of derivative are changes in the fair value deferred and recognized as an equity adjustment?
a.
Fair value hedge
b.
Cash flow hedge
c.
Operating hedge
d.
Notional value hedge
5.
An obligation that is contingent on the occurrence of a future event should be reported in the balance sheet as a liability if
a.
the future event is likely to occur.
b.
the amount of the obligation can be reasonably estimated.
c.
the occurrence of the future event is at least reasonably possible and the amount is known.
d.
the occurrence of the future event is probable and the amount can be reasonably estimated.
6.
According to Statement of Financial Accounting Standards No. 131, "Disclosures about Segments of an Enterprise and Related Information," how do firms identify reportable segments?
a.
By geographic regions
b.
By product lines
c.
By industry classification
d.
By designations used inside the firm
7.
An inventory loss from market decline of $900,000 occurred in April 2008. CD Company recorded this loss in April 2008 after its March 31, 2008, quarterly report was issued. None of this loss was recovered by the end of the year. How should this loss be reflected in the quarterly income statements of CD Company?
Three months ended (2008):
March 31June 30September 30December 31
a.
0 0 0 $900,000
b.
0 $300,000 $300,000 $300,000
c.
0 $900,000 0 0
d.
$225,000 $225,000 $225,000 $225,000
On July 1, 2008, Cahoon Company sold some limited edition art prints to Sitake Company for ¥47,850,000 to be paid on September 30 of that year. The current exchange rate on July 1, 2008, was ¥110=$1, so the total payment at the current exchange rate would be equal to $435,000. Cahoon entered into a forward contract with a large bank to guarantee the number of dollars to be received. According to the terms of the contract, if ¥47,850,000 is worth less than $435,000, the bank will pay Cahoon the difference in cash. Likewise, if ¥47,850,000 is worth more than $435,000, Cahoon must pay the bank the difference in cash.
8.
Assuming the exchange rate on September 30 is ¥115=$1, what amount will Cahoon pay to, or .
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
If the CIO is to be valued as a strategic actor, how can he bring.docx
1. If the CIO is to be valued as a strategic actor, how can he bring
to the table the ethos of alignment, bound to the demands of
process strategic planning to move IT to the forefront of the
organization's future? Is there a lack of information on strategic
planning? Nope. I think the process of planning is poorly
understood, and rarely endorsed. The reasons are simple
enough. Planning requires a commitment of resources (time,
talent, money); it requires insight; it requires a total immersion
in the corporate culture. While organizations do plan, planning
is invariably attached to the budget process. It is typically here
that the CIO lays out his/her vision for the coming year Now a
few years ago authors began writing on the value of aligning IT
purpose to organizational purpose. They wrote at a time when
enterprise architectural planning was fairly new, and enterprise
resource management was on the lips of every executive. My
view is that alignment is a natural process driven by the
availability of the tools to accomplish it. Twenty years ago
making sense of IT was more about processing power, and
database management. We are in a new age of IT, and it is the
computer that is the network, not the network as an independent
self-contained exchange of information. If you will spend some
time reviewing the basic materials I provided on strategic
planning and alignment, we can begin our discussions for the
course. Again, here is the problem I would like for us to tackle:
If the CIO is to be valued as a strategic actor, how can he bring
to the table the ethos of alignment, bound to the demands of
process strategic planning to move IT to the forefront of the
organization's future? Most of the articles I bundled together for
this week are replete with tables and charts. These can be a
heavy read. Your approach should be to review these articles for
the "big ideas" or lessons that are take away. I think these
studies are significant enough that we will conclude our first
week with an understanding of the roles between executive
leaders, and how they see Information Technology playing a
2. role in shaping a business strategy.
Read the articles to answer the question. Please No Plagerism or
verbatim but you are allowed to quote from the article.
Achieving and Sustaining
Business-IT Alignment
Jerry Luftman
Tom Brier
I
n recent decades, billions of dollars have been invested in
intormation tech-
nology (IT). A key concern of business executives is
alignment—applying IT
in an appropriate and timely way and in harmony with business
strategies,
goals, and needs. This issue addresses both how IT is aligned
with the busi-
3. ness and how the business should be aligned with IT
Frustratingly, organizations
seem to find it difficult or impossible to harness the power of
information tech-
nology for their own long-term benefit, even though there is
worldwide evi-
dence that IT has the power to transform whole industries and
markets.' How
can companies achieve alignment? There are known enablers
and inhibitors
that help and hinder alignment. IT executives experience them
daily, anecdotes
describing them have been published,^ and research has
identified trends and
established benchmarks against exemplar organizations.'
The survey data on which our findings are based were obtained
from
executives attending classes at IBM's Advanced Business
Institute. They repre-
sented over 500 firms in 15 industries. In addition to the survey,
we used inter-
views and observations from consulting engagements. Analysis
of the survey
data shows that the six most important enablers and inhibitors,
in rank order
are:
Enablers Inhibitors
• Senior executive support for IT • IT/business lack close
relationships
• IT involved in strategy development • IT does not prioritize
well
4. • IT understands the business • IT feils t o meet its
commitments
• Bustness/n partnership • IT does not understand business
• Well-prioritized IT projects • Senior executives do not support
IT
• IT demonstrates leadership • IT management lacks leadership
CAUFORNIA MANAGEMENT REVIEW V O L 42, NO. I
FALL 1999 109
Achieving and Sustaining Business-IT Alignment
What is striking about these lists is that the satne set of topics
(executive
support, understanding the business, IT-business relations, and
leadership) show
up in both. In previous work, we have presented the detailed
findings of our
enablers-inhibitors study."* The purpose of this article is to
present the methodol-
ogy that we have applied that leverages the enahlers and
inliibitors.
The importance of alignment has been well known and
documented since
the late 1970s,' Alignment grows in importance as companies
strive to link husi-
ness and technology in light of dynamic husiness strategies and
continuously
evolving technologies.'' What is not clear is how to achieve and
5. sustain this har-
mony between business and IT and what the impacn of
misalignment might be
on the firm.'
The strategic alignment model, suggested by Henderson and
Venkatra-
man," was applied by the authors throughout this five-year
research project. The
components of our modifications of their model are shown in
Figure 1. It is the
relationships that exist among the twelve components of this
model that define
husiness-IT alignment.
Theoretical Perspectives and Previous Research
The alignment of information teclmology and business strategy
to lever-
age the capabilities of IT and to transform the business has
increased in impor-
tance over the past few years as firms strive for competitive
advantage in a
diverse and changing marketplace." In light of this, there has
been a great deal
of research and insight into the linkages between business and
IT,'° the role of
partnerships between IT and business management," as well as
the need to
understand the transformation of business strategies resulting
from the competi-
tive use of rr.'^ Firms have been able to change not only their
business scope,
but also their infrastruaure (see Figure 1) as a result of IT
innovation.' *
6. Traditional methods for developing business strategies have
failed to take
full advantage of IT. Information technology is frequently
treated as a "cost cen-
ter" or viewed as an "expense" rather than an enabler or driver
of husiness
value.'" Strategic alignment sheds new light on IT and its role
in the develop-
ment of business strategies. It considers the strategic fit
between strategy and
infrastructure as well as the functional integration between
business and IT.
Several frameworks have been proposed to assess the strategic
issues
regarding the role of IT as a competitive weapon. They have
not, however,
yielded empirical evidence nor have they provided a roadmap to
carry out align-
ment. There have also been numerous studies that focus on
business process
redesign and reengineering as a means to achieve competitive
advantage with
IT.'' This advantage comes from the appropriate application of
IT as a driver or
enabler of business strategy.
Alignment of IT strategy with the organization's business
strategy is a
fundamental principle that has been advocated for over a
decade.'"* IT managers
10 CAUFORNIA MANAGEMENT REVIEW V O L 42. N Q I
FALL 1999
7. Achieving and Sustaining Business-IT Alignment
F I G U R E I . The Twelve Components of Alignment
Business Strategy
Business Scope—Includes the markets, products,
services.groups o( cuiloinet s/dietilb. dnd
where an enterprise competes as well as the competitors and
potential competitors that affect the ,
business environment.
Distinctive Competencies—The critical success factors and core
competencies that provide a firm
with a potential competitive edge.This includes brand, services,
research, manufacturing and product
development, cost and pricing structure, and sales and
distribution channels.
Business Governance—How companies set the roles and
relationship between management
stockholders, and the board of directors. Also included are how
the company is affeaed by government
regulations and how the firm manages its relationships and
alliances with strategic partners.
Organization Infrastructure and Processes
Administrative Structure—The way the firm organizes its
businesses. Examples include central,
decentralized, matrix, horizontal, vertical, geographic, federal,
and fijnctional.
Processes—How the firm's business activities (the work
performed by employees) operate or flow.
8. Major issues include value-added activities and process
improvement
Skiils—H/R considerations such as how to hire/fire, motivate,
train/educate, and culture.
IT Strategy
Technoiogy Scope- -The important infoiTnation applications
and technologies.
Systemic Competencies—Those capabilities (e.g., access to
information that is important to the
creation/achievement of a company's strategies) that
distinguishes the IT services.
i T Governance—How the authority for resources, risk, conflict
resolution, and responsibility for IT
IS shared among business partners. IT management and service
providers. Project selection and
priorrtization issues are included here.
IT Infrastructure and Processes
• Architecture—T he technology priorities, policies, and choices
that allow applications, software,
networks, hardware, and data management to be integrated into
a cohesive platform.
• Processes—Those practices and activities carried out t o
develop and maintain applications and
manage IT infrastructure.
• SIdils—!T human resource considerations, such as hovv to
hire/fire, motivate, train/educate, and cuttui"e.
9. Source: J, Luftman, Competing in the /njbrmat/on Age:
Sirowgic Ahgnmeni in Praaice (New Yoric, NY: Oxfonj
Universfty Press, 1996),
must be knowledgeable about how these new technologies can
be integrated
into the business (in addition to the integration among the
different technologies
and architectures) and must be privy to senior management's
tactical and strate-
gic plans. Both IT and business executives must be present
when corporate strat-
egies are discussed. IT executives must be able to delineate the
strengths and
weaknesses of the technologies in question and understand the
corporate-wide
implications.'^ While alignment is discussed extensively from a
theoretical
CAUFORNIA MANAGEMENT REVIEW VOL 42. NO. I F A a
1999 I I I
Achieving and Sustaining Business-IT Alignment
Standpoint in the literature, there is scant empirical evidence
regarding the
appropriate route to take for aligning business and IT strategies.
Study Design
In a multi-year study conduaed from 1992-1997, executives
representing
over 500 Fortune 1,000 U.S. organizations attended seminars
addressing align-
10. ment at IBM's Advanced Business Institute in Palisades, New
York. They asked
for assistance in assessing the positioning and contribution of
IT in their organi-
zations and identifying their personal role in aligning
organizations. They
wanted to know what steps were needed for successful
alignment and how to
enhance business performance and effectiveness through IT.
The seminars were
addressed to senior business executives from various functional
areas (e.g.,
finance, marketing, human resources) of private and public
sector organizations.
Representative titles included President, Chief Operating
Officer, Chief Financial
Officer, Chief Information Officer, Director of Human
Resources, General Man-
ager, Senior Vice President of Sales and Marketing, Physician
in Chief, Provost,
and State Senator. The industries represented included
insurance, health,
finance, education, government, utilities, transportation, and
manufacturing.'"
A computer-based assessment tool developed by the authors was
used to
address the alignment of business and IT in firms. The purpose
of the too! was
to help firms identify areas of strength and weakness related to
the business-IT
relationship as defined by the strategic alignment model
described in Figure 1.
Information provided by the tool suggests opportunities to
evaluate, achieve,
and maintain successful approaches to leveraging IT
11. investments. Results
showed that executives frequently do not recognize their firm's
true alignment
relationship. They perceive their firm to be following a certain
course of action
when they should be concentrating on an entirely different
area.'^
The study asked the respondents to identify the enablers and
inhibitors
to achieving harmony between business and IT in their
organizations. The
responses are shown in Figures 2 and 3. An important aspect of
the survey
is that we solicited the executives' free expression of their
opinions on factors
from their own experience within their firms. The executives
were asked to rate
the perceived strength of alignment within their companies.
Half believed that
their business and IT strategies were properly aligned, 42% said
they were not
aligned, and 8% were unsure or had no opinion. Within the
context of their
function (business or IT), the executives were then asked to
identify the key
enahlers and inhibitors to achieving alignment in their
organization. The notion
that the respondent's functional area (business or IT) would
influence the rank-
ing of enablers and inhibitors was a!so tested using the
questionnaire data.
Analysis of the data showed significant similarities over the
five-year span
of the study In the perceived importance and ranking of both
enahlers and
12. inhibitors. The activities identified as enablers and inhibitors
were comparable
across industry and job title.^"
112 CAUFORNIA MANAGEMENT REVIEW VOL 42. NO, I
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Achieving and Sustaining Business-IT Alignment
F I G U R E 2. Enablers to Alignment by Year
0%
Percentage
5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Senior executives support IT
IT involved in strategy develop.
IT understands business
(T, non-lT have close relationship
IT shows stfxjng leadership
IT efforts are well prioritized
IT meets commitments
Other
IT plans linked to business plans
13. IT achieves its strategic goals
IT resources shared
Goats/vision are defirwd
IT applied for competitive advanuge
Good IT/Business communication
Partnerships/alliances
CALIFORNIA MANAGEMENT REVIEW VOL 42, NO. I FALL
1999
Achieving and Sustaining Business-IT Alignment
F I G U R E 3 . Inhibitors to Alignment by Year
0% 5%
IT, non-IT lack close relationship
IT does not prioritize well
IT liails to meet its commitments
IT does not understand business
Senior execs, do not support IT
rr management lacks leadership
14. IT fails to achieve strategic goals
Other
Budget & staffing problems
Antiquated IT infrastructure
Goats and visions are vague
IT does not communicate well
Resistance from senior execs.
IT, non-IT plans are not linked
Percentage
10% 20% 25%
14 CALIFORNIA MANAGEMENT REVIEW VOL 42, NO. I
FALL 1999
Achieving and Sustaining Business-IT Alignment
Strategic Alignment as a Process
How do we maximize alignment enablers and minimize
inhibitors? We
have used a six-step approach that is designed to make strategic
alignment work
in any organization.
• Set the goals and establish a team.
15. • Understand the business-IT linkage.
• Analyze and prioritize gaps.
• Specify the actions (project management).
• Choose and evaluate success criteria.
• Sustain alignment.
This process mirrors traditional strategic planning and
incorporates an
organizational assessment using the strategic alignment model.
It begins by set-
ting the organizational goals and establishing a team. The
importance of setting a
clear direction for the organization prior to selecting
leclinologies and how they
will be applied cannot be overlooked. Too often the tendency is
to seize upon a
new IT product or service without giving full consideration to
its strategic fit to
a business plan. The more appropriate approach is to initially
ask some questions
related to specific organizational goals, such as is the
organization trying to
improve its products and services, its customer relationships, or
its competitive
position?
For the Charles Schwab Corporation, the business focus for
many years
has been to lower its operational costs and offer superior
service at lower prices
to its investors. The company's traditional investor seeks
16. discount brokerage
services and is unwilling to pay for investment advice. In the
late 1990s,
Schwab's direction shifted toward delivering customized
information to ihe
investor as quickly as possible. In so doing, Schwab was
converting to a full-
service brokerage firm. In the years since it was incorporated in
1971, the com-
pany has been a leader in using information technology as an
important tool in
meeting its changing, but well-defined business goals.
The steps taken to set the goals, market the objectives of the
assessment,
and negotiate for an executive sponsor, business champion, and
team are cru-
cial. Senior executive support must be obtained (the number one
enabler identi-
fied in our research). The highest-level business executive
representing the
organization being assessed should be the sponsor. Selecting a
cross-functional
team consisting of from six to twelve executives from the major
business units
and IT is the next step. The team would typically report to the
senior executives
that report to the sponsor. If the sponsor were the CEO, the
team would be com-
posed of Senior Vice Presidents. Their credibility and
knowledge of the business
are key. They must also be open to new ideas and be willing to
take a holistic
view of the organization. IT's involvement in the development
of the strategy
is essential (the second ranked enabler in our research). The
17. critical first step
in the planning process is to ensure that the right team is
committed and that
CAUFORNIA MANAGEMENT REVIEW V O L 42. NO. I
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Achieving and Sustaining Business-IT Alignment
they dearly understand and are in agreement with the goals of
the business.
Although there are times when IT is or should he the driver of
business strategy,
our experience indicates that business goals must be ciearly
specified and under-
stood before proceeding with the alignment analysis.
The second step in the process is to understand the linkage
between IT and the
business. The organization must understand the current and
future business and
IT environments by assessing the twelve strategic alignment
components (see
Figure 1). There should be no time constraints when discussing
the future.
Brainstorming techniques work well. Each individual team
member's point of
view and the discussions that ensue provide the dynamism that
results in a pow-
erful lisi of opportunities and problems. A skilled facilitator can
prove invaluable
during this brainstorming session. These discussions promote
IT'S understanding
of the business, while promoting the business's understanding of
18. IT (the third
ranked enabler in our research). This mutual understanding
results in greatly
improved relationships across the different parts of the
organization (the fourth
ranked enabler).
The third step, analyzing and prioritizing the gaps between the
current and
future states of each of the twelve alignment components, will
provide the
major content of the business and IT strategies. Team members
should be asked
to suggest opportunities and problems. A full day is usually
necessary to do this
part of the assessment. The discussion should be kept free
flowing. Most execu-
tives find it helpful to discuss the results with their staffs and
then return a week
later for another full day of brainstorming with the assessment
team. The gaps
(which are candidates for projects) and their value can then be
described in busi-
ness terms. Focusing on these gaps leads to a prioritized
identification of IT pro-
jects thai can leverage business opportunities (the fifth ranked
enabler). The
gaps that demand the highest priority are those that are mosi
likely to occur and
most likely to have a major impact on the business. The gaps
that have the low-
est priority are those that are least likely to occur and least
likely to have a major
impact on the business, and thus are not regarded as important
project candi-
dates. The prioritized list of projects is reviewed with the
19. sponsor and the senior
executives for approval. A business member from the team
should do the pre-
sentation. Approval is obtained for several of the highest
priority projects and
the executive team develops a much belter appreciation for IT
The presentation
should also be used to communicate with the rest of the
organization.
For most organizations, the main contribution that IT can make
to a
business strategy is to provide a distinctive competency in the
marketplace. The
computer-based assessment tool discussed earlier (or an
equivalent tool) should
be used to establish a base case for alignment. Attention should
then be focused
on potential breakthrough ideas for using information to achieve
competitive
advantage. It is possible that a new business scope (Figure 1)
can be developed
through the innovative use of information, but more likely it is
the enhance-
ment of distinctive capabilities through information that will
provide the most
value to the business.
16 CALIFORNIA MANAGEMENT REVIEW V O L 42, NO. 1
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Achieving and Sustaining Business-IT Alignment
For Charles Schwab, the step of examining how IT can enable
20. distinctive
competency is straightforward. Schwab has a history of relying
on technology to
provide top customer service and to lower costs. To meet the
customer need of
retrieving stock quotes and placing orders rapidly, Schwab
introduced TeleBro-
ker, a fully automated telephone system, in 1989. As newer IT
capabilities
became available through the years, Schwab analyzed how these
technologies
might help them meet their business goals. Some examples are
Equalizer, a soft-
ware product that allows personal computer users to trade
stocks online, and
StreetSmart, the first Windows-based software to provide online
trading of
bonds, equities, and mutual funds.
The fourth step is to specify the actions necessary to carry out
the recom-
mendations. Frequently, the focal areas for the actions to be
taken are in the
infrastruaure (Figure 1) domains of the strategic alignment
model. For eilher
business or IT, three areas to consider are the policies to be set,
the processes to
be developed or redesigned, and the skills to be acquired. After
this analysis has
been completed, the next questions pertaining to project
management that must
be answered include:
• What are the deliverables?
• What has to be done?
21. • What is the completion date?
• Who is responsible?
• What are the risks?
Schwab was able to capitalize on previous technological
capabilities
as new technology initiatives were introduced. The Schwab
Mutual Fund
OneSource program, introduced in 1992, enabled customers to
purchase mutual
funds much more easily than was possible previously.
Customers could now
purchase from their own brokerage account using any of
Schwab's trading inter-
faces, inciuding TeleBroker and StreetSmart.
After the strategy has been set and the action plan has been
specified,
the next step is to choose atid evaluate success aiteria. This
necessitates revisiting tlie
strategic goals and selecting the measurement criteria to apply
in assessing the
implementation of the project plans. Some frequently used
criteria are: sustain-
ability—the ability to preserve an advantageous market
position; flexibility—the
potential for revision in strategic choices; and economics—the
financial analysis
of the tradeoffs among varying dimensions of value.
Having established a sound business strategy through the years,
Schwab
had to evaluate their strategic choices. In 1995, when the
22. Internet began to
have a profound effect on the economics of the brokerage
industry, they decided
to introduce e.Schwab. This new service allowed investors to
obtain account
information through the Internet, fin 1998. e.Schwab was
replaced by
www.schwab.com.) During the last four years, Schwab's
embrace of ihis tech-
nology has resulted in a transformation of their business. They
have become an
CAUFORNIA MANAGEMENT REVIEW VOL 42. NO. I FALL
1999 117
Achieving and Sustaining Business-IT ^ i g n m e n t
information provider in addition to a transaction processor. In
so doing, the "no-
frills" discount broker is becoming a full-service brokerage
finn.
Obtaining IT-business alignment is a difficult task. The last step
in the
process, sustaining IT-business alignment is even more
difficult. To sustain the ben-
efit from IT, an "alignment behavior" must be developed and
cultivated. There
are several significant behavioral traits that are characteristic of
organizations
that have linked IT and business strategies (see Figure 4). By
adopting these
behaviors, companies can increase their potential for complete
alignment and
23. improve their ability to gain business value from invest-
FIGURE 4 mentsinrr.
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ _ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ _ As is true for all functions of a
business (e.g.,
finance, marketing, human resources), the strategy for IT
Successfully aligned should be a major component of the
business strategy. At
organizations are those United Services Automobile Association
in San Antonio,
that concentrate on: Texas, strategic alignment is critical to
success. According
• allowing for IT and business to CEO Robert Herres,
"Technology forces us to think
capabilities to be weighed ^^^^^^ 1^^^ ,̂̂̂̂ j ^^^^^ ^ ^ j .
processes intersect. Alignment
equally . , r , , .
across busmesses is critical for us because our goal is to
necessarŷ forsuccis exploit the efficiencies of centralized
information manage-
, ment while we decentralize service delivery."^^
• empowering workers in a '
team-based environment An unrelenting focus on customer
needs has never
• gaining agreement on been more critical than it is today. IT
can play an impor-
outcomes required from ^^^^ ^^1^ ^^ attracting and keeping
customers, and t h e
ttie business processes i . . . o • i_ v -r-u ^ i _ l
24. results should flow to the bottom line. The Charles
• inst-llingasense cjfur̂̂ ency in j ^ Corporation story is one of
transforming a n
managing ITenabled pnojects f i o
^ , , industry. The effect of schwab.com has been to make
• leading m the deployment of , , , r 11 . i i ^^t r
IT to create customer value Schwab a player in full-service
brokerage. The transform-
. nurturing a culture of open "^8 *^v^"t'" according to co-CEO
David Pottruck, "is t h e
human communication ability to deliver personalized
information to the customer
in real time, at virtually n o *̂̂
Frequently, the latest technology instinctively becomes
the solution. Successful firms resist this trend. Instead, they
begin by deciding
what results they must have from the business strategy and
business processes.
It is then that technologies are weighed along with other
resources as possible
solutions. Much of the potential for success has to do with
governance. IT gover-
nance plays a significant role in prioritizing IT initiatives as
well as sustaining
aligned business-IT organizations.
For alignment to succeed, a climate of clear communication is
an absolute
necessity. The building of effeaive relationships with line
managers is imperative
for successful IT organizations. IT personnel at all levels must
25. develop strong,
ongoing partnerships with line managers. Only through these
relationships can
the necessary communications occur to ensure that both
business and technol-
ogy capabilities are integrated into effective solutions for each
level of the
business.^*'
18 CALIFORNIA MANAGEMENT REVIEV
̂̂ VOL 42. NO. I
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Achieving and Sustaining Business-IT Alignment
F I G U R E 5, IT Governance AlternativesSkills in project
management are
always important for success in IT imple-
mentation, but for these relationships to
endure, skills in people management are
more critical than ever. The skills that orga-
nizations need to get IT projects completed
have assumed new dimensions. This is a
major shift for most IT professionals. Tech-
nical skills have always been the preemi-
nent requirement in staffing. However,
IT education in many organizations now
includes interpersonal skills such as aaive
listening, marketing, negotiation, and team
building."^'
IT Governance Practices
The relationship that results among
the team (business and IT) participating in
26. the six-step process should be continued
and expanded. Based on the focus of the
senior steering committee, typical members
include business process managers, change
managers, external customers, functional
managers, and vendors. In some cases, this
team remains intact as the IT Executive
Steering Committee. Its job is to determine
an IT governance direction that both
ensures that all of the enablers are main-
tained and that provides a platform for IT
leadership.
The process for establishing and
maintaining IT-business alignment is ongo-
ing. IT governance addresses how to priori-
tize and select projects and how to
appropriately allocate IT resources {e.g.,
staff, budget). Figure 5 provides an alpha-
betized list of some IT governance alterna-
tives. No one of the alternatives can assure
effeaive business-IT alignment. It is the ~
appropriate combination of most of them
that can lead to sustained alignment. Frequently, it is the
assessment of the
alternatives described in Figure 5 that becomes the initial
charge of the steering
committee.
Budget: how financial resources are allocated
to projects
Career Crossover: IT stafF working in the
business unit: business unit staff working in IT
C I O Reporting to CEO: reporting structure
27. having head IT executive report to head business
executive
Communicate, Market, Negotiate: IT staff
must learn and continuously execute effectively
Education, Cross-Training: IT must understand
the business; business must understand IT
Liaison: primary point of contact for facilitating
IT business relationship
Location: physical placement of IT staff and
business staff together
Organization: alternatives including:
• tr aditional structures like centralized, decen-
tralized, geographic, horizontal, vertical, etc
• federated (hybrid) structure centralizing
infrastructure and decentralizing application
support
• Centers of Competency (Centers of
Excellence) that leverage specialized skills
• insourcing/outsourcing decision identifying
what functions to keep in house and what
functions to assign to external partners
Process: the team and approaches applied to
define strategies, plans, priorrties, and mate IT
decisions
Shared Risks, Rewards/Penalties, and
28. Responsibilities: strong partnership of business
and IT leaders
Steering Committees (see Figure 6);
• Strategic: senior executives setting "long-
term" direction
• Tactical: middle management planning
• Operational: day to day decisions
Value Measurements: formal assessment and
review of IT's contributions to business strategies
and infrastructure
CALIFORNIA MANAGEMENT REVIEW VOL 42. NO. I FALL
1999 119
Achieving and Sustaining Business-IT Alignmerrt
F I G U R E 6. Steering Committee
Critical Success Factors
To have a Strategic Steering Committee
composed of a group of senior business execu-
tives meeting on a regular basis is considered
among tlie best practices for strategic align-
ment. Successful IT Steering Committees con-
centrate tbeir attention on the areas described
in Figure 4. Obtaining commitment from these
executives is difficult, but keeping their com-
mitment is even harder. The alphabetized list
in Figure 6 highlights many of the critical suc-
29. cess faaors for sustaining the steering commit-
tee. The critical success factors are important
for all three levels of steering committees
(strategic tactical, and operational).
To ensure success, appropriate value
measurements must be seleaed and continu-
ously tracked. Stakeholders ought to be aware
of the measurements and the actions that will
be taken based on their results. IT should be
able to demonstrate business value. These
measurements should affirm IT's role in pro-
viding the organization with an opportunity to
do something new, allowing the organization
to perform better, faster, or cheaper. At a mini-
mum, IT must understand the priorities of
business value measurements and how the
business perceives the contributions of IT.
Conclusion
Strategic alignment is an ongoing
process. There is no single strategy or single
combination of activities that will enable a firm to achieve and
sustain align-
ment. Technology and the business climate are changing far too
quickly. The
twelve components of alignment are in constant flux and their
interrelationships
are as unique as the companies that follow them. However, the
enablers and
inhibitors to achieving alignment have remained consistent over
the past five
years.
30. Executives should work toward minimizing those activities that
inhibit
alignment and maximize those activities that bolster it. They
should concentrate
on improving the relationships between the business and IT
functional areas,
working toward mutual cooperation and participation in strategy
development,
maintaining executive support, and prioritizing projeas more
effeaively.
Bureaucracy: focus on reduction/elimination
to expedite opportunities to leverage IT
Career Building: opportunities for
participants to learn and expand responsibilities
Communication: primary vehicle for IT and
business discussions and sharing knowledge
.icross parts of the organization
Compiex Decisions: do not get involved in
"mundane" areas
Influence/Empowerment: authority to have
decisrons carried out
Low Hanging Fruit/Quicic Hits: immediate
changes earned out when appnspnate
Marketing: vehicle for "selling" the value of
IT to the business
Obi«ctlve5, Measurements: formal
assessment and review of ITs business
contributions
31. Ownership: responsible/accountable for the
decisions made
Priorities: primary vehicle for selecting what
is done, when, and how much of resources to
allocate
Reiatlonships: partnership of business and IT
Right Participants: cooperative, committed,
respected team members with knowledge of
the business and IT
Share Risks: equal accountability, recognition,
responsibility, rewards, and uncertainty
Structure. Facilitator: pnDcesses and
tciidership to ensure the right focus
120 CALIFORNIA MANAGEMENT REVIEW VOL 42, NO, I
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Achieving and Sustaining Business-fT Alignment
Alignment is a dynamic, complex process that takes time to
develop
and even more effon to sustain. Companies that have achieved
alignment can
build a strategic competitive advantage that will provide them
with increased
visibility, efficiency, and profitability to compete in today's
changing markets.
The importance of cooperation between business and IT to
32. maximize investment
in technology remains dear. As IT plays an increasing role in
defining corporate
strategies, its correct application will facilitate a more
competitive and profitable
organization. The careful assessment of a firm's alignment is
important to ensure
IT is being used to appropriately enable or drive the business
strategy.
Notes
1. J. King, "Re-engineering Focus Slips," Computerworld.
March 13, 1995, p. 6;
J. Henderson and N. Venkatraman, 'Strategic Alignment: A
Model for Organiza-
tional Transformation Via Information Technology," Working
Paper 3223-90,
Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 1990;
J. Henderson and N. Venkatraman, "Aligning Business and IT
Strategics," in
J. Luftman, Competing in the Information Age: Practical
Applications of the Stratet^ic
Alignment Model (New York, f̂̂Y: Oxford University Press,
1996); Michael J.Earl,
"Experience in Strategic Information Systems Planning," MIS
Quarterly. 17/1
(1993): 1-24;J. Luftman, Competing in the Information Age:
Practical Applications of
the Strategic Alignment Model (New York, NY: Oxford
University Press, 1996);
J. Luftman, P. Lewis, and S. Oldach, "Transforming the
Enterprise: The Alignment
of Business and Information Technology Strategies," IBM
Systems Journal. 32/1
33. (1993): 19S-221; L. Goff, "You Say Tomayto, I SayTomahto,"
Computerworld.
November 1, 1993, p. 129; S. Liebs, "We're All in This
Together,' Information Week.
October 26, 1992. p. 8; R. Watson and J. Brancheau, "Key
Issues In Information
Systems Management; An International Perspective,"
Information & Management.
20 (1991): 213-23; W. Robson, Strategic Management and
Information Systems: An
Integrated Approach (London; Pitman Publishing, 1994).
2. C. Wang, Techno Vision II (New York, NY; McGraw-Hill,
1997).
3. J. Luftman. R. Papp, and T Brier, "Enablers and Inliibltors of
Business-IT Align-
ment," Communications of the Association for Information
Systems. Volume 1, Article
11, 1999; J. Luftman, R. Papp, and T Brier, "The Strategic
Alignment Model:
Assessment and Validation.' Proceedings of the Information
Technology Management
Group of the Association of Management. 1 3th Annual
International Conference,
Vancouver, British Columbia. Canada, August 2-5, 1995, 57-66.
4. Luftman, Papp, and Brier (1999), op. cit.
5. E. McLean and J. Soden. Strategic Planning for MIS (New
York, NY; John Wiley &
Sons, 1977); IBM, Business Systems Planning, Planning Guide.
GE20-0527, IBM Cor-
poration, White Plains. New York, 1981. ?. mWs, Managing
Service Industries (New
York. NY: Ballinger, 1986); M. Parker and R. Benson,
34. Information Economics (Engle-
wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-HaII. 1988); J. Brancbcau and J.
Wetberbe. "Issues In
Information Systems Management," MIS Quarterly, 11/1 (1987):
23-45; P. Dixon
and D. John, "Technology Issues Eacing Corporate Management
in tbe 1990s,"
MIS Quarterly. 13/3 (1989): 247-255; F. Niederman, J.
Brancheau. and J. Weth-
erbe, "Information Systems Management Issues for the 1990s,"
MIS Quarterly
15/4 (1991); 475-95.
6. R. Papp, "Determinants of Strategically Aligned
Organizations; A Multi-industry,
Multi-perspective Analysis," Dissertation, Stevens Institute of
Technology, Hobo-
ken, NJ, 1995; Luftraan (1996), op. d t .
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1999 I2I
Achieving and Sustaining Business-IT Alignment
7. R. Papp and J. Lufiman. "Business and IT Slrategic
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and Assessments,' in Proceedings of the Association for
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122 CAUFORNIA MANAGEMENT REVIEW V O L 42. NO. I
FALL 1999
Summer 2010 Journal of Computer Information Systems 107
examININg taCtICal INfoRmatIoN
teCHNology — BuSINeSS alIgNmeNt
moNIdeepa taRafdaR SufIaN qRuNfleH
The University of Toledo University of scranton
Toledo, OH 43606 scranton, PA 18510
Received: August 8, 2009 Revised: October 25, 2009 Accepted:
November 19, 2010
aBStRaCt
38. The goal of strategic IT-business alignment has been to
deploy IT applications that support business strategy. In spite of
voluminous “strategic” IT plans and numerous studies on
strategic
IT-business alignment, accounts of wasted IT investments and
deployment of business-irrelevant applications are rampant,
indicating lack of alignment at the tactical level, that is, lack
of execution-level processes addressing issues of resources,
objectives and implementation-priority matching, between IT
and
the business. We answer the question: What are the aspects and
outcomes of tactical IT-business alignment? We (1) identify six
aspects of tactical IT-business alignment, and (2) show how
they
lead to four outcomes — implementation of planned
applications,
execution of IT-enabled aspects of business strategy, increased
credibility of the IT function and increased business value from
IT projects. Our results are based on qualitative primary data
(45 hours of interviews with 28 IT and functional managers and
company documents) from four organizations.
Keywords: IT-business Alignment, Tactical IT-business
Alignment, IT strategy, Project Management
1. INtRoduCtIoN aNd motIVatIoN
The goal of strategic IT-business alignment has been to
facilitate the deployment of IT applications, infrastructure and
human talent that support business needs vis-à-vis products
and processes [13]. That is, if strategic IT-business alignment
exists in a firm, it is expected that the firm has a plan to deploy
IT necessary for supporting its business strategy. However, the
actual acquisition and implementation of the planned
applications
requires execution-level IT-business alignment, the absence of
which is one reason why in spite of voluminous “strategic” IT
39. plans, accounts of wasted IT investments, failed IT projects,
and the deployment of business — irrelevant applications and
technologies are rampant [20].
To give examples, during 2002-2004, $100 billion to $ 150
billion worth of IT projects failed and an estimated 68% of IT
projects did not fulfill originally stated business goals or
deliver
envisioned business benefits [9]. Another study [17] found that
30% to 75% of new systems and applications do not improve
work processes or register significant financial impact. During
2000-2002, companies threw away $130 billion of IT
applications
and infrastructure they purchased [18]. As of 2005, 50% of all
IT
projects finished over-budget and over-time [16]. Further, in
spite
of apparently “good” relations between CIO’s and their C-level
counterparts at the top management level, the interface between
middle- and junior-level IT managers and functional managers
is
often strained and hostile, resulting in communication problems.
Centralized implementation decisions by corporate IT often face
resistance by middle-level functional managers who prefer
greater
control over applications that are deployed in their departments,
leading to conflict between the IT department and other
functions
and the consequent lack of resources and co-operation for
execution. These examples show a clear lack of alignment at the
tactical level, that is, a lack of processes that can address issues
of communication and matching of resources, objectives and
implementation priorities, between IT and the business at the
execution levels.
The lack of tactical alignment leads to gaps between IT that is
planned and envisioned (and IT that supports business strategy)
40. and IT that eventually gets executed and implemented, and
given that IT plays important roles in facilitating many aspects
of business, to possible failures in the execution of business
strategy.
studies on strategic IT-business alignment have addressed
processes for aligning business plans/strategies with IT plans/
strategies [24, 13, 25] and involving the CIO in executive-level
planning processes [4]. However there is dearth of literature
identifying IT-business alignment processes at the tactical level.
Recent work has turned to alignment processes at a higher level
of granularity such as interaction between IT and functional
managers [22, 11], IT structure-organization structure alignment
[2], and functional commitment to IT projects [23]. Continuing
this focus, we address the following research questions:
1. What are the aspects of tactical IT-business alignment?
2. What are its outcomes?
based on field data (45 hours of interviews with 28 IT and
functional managers and company documents) from four
manufacturing and service organizations, our findings show that
routines and processes for tactical IT-business alignment can
be encapsulated in six aspects (Communication, Governance,
skill, sourcing, IT Professionals and Projects) that lead to four
outcomes (Implementation of planned applications, Execution
of
IT-enabled aspects of business strategy, Increased credibility of
the IT function and Increased business value from IT projects).
The paper thus contributes to emerging literature on finer-
grained
levels of analysis of IT-business alignment.
2. lIteRatuRe SuRVey
There are numerous studies on strategic IT-business
alignment1.
41. broadly speaking, such alignment implies that there is a match
1. For a recent, detailed review of strategic IT-business align-
ment, see Chan and Reich (2007).
108 Journal of Computer Information Systems Summer 2010
between the firm’s business strategy and the planned portfolio
of
IT applications. It is accomplished by linking strategic business
and strategic IT plans [5, 24, 13] and activities such as
participation
of the CIO (CEO) in the business planning process (IT planning
process) [11]. strategic IT-business alignment leads to improved
business performance across different business strategies and
industries, and increased effectiveness of the IT function [25].
However, increasing complexity, organizational span and
number of stakeholders of IT projects, increased end-user in-
volvement in IT projects, rapid changes in technology capa-
bilities, the long time between the beginning and end of many
implementation exercises, and the dynamic nature of strategic
IT
plans themselves, have given rise to the need for developing
more
granular and execution-driven aspects of IT-business alignment,
with the anticipation of understanding dynamic and adaptive
alignment processes that can aid the execution of IT strategy.
Recent alignment research has focused on a number of
alignment
approaches of this kind.
2.1. alignment of Structure and decision making
Research has looked at alignment between organization
42. structure, locus of decision-making, diversification, and the IT
function. Centralized corporate decision-making structures (i.e.,
strong central direction and monitoring) strive for enterprise-
wide
economies and efficiencies, whereas decentralized structured
(i.e.,
greater autonomy at the business unit level) address localized
business needs and opportunities. Unrelated diversification and
high business unit autonomy should be aligned with primarily
decentralized IT structures whereas related diversification,
related
core businesses, and organizational centralization should be
aligned with centralized IT structures that emphasize efficiency,
standardized controls and integrative architectures. Where there
are more (less) opportunities for IT related cross-unit synergies,
business units where the strategic importance of IT is low
(high)
will implement centralized (decentralized) IT decision-making
[2]. A federal or hybrid IT form [26] is associated with matrix
structures and multidivisional companies.
2.2. Social alignment
social alignment [22] describes IT-business partnerships at
various organizational levels. It is accomplished in two ways.
First, by fostering cross-domain knowledge and building a
dialog
between IT professionals and functional managers to address
mindset blockages, such that IT professionals understand more
about the organization and its business, and functional managers
become familiar with existing and possible uses of IT in the
context of the firm and its industry [21]. second, through
informal
networks and relationships between businesses and Is
executives
in the form of proactive, positive and ongoing interactions
43. between them [4].
2.3. project alignment
The management of projects has emerged as an important
aspect of the implementation of applications and hence in the
execution of IT strategy. IT project alignment is the degree to
which an IT project’s deliverables match the organization’s IT
strategy and the project’s objectives [3]. Project selection and
governance are important for alignment, as are service levels
that
demonstrate contribution to the business. Factors important to
successful project completion include definition of clear project
mission, metrics and expected outcomes [15], communication
and
availability of required resources [8], synergies between project
group members [14], presence of project monitoring techniques,
and reducing goal conflict, shirking and information hoarding
among project members [15]. IT projects may be abandoned
due to cost overruns, schedule slippages, and technological
inadequacies [19]. Past project success, sunk cost, high risk
propensity of project members and high risk perception of the
project, lead to tendencies to continue with projects [12].
Practice-based accounts [1, 10] suggest a number of reasons
that make the management of IT projects difficult. First, a
typical firm has many simultaneous projects and often does not
have the information to leverage synergies across them. Efforts
are therefore duplicated, resulting in stretched resources and
schedule/cost slippages. second, there is often no prioritization
and whoever’s idea has the greatest passion wins. As a result,
projects are either orphaned or become the pet projects of the IT
functions with no business interest. Third, despite the presence
of strategic IT plans, the IT function and other departments
often
have conflicting opinions about technologies and priorities.
44. Fourth, there are ad-hoc project requests from user departments,
without specific business benefits/justification and without
informing the IT function. The IT function therefore does not
have an idea of what the departments want to achieve, making
it difficult for them to contribute in an informed way. Finally,
whereas IT plans are themselves dynamic, changing with day-
to-
day contingencies and mid-way changes in business strategies,
IT
execution is not correspondingly synchronized, because projects
are not dynamically monitored and consolidated.
2.4. outcomes of execution-focused alignment mechanisms
Execution-focused alignment processes lead to increased
quality of IT project planning and reduced number of
implementation problems [11], better systems integration, more
effective resource allocation, greater end-user satisfaction with
the IT function [2], harmonious relationships between the IT
function and other departments, and an organization structure
that
is matched with the IT architecture and infrastructure [7].
3. ReSeaRCH deSIgN
The objective of this study was to identify the aspects and
outcomes of tactical IT-business alignment. Our intention was
to observe (1) organizational processes and mechanisms for
achieving tactical alignment in firms and (2) how these
processes
lead to particular outcomes. From the point of view of
methodology
[6], the case study method is recommended for studying details
of how and why a phenomenon takes place; we thus adopted
this method. We executed a three-phased research design that
included (1) Questionnaire development, (2) Data collection and
45. (3) Data analysis.
In the first phase, we identified from our academic and prac-
titioner literature survey, a list of broad themes on execution-
level
alignment mechanisms. We then developed open-ended
questions
based on these themes, addressing IT roles and responsibilities
in
systems implementation, extent of IT centralization,
relationships
between IT and other functions, development of IT personnel
skills, technology choices regarding application development,
project management practices facilitating on-time/on-budget
execution, reasons for IT project failures, difficulties of
procuring
Summer 2010 Journal of Computer Information Systems 109
IT resources, and challenges in managing multiple vendors. The
questions formed the basis of the primary data collection.
In the second phase, we developed case studies in four study
sites, as given in Table 1. All of these firms had implemented or
were in the process of implementing major applications through
multi-year IT projects. We promised anonymity to the study
sites. We first contacted the CIO of each organization,
explaining
the purpose of the study and soliciting support. At each site
we interviewed CIO’s and senior/middle/junior level IT and
functional managers. Questions relating to technology sourcing
and IT professional skills were asked primarily to IT managers.
Other questions, i.e. those relating to project management,
project
failures, IT roles and responsibilities etc., were asked to
functional
46. and IT managers. The senior IT and functional managers were
asked to comment on all the questions. We triangulated findings
from the different managers and sought more than one interview
with a particular manager if we found discrepancies. We also
collected data from IT plan documents, minutes of project
meetings and internal memos. We interviewed 28 people (some
more than once) and each interview lasted 45 minutes to an
hour.
The interviews were taped and transcribed.
In the third phase, we coded the interviews in two iterations.
In the first, each author independently identified the main
themes
of tactical IT-business alignment, and attached codes to similar
themes. In the second, the codes from the two authors were
compared. Matching codes were retained and differing codes
were resolved and modified through discussion. some of the
codes (e.g., those relating to communication and centralization)
reflected tactical IT-business alignment practices discussed in
existing literature. Most codes however, reflected emergent
themes and illustrated alignment practices revealed by this
study
4. fINdINgS
Our analysis of the data revealed two categories of codes.
The first described aspects of tactical IT-business alignment,
i.e., organizational processes and mechanisms for
accomplishing
tactical IT-business alignment. There were six sub-categories
under this code, each yielding descriptions of a specific aspect
for tactical alignment. The second category described outcomes
of tactical IT-business alignment, and how the aspects lead to
the
outcomes. We first describe the aspects of tactical alignment,
with
47. illustrative codes from each sub-category under the first
category.
We then describe its outcomes and explain how each outcome
is facilitated by particular aspects, drawing from the second
category of codes.
4.1. aspects of tactical It-Business alignment
IT-business alignment at the tactical level occurs when IT
professionals’ resource allocation imperatives, project selection
and execution priorities, and technology-choice decisions are
aligned with those of the other functions. As illustrations of
lack of tactical IT-business alignment, according to three of our
study-participants, “When we first present our annual IT
strategic
plan to the functional areas, we don’t get any push back because
everyone agrees to it in principle, but starting the very next day,
the functions want to start doing things which were not part of
the plan”, or “I feel comfortable that we have alignment at the
C-level, but if we go down the line and ask the functions if IT
folks are working on the right things and are responsive to their
needs, I am not sure their answer will be positive”, or “There
are disconnects between corporate IT strategies and plant-level
IT strategies. For plant managers the metric is production,
shipping, inventory etc. For corporate IT, the metrics are
projects
completed, compliance, budgets, standards, up-time etc. The
two
do not always line up.”
We found six aspects of tactical IT-business alignment as
shown in Table 2 — (a) Communication related, (b) Governance
related, (c) skill related, (d) sourcing related, (e) IT
professionals’
role related, and (f) Project related. We next explain these
aspects,
with illustrations from the data.
48. (a) Communication-related
This aspect focuses on communication within the IT
department and between the IT department and other functions.
First, communication of the corporate-level It strategy down
to the middle and lower management levels in the IT function
is necessary for ensuring that technical specialists are aware of
planned applications, and that the IT strategy (what) is
translated
into specifics of required applications, technologies and
resources
(how). IT managers use their understanding of the IT strategy as
a
basis to plan for resources, select projects, and evaluate
unplanned
firm pseudonym firm profile details of Interviewees
eduCo A state-funded university in mid-western 3 senior
managers in IT (interim CIO’s), 2 middle-level IT
U.s., with about 20,000 students, more managers (application
and networks), 1 junior-level IT manager
than 300 faculty and 11 colleges. (application delivery), 2
senior administrators, 1 faculty
HealthCo A healthcare company having 7000 CIO/VP of IT, 1
senior level IT-business liaison (physician), 1
employees and 2000 medical staff, with project manager 3
middle level IT managers (applications and
$3-$4 billion in annual revenues networking), 2 senior level
administrators in charge of 2 clinical
departments (both physicians), 1 junior level IT staff
glassCo A glass manufacturing company engaged CIO, 2 senior
49. functional managers, 2 middle level IT managers
in design, manufacturing, and supply of (application and
networks), 1 senior manager in the engineering
tableware glass, with operations in 4 function, 1 middle level
IT-business liaison.
continents and having $400-$500
million in annual revenues
IndustrialCo A diversified (electrical, automotive, CIO, 1
middle level IT manager, I middle level functional
fluid), global industrial manufacturer with manager (supply
chain)
$13 billion in annual revenues
table 1: details of firms
110 Journal of Computer Information Systems Summer 2010
aspects of tactical Routines and processes for achieving each
aspect (guidance
It-business alignment definition for empirical measures and
managerial actionables)
Communication of Is strategy from ∞ Conduct retreats, staff
meetings, project meetings, round
the C-level down to the middle and tables, and post strategic
plan documents on company
lower levels of the Is function portals.
Communication related ∞ Institute formal IT-business
communication through regular
Interaction between the IT function and meetings of steering
and project committees, desktop icons on
other functions user screens for IT support requests, corporate
portals and
50. newsletters, and IT point-persons within functions.
Encourage a climate of informal IT-business communication
∞ Mirror the structure and decision-making responsibilities
of
the IT function with the authority-responsibility structure of
the
business
structure of and decision making in, ∞ Centralize decisions on
infrastructure and network
the IT function technologies (i.e. those which affect the entire
firm). Localize
decisions for local support, desktop and specialized application
requirements
governance related ∞ Have the local IT report to the local
business head, with a
dotted line relationship with central IT.
∞ Create liaison positions between IT and a particular
function
∞ Recruit advanced users from the functions for training users
Creating governance positions and providing feedback on
initial features
Create “executive sponsors” for providing business
justification for
IT initiatives.
Matching the skills of IT professionals ∞ skills (relating to
technology and culture) required other of
Skill related with dynamic business-driven IT require- IT
professionals at the execution level change as the
ments such as mergers and acquisitions, business strategy
51. changes; retool skills and expertise of the
new products and global expansion IT function and keep them
continually current.
∞ standardize infrastructure, communication, compliance,
storage and network-related hardware and software, and
balancing technology standardization enterprise applications.
and customization ∞ Customize process-specific applications
closely tied to unique
unique process workflows or providing competitive advantage
Sourcing related advantage.
∞ Develop global vendors that can deliver products and
services
across multi-national and multi-site facilities, for infrastructure-
Contract management related technologies.
∞ Develop local vendors for division-specific applications
∞ Include flexible entry and exit clauses in vendor contracts
∞ Use the IT function’s cross-departmental views of
Proactive identification of IT related organizational processes
to suggest technology solutions to
opportunities, pain-points and business strategy execution
hitches
achievements ∞ Identify pitfalls and trade-offs regarding IT
choices that
It professionals’ functional managers may want to make
role related ∞ Celebrate IT achievements within the firm
End-User support Mechanisms ∞ Cross-train implementation
level IT staff for user hand-
holding and support
Create job tickets for systematizing end-user/desktop support
requirements.
∞ Classify projects in order of business importance
∞ Evaluate IT managers based on how well they fulfill
52. objectives
of the broader IT strategic plan
Project Prioritization ∞ Keep part of the IT budget unallocated
to any specific project;
use it for projects which emerge over the course of the year.
∞ Avoid over-formalizing project-portfolio management and
prioritization.
Matching of technical deliverables ∞ Articulate business
metrics (cycle time reduction, cost savings,
and business deliverables increase in sales of particular
product lines etc.) and technical
metrics (on time, within budget) for project success.
Measure and monitor business success criteria, post project-
project related execution
∞ Create multiple approval authorities, depending on project
size
Dynamic resource allocation and budget.
Acquire and release temporary resources for projects
∞ Functional project team members should take care of
process
and workflow requirements, IT members should address
Mixed project team composition development, configuration
and customization.
Functional project team leads should coordinate user
requirements and
change requests, technical leads should match these with
capabilities
of the technology
Summer 2010 Journal of Computer Information Systems 111
53. IT-related requests from functional departments. As we found
out,
“. . . money and people requirements for IT strategy execution
are
calculated on the basis of the IT plan”, and “. . . a lot of times
the
functions have unplanned needs which I evaluate against the IT
strategy and broad project plan that has been communicated to
me.”
second, interaction between middle and junior-level
management of the It function and other functions takes
place through communication and collaboration between IT
managers and functional managers. Formal communication
involves exchanging information and feedback about system
requirements and deficiencies, user problems, and
implementation
schedules. Means of formal communication include meetings
of project committees, desktop icons on user screens for IT
support requests, corporate portals and newsletters, and IT
point-persons within functions. A middle-level IT manager told
us, “. . . when we communicate, we let the business folks know
what we are doing and are no longer a black box.” Informal IT-
business communication brings out day-to-day concerns that
may
not get voiced at formal meetings for fear of conflict or lack of
time. An application manager told us, “I walk by [the
production
manager’s] office a few times a month and ask her about how
things are going and what she needs. This keeps us on her radar,
so she knows to call us when there is an issue”.
Communication leads to IT-business collaboration and in
strong IT-business relationships. IT and functional managers
begin to think together in order to work through resource
allocation gridlocks, project management issues, and crisis
resolution. They begin to have a stake in each others’ success,
54. see
the value of one another’s perspectives and are more
forthcoming
about requirements and problems. A CIO told us, “. . . our IT
and
functional folks are on the same page on most things, so it is the
functional guys who count on us to make them shine and so it is
they who stand up to ask for IT dollars when this or that project
is
in danger of being shelved because of money, and I hope that
this
continues . . .”.
(b) governance-related
The governance-related aspect describes decision-making
mechanisms and structures for coordinating day-to-day opera-
tional issues between IT and the functions. First, the structure
and decision-making responsibilities of the It function should
reflect the authority-responsibility structure of the business. A
mix of centralized and decentralized decision-making structures
in the IT function, appropriately matched with corresponding
decision-making structures of other functions is desirable. IT
specialists at the corporate level (i.e. “corporate IT”) should
generally be responsible for those decisions that affect the
entire
firm. (e.g. infrastructure and network related). IT specialists at
each business division or function, (i.e. “divisional” or “local”
IT)
should be responsible for local support, desktop and specialized
application requirements. such a structure ensures effective
firm-
wide infrastructure integration and synergy as well as effective
function or division-level IT acquisition and support. One of
our CIO-interviewees told us, “In the hardware, networks,
55. infrastructure and enterprise application areas, corporate IT
makes decisions. But I keep a strong dotted line relationship
with
our domestic and international plants, so we can keep
synergies.”
Another corporate IT interviewee said, “The divisional IT folks
are
closer to end users than corporate IT and are in a better position
to take the lead on division-specific application decisions. But
we
do reinforce broad technology mandates from corporate [IT].”
second, governance structures and positions help to co-
ordinate operational issues between the IT side and the
functional
side. At one firm, we found “business-unit liaison” positions,
responsible for liaising between IT and a particular function,
and
for aligning problems, requirements, wish-lists, and suggestions
for that function, with IT solutions, capacities and resources.
The liaisons ensured that the IT function was cognizant of end
users’ activities, particularly of those users that were IT-savvy,
as illustrated by this comment, “Our engineers are high-end
users and tend to push new systems from the shop-floor, without
communicating with IT and without looking at ripple impacts
with the rest of the network. So they will suddenly come up
with a
system and say “Hey we want this”. [This] puts things out of
sync
and strains IT resources”. At another firm, we found the
presence
of “power-users” or “super-users”, early users who volunteered
peer-training and feedback on initial features, helping align
system
functionalities with user requirements. Another governance
position is the “executive sponsor”, typically a middle or senior
functional manager who provides business justification for a
56. particular IT initiative. The position serves as a spokesperson
and
champion for the initiative by taking the responsibility for
linking
it to specific operational-level business benefits and creating
managerial buy-in for it.
(c) Skill-related
This aspect relates to matching the skills of It professionals
with dynamic business-driven It requirements, and ensures
that the IT function is continually current and has the necessary
expertise. skills required of IT professionals at the execution
level change as the business strategy changes. Good examples
are new product initiatives, mergers and acquisitions, and
global
expansion. Illustrating the first, one of the interviewees said,
“we
are going to offer more distance learning courses and professors
should not have to learn the nuts and bolts of the technology,
which
means that we will have to provide technical support for the
new
course management applications.” As an instance of the second,
the IT function may have to acquire technical skills to integrate
and maintain new applications from acquired companies. One of
the interviewees told us, “We are primarily a Cisco network and
they [the acquired company] are a Novell shop. Depending on
which one we keep, we have to figure out how to integrate”. For
the third, soft skills relating to culture, change management and
language are necessary for assimilating international IT sites
into
the parent company and for communicating with them. The CIO
of the one of the firms, which at the time of the study was in
the process of acquiring and setting up plants in other countries
57. Project sponsorship Appoint functional project sponsors
Institute software-based (stage Gate tools, Ms sharePoint and
Project Monitoring spreadsheets) and governance-based
(executive committee or
steering committee) processes for project monitoring
table 2: aspects of tactical It-business alignment, and processes
for accomplishing them
112 Journal of Computer Information Systems Summer 2010
said, “. . . our IT folks got trained on how people from [the new
country] make decisions, how they handle controversy, how
they express disagreement and resistance . . . and we have been
traveling internationally for the first time, to integrate these
sites
into our infrastructure.”
(d) Sourcing-related
The sourcing-related aspect describes policies with respect to
technology acquisition and vendor management. First, balance
between firm-wide technology standardization and process-
specific customization helps the IT function identify technology
acquisition and implementation choices that align with IT
strategy. Typical candidates for standardization include
enterprise
applications and infrastructure, telecommunications,
compliance,
storage and network related hardware and software. For
example,
the IT implications of a merger or an acquisition do not always
get
58. worked into the IT strategic plan. In such a case,
standardization
choices form the basis of technology-related tactical decisions.
At one of our study sites, following an acquisition, networks
and email systems, which had been different for the two firms,
were standardized across the combined firm. standardization
is also important for aligning requirements of new applications
with capabilities of existing infrastructure. The CIO of one the
healthcare site mentioned, “When you decide to introduce a new
radiology or cardiology machine, you have to take into account
the
network and image storage implications and possible upgrades,
even though it may not have been part of the original IT
strategic
plan.”
Process-specific applications that are either closely tied
to the (unique) workflow of some operation or provide some
sort of a competitive advantage, are not good candidates for
standardization. A middle-level IT manager of one site said,
“Yes, some applications are not part of the ERP and we do not
plan to standardize them. They are custom written and mirror
our product configuration process and provide what we believe
is a differentiating advantage to our sales force. We call them
“modules of advantage”.”
second, contract management is important for achieving
the flexibility required for aligning IT strategy and IT
execution.
Flexible sourcing contracts enable firms to reconfigure their IT
resources as required by the business. The CIO of one of our
sites told us, “We negotiated an ERP contract with [vendor
name
deleted] for implementation at 19 sites. As the implementations
were about to start, we sold our stake in a few divisions and did
not need as many sites. Because we had worked in flexibility
into
our contract, quick reconfiguration was possible.” Developing
59. global vendors that can deliver products and services across
multi-national and multi-site facilities, for infrastructure-related
technologies like operating systems, servers and networking,
enables cost-effective technology standardization. Developing
local vendors for acquiring division-specific applications
aligns particular end-user requirements with local IT support
capabilities.
(e) It professionals’ role-related
This aspect describes the role of IT managers, particularly
middle managers, in identifying day-to-day concerns in
implementing applications and providing end-user support. First
IT managers should proactively identify It-related business
opportunities, pitfalls and achievements. The IT function has
vantage-point and cross-departmental views of organizational
processes; it can see how information flows and where it can get
obstructed. IT managers can therefore abstract out of the silo-
level view that most functional managers identify with and not
only suggest technology solutions to business strategy execution
hitches, but also anticipate possible resistance to such solutions.
One of the CIO’s told us, “We had a business strategy
imperative
to consolidate information across our plants in four countries.
We
[the IT function] looked at the information-silos, and were able
to suggest a big-picture data-warehouse solution.” Another IT
manager from the hospital site told us, “the clinical
environment
is an information-gathering engine — every piece of clinical
innovation that comes along has an IT component to it. One of
my
roles is to build relationships with the clinical folks, to hear
[what
they want to do] and to tell them proactively how IT needs to
60. get involved to make it happen” Identifying and communicating
pain-points and trade-offs is also important. Functional
managers
are better positioned to articulate project selection preferences
and requirements if they know the business implications of such
decisions. said one project manager, “I tell them the business
implications of doing X and Y, without doing Z, for instance.”
Communicating and celebrating IT execution successes beyond
the IT function and into the larger firm is essential for building
and sustaining the interest of functional managers in the
business
value what IT can do.
second, the firms we studied emphasized the importance of
end-user support mechanisms to ensure that applications are
used. such mechanisms include hand- holding and support for
new applications (by cross-training implementation-level IT
staff
on different applications), and job tickets for systematizing end-
user/desktop support requirements. An interesting example
came
from one of the medical firms in our study. “We had teams of
IT folks called “redcoats” [IT staff who had prior clinical and
nursing backgrounds] working round the clock in the hospitals
and laboratories to assist doctors and nurses in operating the
computers or navigating the screens. They ensured that clinical
folks did not have a reason not to use these applications”.
(f) project related
project–level alignment is the congruence between an IT
project’s deliverables and the organization’s business and IT
strategies, accomplished in part by the project’s response to
change triggers such as changed requirements and resource
crises.
We found six dimensions of project — level alignment.
First, projects have to be appropriately prioritized.
61. Unplanned projects (unplanned by IT strategy, but required at
the
immediate, tactical level) are often undertaken. such projects do
not have allocated budgets and hence take resources away from
planned projects. One senior IT manager that we interviewed
stated, “The ideal situation would be if we planned “x” number
of
projects at the beginning of the year and completed all of them
by
the end, no less, no more. But that is very rare and things
change
around a lot.” One reason for these ad-hoc projects is
maintenance
requirements, which need resources and which, if not done on
time, can interfere with implementation of the strategic IT plan.
Maintenance projects, because of their perceived “operational”
nature, tend not to be included in strategic IT plans, as a result
of
which they may have to be funded and staffed in a last-minute,
fire-fighting context. A senior IT manager of one of our sites
said,
“We have been running our servers for four years and they are
pretty much at the end of their life and have come off warranty.
Summer 2010 Journal of Computer Information Systems 113
If we do not replace them soon, then one of these days, they
will
break down, and all new applications which are slated to run off
them will have to be put on hold until these are replaced, even
if it is in the middle of the year.” Another reason is change in
functions’ priorities and emergence of new pressing needs as
a result of sudden business events. A middle manager told us,
“We acquired a new customer during the year and they wanted
62. B2B capabilities. All of a sudden that became a priority.” Or, IT
managers might find themselves listening to those functions that
shout the loudest, and working on their operational-level crisis
issues.
One way to address the prioritization issue is by project
classification in order of business importance. Another is to
evaluate projects based on how well they fulfill objectives of
the
broader IT strategic plan, rather than short term “fire-fighting”
criteria; this might reduce the incidence of unplanned projects.
A third way is to keep part of the IT budget unallocated to any
specific project but use it for projects which emerge over the
course of the year.
second, technical deliverables for a project must be
matched with business deliverables, to ensure that the execu-
tion of a particular IT project leads to execution of some aspect
of business strategy. business metrics should be typically
framed
in terms of parameters such as cycle time reduction, cost
savings,
increase in sales of particular product lines, etc. One middle
manager told us, “Often the business side would rather give us
very high level requirements and say ‘build it’. We get a lot of
push
back when we insist on detailed requirements and expectations.”
Post project-execution, the functions and IT should measure
and monitor the business success criteria. One CIO told us, “We
don’t have a structure right now which makes the functions
accountable for delivering business goals from specific appli-
cations . . . which means if people don’t use the applications,
that
doesn’t get factored in.” The results must be communicated to
the
larger organization. As one IT middle manager said, “It must be
more than a loose loop of ‘thank you’ at the time the project is
done and ‘by the way it didn’t do that’ a month or two later”.
63. Third, effective resource allocation and dynamic resource
re-allocation is necessary for adequately funding and staffing IT
projects. This can become especially complicated when offshoot
smaller and unplanned projects associated with a large, planned
project need to be executed. For instance, in one organization, a
middle level IT manager told us, “at the time we acquired this
new plant, due diligence had not accounted for a new building
for 250 people. The cost of routers, cables, phone lines, wiring
. . . we had to quickly come up with a budget for that.”
Approving
such projects at lower- and middle-management levels can keep
functional requirements and IT project goals in sync and
dynamically adjust resources for tactical business imperatives.
balancing resources among different projects and the acquisition
and release of temporary resources also facilitate resource
allocation.
Fourth, mixed project teams (having functional and IT
representation) enable execution-level alignment of functional
requirements with technical capabilities and resources.
Functional
managers are required for taking care of process and work-
flow requirements and change requests, and IT professionals
for development, configuration and customization, and for
matching requirements with the constraints and capabilities of
the technology.
Fifth, functional sponsorship of a project ensures managerial
participation and accountability. Projects that do not have a
functional sponsor tend to suffer from lack of credibility and
are
perceived as IT-driven projects. One IT middle manager said,
“We do not get a project off the ground unless it is approved by
the business side and they know and approve the deliverables.”
Workflow configuration and execution cannot be accomplished
without managerial participation. Functional mangers who are
accountable for project completion are prepared to put in the
64. time
for communicating with IT and to take the responsibility for
giving
early user feedback, rather than wait till the end. One senior IT
manager told us, “If there is sponsorship, there is
accountability,
they show up at meetings, they spend time telling us what they
think . . .” Further, projects may face resource escalation;
business
sponsorship helps to make the case for more resources and
results
in fewer half-finished or shelved projects and wasted resources.
Finally, project monitoring is necessary to avoid scope
creep, ensure resource availability, and accommodate emerging
user requests. Project monitoring is often done by a steering or
an
executive committee. These committees oversee change
requests
in scope, features, deliverables and budgets, so that arbitrary
and unplanned changes to projects cannot be done by users
communicating directly with project team members. Ongoing
monitoring keeps project goals, timelines and resources in step
with tactical and operational changes in business requirements.
4.2. outcomes of tactical It-Business alignment
In general, we found that a lack of tactical IT-business align-
ment leads to waste and duplication of IT resources, failed
projects,
difficulties in executing those aspects of business strategy that
are IT-dependent or IT-enabled, and a possibly marginalized IT
function. specifically, we found that there are four outcomes of
tactical IT-business alignment — (a) Implementation of planned
applications, (b) Execution of IT-enabled aspects of business
strategy, (c) Increased credibility of the IT function, and (d)
Increased business value from IT projects. We next describe
65. each of these outcomes and explain how they are facilitated
by particular aspects of tactical IT-business alignment. Table 3
summarizes these descriptions.
(a) Implementation of planned applications
Tactical IT-business alignment enables implementation of
planned applications. The Communication-related aspect
ensures that the Is strategy is communicated from the C-level
down the IT department. At one of the manufacturing firms,
there
were annual IT retreats for discussing the Is strategic plan, in
addition to regular staff meetings and roundtables. As a result
of
communication, middle and junior-level IT managers are aware
of IT strategy and can translate it into the specifics of required
applications, technologies and resources. They can also work
with
functional managers to resolve resource allocation gridlocks.
One
of the CIO’s told us, “If I have, say, do five things to do, and I
can
do only three, already I am stretched. On top of that suddenly
one
of the functional heads brings another two things. I try to get
such
things resolved by talking to the functions [middle
management]”.
The governance-related aspect ensures that tactical issues with
respect to implementation are sorted out by liaison positions
between IT and the functions. The Skill-related aspect ensures
that skills required for project planning and implementation are
available from the IT function. The Sourcing-related aspect
ensures timely acquisition of technology, and firm-wide synergy
with respect to infrastructure. The project- related aspect
66. 114 Journal of Computer Information Systems Summer 2010
enables prioritization of specific IT projects within the
reference
framework of the IT strategy. At one of our study sites, the
project
selection process made sure that all projects that were executed
were part of the IT strategy and variances were addressed on a
case-by-case basis.
(b) enabling execution of It-enabled aspects of Business
Strategy
A second outcome is to enable the execution of those
aspects of business strategy that are IT-enabled or IT-
dependent.
The Communication-related aspect ensures that middle-
level IT managers are aware of the business strategy and thus
understand business requirements from specific IT projects.
The It professionals’ role-related aspect builds and sustains
interest of functional managers in the value of what IT can do
and directs them towards IT-related pitfalls that could come in
the
way of implementing specific business goals. The governance-
related aspect coordinates operational issues between the IT and
functional sides, aligns business requirements with IT solutions,
and aligns IT perspectives with functional perspectives. At our
medical site, one of the business goals was to introduce new
machines for advanced imaging. The IT department worked
with the doctors to identify related networking and storage
requirements, which apparently had not been considered when
the plan was initially proposed. One of the senior IT staff told
us,
“All of a sudden there was this whole new dimension to
67. consider
without which we could not have had the imaging systems.” The
project-related aspect aligns project deliverables with business
strategies, leading to business metrics for project success and
consequent accomplishment of business goals from completed
IT
projects.
At the healthcare site, tactical IT-business alignment
mechanisms facilitated two IT-enabled aspects of business
strategy — workflow re-design for physician order-entry and
patient record-keeping processes. The two new processes were
developed around applications that would implement their
workflows. Although two multi-functional and multi-year
projects to execute this re-design were included in the strategic
IT plan, tactical alignment mechanisms were required to address
the day- to-day technical issues and resource conflicts that
emerged and accommodate the smaller, unplanned projects that
were spawned. These included ongoing communication and
collaboration between the IT function and other functions,
special
governance roles that facilitated interactions between end users
and IT managers, and project teams having both IT and
functional
membership for accomplishing the re-design objectives.
Another example related to execution of business objectives
in the context of a merger/acquisition. Anticipated cost savings
from mergers may require administrative departments (e.g.
payroll) from the two firms, to merge. From the execution point
of view, this requires the integration of disparate enterprise
applications, networks and communication systems. One of
our study sites had recently gone through a merger and another
had acquired a downstream firm. At the first site, the merged
organizations had different email and phone systems, networks,
and server vendors. The merger committee for executing the
integration of the networks consisted of senior and middle IT
68. and functional managers. The committee ensured interaction
between IT specialists and departmental managers; through
these
interactions it identified where and how different applications
could be integrated. Cross-functional project teams carried out
the required process and technical analysis. Political resistance
by those departments whose workflows were re-configured was
resolved through sustained IT-business communication. At the
other site, we found the absence of a cross-functional merger
team and active IT-business collaboration. Ordering processes
of
the acquiring firm were not integrated with purchasing
processes
of the acquired firm, even though they were in physically
adjacent
facilities. Efficiencies envisaged from the merger were hence
not
generated.
(c) Increased Credibility of the It function
A third outcome of tactical IT-business alignment is increased
credibility of the IT function. As a result of the
Communication-
related aspect, the IT function has the potential to have a view
not only of the IT strategy (through top-down communication
of IT strategy), but also of the business strategy (through IT-
business interaction at the middle and junior management
levels).
This enables them to offer a holistic view of both business
and IT strategies and help functional managers overcome
outcomes of tactical It-business alignment alignment aspects
facilitating each outcome
∞ Communication-related
69. ∞ Governance-related
Implementation of planned applications ∞ skill-related
∞ sourcing-related
∞ Project-related
∞ Communication-related
enabling execution of It — enabled aspects of Business Strategy
∞ Governance-related
∞ IT Professionals’ role-related
∞ Project-related
∞ Communication-related
Increased credibility of the It function ∞ Governance-related
∞ IT professionals’ role-related
∞ skill-related
Increased business value from It projects ∞ Communication-
related
∞ Project-related
table 3: outcomes of tactical It-Business alignment and
Corresponding facilitating aspects
Summer 2010 Journal of Computer Information Systems 115
silo-driven perspectives. The governance-related aspect
enables IT professionals effectively address operational-level
IT related issues of the functions and empowers them to make
informed applications and technology related decisions. The It
professionals’ role-related aspect facilitates end-user
satisfaction
and education regarding IT opportunities. The Skill-related
aspect ensures that IT professionals are not found wanting in
the skills required of them. All of this ensures that end users
and
managers trust the IT function and perceive it positively. They
are
70. more willing to give credit to the IT function where appropriate,
engage IT managers in their future plans and contribute their
time
and thoughts to the associated discussions. At one of the sites, a
senior project manager told us, “We give inputs about what can
be done. The business has started to respect our understanding
of
both the technology and process.”
(d) Increased Business Value from It projects
A final outcome of tactical IT-business alignment is a higher
incidence of execution of those projects that deliver business
value. In the context of the project-related aspect, project
prioritization leads to classification of projects according to
their importance to the business, and matching technical project
deliverables with business deliverables ensures that the
execution
of each project leads to the achievement of specific business
goals. A functional manager in one of our study sites told us,
“The technical and business objectives of every project we work
on are jointly agreed upon by IT and the functions.” Functional
sponsorship of projects ensures managerial participation and
accountability, enables resource acquisition in case of project
escalation, and avoids scope creep. A senior IT manager at
another site said, “IT projects are approved on the basis of
benefits
(such as 5% cost reduction in a particular process), so the
functions are also responsible for project completion.” The
Communication-related aspect ensures that frontline IT man-
agers understand the business and IT strategies, communicate
effectively with the other functions, and hence provide big-
picture
business perspectives for IT projects.
All of the above increases the probability that projects
duplicated across divisions or departments are not undertaken,
71. necessary projects are executed and technologically impossible
projects are not undertaken. The possibility therefore, that
projects are selected based on “who shouts the loudest” or
“which
technologies are the coolest” decreases significantly.
5. CoNCluSIoN
In this paper we have examined tactical IT-business alignment.
We have found that it has six distinct aspects relating
respectively
to communication within the IT function and between IT and
other
functions, governance structures and decision making authority/
responsibility of the IT function, skills of the IT function, IT
sourcing, tactical/every-day roles of IT professionals, and
project
— level alignment. We have further demonstrated how these
aspects lead to four outcomes — execution of IT strategy,
execu-
tion of business strategy, increased credibility of the IT
function
and increased business value from IT projects. We would like to
note here that the benefits from tactical IT-business alignment
will be particularly significant only when strategic IT-business
alignment is present as well. Tactical IT-business alignment
may
not result in increased business value from IT projects or
facilitate
execution of business strategy, if the planned applications are
not
aligned with the firm’s business objectives to begin with, that
is,
if there is lack of strategic IT-business alignment.
The contributions of this paper to theory lie in (1) developing
72. the concept of tactical IT-business alignment by identifying and
describing operational-level dynamic and adaptive alignment
mechanisms and processes between IT and business, (2)
demonstrating that these mechanisms can help bridge the gap
between planning and execution of IT strategy, and (3)
extending
current academic conversation on IT-business alignment to
include
alignment at a relatively higher level of granularity than has
been
discussed thus far. Contributions to practice include actionables
for managers to consider in accomplishing tactical IT-business
alignment, as described in Table 2.
Notwithstanding its contributions, the study has limitations
that future research might find worthwhile to address. One, the
paper presents an exploratory and qualitative analysis of tactical
IT-business alignment. Future research should further empirical
examination, referencing the measures for tactical IT-business
alignment specified in Table 2. Two, the selected firms come
from a limited number of industries. In this context, we did
observe some industry-level differences impacting the aspects
of tactical IT-business alignment. For instance, the
technological
sophistication and IT-comfort level of end-users was the least at
HealthCo and EduCo, possibly due to historically low levels of
IT
usage in the healthcare and higher education sectors. We
observed
that the level of end-user support (part of the It professionals’
role aspect) that IT professionals were required to provide in
these two firms was qualitatively higher than that required for
IndustrialCo, where most employees were engineers and hence
more technically inclined. The IT department at HealthCo found
it difficult to identify advanced users from the clinical functions
who could train other users and provide feedback on
implemented
73. systems (part of the governance aspect). We also observed that
the Communication aspect was influenced by historical relations
between the IT department and other functions. At HealthCo
for instance, the IT department had historically close working
relationships with the clinical departments and thus found it
easier
to interact formally and informally with the doctors and nurses,
than
at GlassCo, where there had been traditional animosity between
the engineering/technical functions and the IT department.
These
observations lead us to believe that future studies should study
organizations from other industries to examine industry-specific
aspects of tactical IT-business alignment. Three, the interview
data
is retrospective and recall-based. Longitudinal or ethnographic
studies of IT implementation projects would likely reveal
greater
richness of tactical issues from a “real-time” perspective.
There has been a re-emergence of academic interest IT-
business alignment (e.g. [27, 11, and 3]) with particular
emphasis
on understanding execution-level processes through which
alignment is achieved. In spite of extensive academic discussion
on strategic IT-business alignment, there is ample evidence of
managerial concern [20] that applications which are ultimately
implemented do not always add business value, and those
applications that are deemed strategic, have been planned for,
and are important from the business perspective are not always
implemented. This paper, in examining the concept of tactical
IT-business alignment, provides a framework by which such
dis-
connects can be addressed.
RefeReNCeS