Click to view the Death with Dignity scenario.In the scenario asWilheminaRossi174
Click to view the Death with Dignity scenario.
In the scenario assignments, you are asked to reflect on responses to the presented scenario. It should not just be writing down your first reaction or what you already know.
Reflection involves critical thinking, which means rethinking your existing knowledge and previously held opinions in light of what we have learned about theories of ethics, logic, and reasoning. You will need to question your current knowledge and beliefs.
Discuss the main points of the debate, what stance you take, support that stance, and discuss the opposing argument. Also discuss an ethical theory that would apply to defend your view.
To complete each scenario assignment:
1. Complete the entire scenario.
2. Compose your reflection in a Word document and be sure to address, at a minimum, the following questions:
· Why do you feel the way you do about the issue presented?
· Of the four responses offered in the scenario, which do you think is the most ethical and why?
3. Support your conclusions with evidence and specific examples from the textbook, including a minimum of one theory of ethics to defend your stance.
4. Your reflection must be 1-2 pages in length and follow APA formatting and citation guidelines as appropriate, making sure to cite at least two sources.
5. Review the rubric for specific grading criteria.
Points: 50 eac
Rubric
PHIL_434_OL - Learning Scenario Reflection (1)
PHIL_434_OL - Learning Scenario Reflection (1)
Criteria
Ratings
Pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeIdentification of Main Issues
20 to >15.8 pts
Meets Expectations
Identifies and demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of the main issues in the scenario.
15.8 to >11.8 pts
Approaches Expectations
Identifies and demonstrates an accomplished understanding of some of the issues in the scenario.
11.8 to >0 pts
Does Not Meet Expectations
Does not identify an acceptable understanding of of the issues in the scenario.
20 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeLinks to Course Readings and Additional Research
20 to >15.8 pts
Meets Expectations
Makes appropriate and powerful connections between identified issues and the concepts studied in the course readings and presentations; supplements the reflection with relevant and thoughtful research and documents all sources of information, conclusions with evidence and specific examples from the textbook, including a minimum of one theory of ethics to defend points made
15.8 to >11.8 pts
Approaches Expectations
Makes somewhat vague connections between identified issues and concepts studied in readings and presentations; supplements the reflection with limited research.
11.8 to >0 pts
Does Not Meet Expectations
Makes inappropriate or little connection between issues identified and the concepts studied in the readings; supplements the reflection, if at all, with incomplete research and documentation.
20 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeWriting Mechanics and APA Fo ...
I need 100 words response for each of the discussion postDiscu.docxsheronlewthwaite
I need 100 words response for each of the discussion post
Discussion Entry 1
The emerging adulthood stage is being studied in various ways now to include the lifespan theory and the resiliency theory. The lifespan development theory generally concentrates on the ontogenesis and the chronological mastery of skills, tasks, and abilities, while resiliency theory, in contrast, generally focuses the process of positive adaption when facing significant risk (Smith-Osborne, 2007). “Emerging adulthood is proposed as a new conception of development for the period from the late teens through the twenties, with a focus on ages 18-25” (Arnett, 2000, pg. 1). From my understanding, Arnett’s proposal is basically highlighting on the fact that there is a difference from “back in the day” to “current day” life experiences or achievements. “The reliance on traditional sociological markers that have served for over a century—stable job, independent domicile, financial self-sufficiency, marriage and children—is out of sync with the pace, direction, and even values of twenty-first-century life” (Gilmore, 2019, pg. 1). Arnett explains this by showing how the age of marriage has shifted and how childbirth age patterns has increased. The emerging adulthood phase is when an individual is acting independently in contradiction of social norms.
The first article dealt with homeless emerging adults and how the resiliency theory played a role in the case study. Young adults were interviewed, recruited, and analyzed to find four primary themes amongst the homeless young adults. Individual strengths, positive life perspectives, external social supports, and coping strategies are all themes that contributed to their resilience while living on the streets. Most emerging adults were facing multiple barriers while growing up and they were exposed to traumatizing events which cause most of them to flee their home/family. the resiliency theory reported how these individuals adapted to their new circumstances by learning how to find resources, establishing new relationships and who to trust, and developing a “street smart” skill (Thompson, Ryan, Montgomery, Lippman, Bender & Ferguson, 2016). This case study proposed that using a strength-based method would empower these individuals to use their resilient capabilities to build a self-efficient mentality that offers them a way out of homelessness. One major shortcoming of this study is that the recruits were from one specific city and were mainly Caucasian males. If the study would have been more worldwide, the results may have shown various results. Another factor that may hinder this type of research is that many homeless individuals develop mental health concerns and do not share the full extent of their situation which would alter the results as well. This study reflects how the cognitive and personality development does not always take place in a normal age range or in sequential order and human development rem ...
Click to view the Death with Dignity scenario.In the scenario asWilheminaRossi174
Click to view the Death with Dignity scenario.
In the scenario assignments, you are asked to reflect on responses to the presented scenario. It should not just be writing down your first reaction or what you already know.
Reflection involves critical thinking, which means rethinking your existing knowledge and previously held opinions in light of what we have learned about theories of ethics, logic, and reasoning. You will need to question your current knowledge and beliefs.
Discuss the main points of the debate, what stance you take, support that stance, and discuss the opposing argument. Also discuss an ethical theory that would apply to defend your view.
To complete each scenario assignment:
1. Complete the entire scenario.
2. Compose your reflection in a Word document and be sure to address, at a minimum, the following questions:
· Why do you feel the way you do about the issue presented?
· Of the four responses offered in the scenario, which do you think is the most ethical and why?
3. Support your conclusions with evidence and specific examples from the textbook, including a minimum of one theory of ethics to defend your stance.
4. Your reflection must be 1-2 pages in length and follow APA formatting and citation guidelines as appropriate, making sure to cite at least two sources.
5. Review the rubric for specific grading criteria.
Points: 50 eac
Rubric
PHIL_434_OL - Learning Scenario Reflection (1)
PHIL_434_OL - Learning Scenario Reflection (1)
Criteria
Ratings
Pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeIdentification of Main Issues
20 to >15.8 pts
Meets Expectations
Identifies and demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of the main issues in the scenario.
15.8 to >11.8 pts
Approaches Expectations
Identifies and demonstrates an accomplished understanding of some of the issues in the scenario.
11.8 to >0 pts
Does Not Meet Expectations
Does not identify an acceptable understanding of of the issues in the scenario.
20 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeLinks to Course Readings and Additional Research
20 to >15.8 pts
Meets Expectations
Makes appropriate and powerful connections between identified issues and the concepts studied in the course readings and presentations; supplements the reflection with relevant and thoughtful research and documents all sources of information, conclusions with evidence and specific examples from the textbook, including a minimum of one theory of ethics to defend points made
15.8 to >11.8 pts
Approaches Expectations
Makes somewhat vague connections between identified issues and concepts studied in readings and presentations; supplements the reflection with limited research.
11.8 to >0 pts
Does Not Meet Expectations
Makes inappropriate or little connection between issues identified and the concepts studied in the readings; supplements the reflection, if at all, with incomplete research and documentation.
20 pts
This criterion is linked to a Learning OutcomeWriting Mechanics and APA Fo ...
I need 100 words response for each of the discussion postDiscu.docxsheronlewthwaite
I need 100 words response for each of the discussion post
Discussion Entry 1
The emerging adulthood stage is being studied in various ways now to include the lifespan theory and the resiliency theory. The lifespan development theory generally concentrates on the ontogenesis and the chronological mastery of skills, tasks, and abilities, while resiliency theory, in contrast, generally focuses the process of positive adaption when facing significant risk (Smith-Osborne, 2007). “Emerging adulthood is proposed as a new conception of development for the period from the late teens through the twenties, with a focus on ages 18-25” (Arnett, 2000, pg. 1). From my understanding, Arnett’s proposal is basically highlighting on the fact that there is a difference from “back in the day” to “current day” life experiences or achievements. “The reliance on traditional sociological markers that have served for over a century—stable job, independent domicile, financial self-sufficiency, marriage and children—is out of sync with the pace, direction, and even values of twenty-first-century life” (Gilmore, 2019, pg. 1). Arnett explains this by showing how the age of marriage has shifted and how childbirth age patterns has increased. The emerging adulthood phase is when an individual is acting independently in contradiction of social norms.
The first article dealt with homeless emerging adults and how the resiliency theory played a role in the case study. Young adults were interviewed, recruited, and analyzed to find four primary themes amongst the homeless young adults. Individual strengths, positive life perspectives, external social supports, and coping strategies are all themes that contributed to their resilience while living on the streets. Most emerging adults were facing multiple barriers while growing up and they were exposed to traumatizing events which cause most of them to flee their home/family. the resiliency theory reported how these individuals adapted to their new circumstances by learning how to find resources, establishing new relationships and who to trust, and developing a “street smart” skill (Thompson, Ryan, Montgomery, Lippman, Bender & Ferguson, 2016). This case study proposed that using a strength-based method would empower these individuals to use their resilient capabilities to build a self-efficient mentality that offers them a way out of homelessness. One major shortcoming of this study is that the recruits were from one specific city and were mainly Caucasian males. If the study would have been more worldwide, the results may have shown various results. Another factor that may hinder this type of research is that many homeless individuals develop mental health concerns and do not share the full extent of their situation which would alter the results as well. This study reflects how the cognitive and personality development does not always take place in a normal age range or in sequential order and human development rem ...
The purpose of the present study is to analyze the differences between the lifestyle and the scholar culture from the university student’s perspective of five different schools. The results were obtained by a quantitative study, with a traversal design, open and observational, and they were derivate from a descriptive and comparative analysis with the ANOVA one factor test. The sample was took on a random way; the total of participants was of 890. The results showed that the principal characteristics from the university students´ lifestyle is exercise, sports practice, physical activity, health and unhealthy food ingest, alcohol consume, smoking and sedentary lifestyle. It was conclude that the university students have a Lifestyle that could be classify in three aspects, the first one, their free time (leisure), that is usually employ on social network and frequent alcohol consume. The second lifestyle aspect is related with the scholar culture, in this sense, is associated with dedication and compromise with the academic activities of their school (doing homework, projects, expositions and extracurricular activities) and the last one, their alimentation, which is characterized by consuming two kinds of food, healthy and unhealthy (high caloric content food). The schools in the Autonomous University of Coahuila are systemically working on the development of new strategies of cultural promotion for the integral development of their students.
This paper attempts to identify the service requirements for the aged in Bangladesh. As
aging is a matter of social concern, this study identifies the problems and limitations of
the services provided for the aged. Secondary data were used to conduct this study.
Findings show that being sympathized to the elders, some government and voluntary
institutions are taking part to mitigate their sufferings that are mostly inadequate and
cumbersome to the elders. This could be attributed by the disorganization of the services,
social myths and prejudice, social structures, negative attitude towards the aged and value
conflict. Expansion of community care services for the aged, social security programs,
counseling, awareness campaign etc. are the few recommendations by which this
problem could be addressed.
(Discussion 1)Describe a social theory that was discussed in the Socia.docxchristina345678
(Discussion 1)
Describe a social theory that was discussed in the “Social Relationships and Health” journal article and indicate how it was used to support the research.
From my understanding of the journal for this week, the social theory was how some ones health can be effected with or with out social relations. From the research it touches on how a person or people can be happy and also live longer with better health, when practicing social relationships. The article discuss how the theory of social relationships can make people stringer and healthier. It was used to support the research because the researchers conducted studies not only on humans but animals as well to prove this theory.
Choose one of the quantitative research results presented in the article; describe the evidence presented and indicate which variables of the experiment were highlighted.
The quantitative research results that I choose from the article was when the researchers were discovering that social relationships can cause a risk factors of mortality, and probably morbidity, from a wide range of diseases. From the readings the researchers shown that they used criteria include strength and consistencies of statistical association across a wide range of studies an cause and effect with animals and humans. An experiment of behavior pattern as an risk factor for (type A) heart disease. 1964 Surgeon general had evidence that social relationship and health increased that cigarette smoking was a cause or risk factor for mortality a range of disease. These factors are important because the researchers seen that there is less association of social relationships when it comes to smoking, because smoking is also linked to cancer.
Determine the article’s conclusion in regards to social relationships in society. Based on the accompanying media piece “Why Facebook Could Be Good for Your Health Links to an external site.,” how could modern social media sites support the research findings in the journal article?
Although social relationships as independent, overruling, and moderating variables affecting stress, health, or the relationships between them have been widely studied over the past decade, almost no attention has been paid to social relationships as dependent variables ( House, Landis & Umberson, 1988). I believe that modern social media sites support the claims that social variables determine both health and the nature of social relationships, both link social relationship to health. Modern social media is where you can give updates on thoughts and at one point it was some where you can express freedom of speech.
The course text reading discussed how research can also use the transformative paradigm in social theory to impact social change. How does it do this and what types of societal populations can the transformative paradigm specifically impact?
The researcher's role and the selection of particular paradigmatic perspectives are affected by the interse.
Running Head LITERATURE REVIEW1LITERATURE REVIEW6.docxwlynn1
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 1
LITERATURE REVIEW 6
Literature review
Literature review
The literature review aims to examine and evaluate the opinions, suggestions and assertions of different scholars about the overspending and overconsuming nature of millennials on materialistic items. The review takes a multi-disciplinary approach where the contribution of economics, psychology and adolescence studies are put into perspective. Moreover, the review seeks to examine and evaluate how the scholars relate to culture and area of origin of the millennials with their characteristics of overspending and overconsuming the materialistic items which they feel are necessary, but they are not required for survival.
Tania Modesto Veludo-de-Oliveira, Marcelo Augusto Falciano and Renato Villas-Boas Perito (2014) through a research study assessed the mediating and moderating roles of the credit card usage comparing the compulsive buying behaviour in relation to anxiety and distrust, retention-time and power-prestige. They found that the millennials with high levels of anxiety showed increased compulsive buying and hence misuse of credit cards. Tania Modesto Veludo-de-Oliveira, Marcelo Augusto Falciano and Renato Villas-Boas Perito (2014) notes that the finding of their research indicated non-significant mediation of credit card usage with regard to distrust effects on compulsive buying behaviour. Additionally, the levels of credit card usage did not reduce as a result of the price sensitivity of the millennials. The price sensitivity showed an over-spending effect when related to power-prestige and retention time.
Elkins (2017) examines how millennials spend their money in comparison with their parents. In support of a report from Charles Schwab, Elkins (2017) notes that the millennials spending is triggered by conveniences and comforts which makes them spend more than other generations. The study outlines pricey coffee, dining out and taxis as some of the comforts and conveniences on which the millennials overspend. In continuity, the study notes that approximately 60% of millennials spend money on purchasing clothes which they don’t necessarily require. Despite the over-spending and the over-consuming characteristics, the Charles Schwab report found out that the millennials are more planning-oriented than other generation groups including their parents. This note is in contradiction with the Elkins (2017) views that the millennials are falling short on savings due to the influence of over-spending.
Life’s core attitudes are largely influenced and locked in by the age of 5. This is an agreement brought forward by psychologists starting from the era of Sigmund feud going forward. In addition to contending with the agreement, Mauldin (2016) notes the historical living of the childhood influences the conclusion made by Neil Howe and William Strauss that a person's attitudes form in early childhood and the shaping of those attitudes. T.
Response 1Respond to at least two colleagues whose classificatio.docxmackulaytoni
Response 1
Respond
to at least two colleagues whose classifications differ from your own by critiquing their classifications. In addition, suggest one way you might apply each colleague's life-span classification to your social work practice.
Colleague 1: L
It is important because although; a young person may have held down a job, and acts mature, they have not yet experienced enough of life to be considered an adult. The same concept goes for middle aged people. Although; a middle aged person is active, and looks younger than their age, they are still considered to be middle aged. In other words regardless of the accomplishments of a person, their looks, and vitality, they are still catergorized in society by their age. Behaviors that might delay the cognitive, or social aspect of the aging process are socializing with friends and within the community, and participating in activities such as swimming, bingo, traveling, and other hobbies that enhance to cognitive apects of aging.It is proven that people who continue to be active socially, age gracefully, and without limits. They also continue to work brain cells that could eventually die out from dementia, and other illnesses.. Physically a person might speed up the aging process by isolating themselves from friends and family, by not focusing on health and nutrition, and by becoming a couch potato. When a person does not take care of themselves by exercising, and watching what they eat, they end up suffering from illnesses such as diabetes, limit their mobility, and are eventually confined to walkers, wheelchairs, and medications in their later years of life.
Colleague 2: E
According to Zastrow & Kirst Ashman (2016), individuals within the ages of 18 and 65 years are classified as young and middle adulthood. In as much as this classification has been in existence and popular, one can argue that, to determine the term adult hood may not be as easy as it sounds. Adulthood can be perceived differently from people, considering their culture, religion, personal belief, and social economic background. According to Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman (2016), “it is difficult to pinpoint the exact time of life we are referring to when we talk about young adulthood”. Some cultures such as the Nigerian culture, consider adulthood as a period where a child can comfortably carter for his /herself without seeking the help of the parents/guardian. Such age range may be around the ages 27to 30. Other cultures perceive young adulthood as the age where a child can comfortably make good decision in line with the expectation of older adults.
To replace or improve on Zatrow & Kirst Ashman classification on young and middle adulthood, I will suggest a classification of young adulthood and middle adulthood from the ages of 15 to 50. This classification is in line with Buhler theories of young adult hood. According to Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman (2016), Buhler’s theory clustered adolescent and young adulthood together to inclu.
Disability Studies What Is It andWhat Difference Does It Make.docxlynettearnold46882
Disability Studies: What Is It and
What Difference Does It Make?
Philip M. Ferguson
Chapman University
Emily Nusbaum
Colorado University Colorado Springs
The academic field of disability studies has expanded rapidly over the last two decades or so. With that expansion has also come some growing ambiguity about exactly what is meant by the term "disability studies." This article reviews the history and evolution of disability studies as an interdisciplinary approach to research and scholarship. While acknowledging the broad range of interests and approaches that can fall under the umbrella of the "disability studies" label, we argue that it may be useful to present a set of core themes or beliefs that seem central to disability studies as a field if it is to fulfill its promise as a truly different way of exploring the meanings of disability in society. Finally, we argue that disability studies should be of special interest to members of TASH and others with particular interest in the lives of people with significant intellectual and developmental disabilities.DESCRIPTORS: disability studies, social model of disability, inclusion, value-based research Over the last decade or so, the term "disability studies" has become a familiar usage throughout all areas of inqtiiry and scholarship involved in the study of issues affecting people with disabilities. Yet, the question arises as to whether the writing and research emerging from this still new and evolving area of study have any special relevance to those whose strongest interests are improving the lives of individuals with the most significant intellectual and developmental disabilities and their families. This article—as well as the others in this special issue—tries to demonstrate why that question should be answer redin the affirmative. The purpose, then, of this article is threefold. First, we provide a brief history of the emergence and evolution of the broad range of scholarship and inquiry that falls under the field called "disability studies." Second,we identify and briefly discuss what we see as at least some of the core concepts that underlie the relatively new field of study. Finally, we argue that, as a field of study, disability studies has particular salience for those interested in the development of research and policy in support of people with significant intellectual and developmental disabilities.
Certainly, if one goes simply by frequency of usage, the practice of "disability studies" has gained ample currency within academic settings of the humanities and social sciences (Cushing & Stnith, 2009; Taylor & ZubalRuggieri,2009). In such a context, disability studies is often compared with similar approaches to human difference that have a somewhat longer history, such as Gender Studies and Race/Ethnicity Studies. In its broadest terms,then, disability studies might initially portray itself as the interdisciplinary study and representation of the concepts,cultures, and personal .
In this module, we examined crimes against persons, crimes against p.docxLizbethQuinonez813
In this module, we examined crimes against persons, crimes against property, and white-collar crimes. These crimes are all treated differently by the legislature as well as the media. These differences are a reflection of how society views them. As you consider these differences, you should also consider how these differences have evolved over time.
Tasks:
Prepare a 3- to 5-page report that describes all of the following points:
The differences in the treatment of each type of crime by the legislature. Explore the different crime levels (misdemeanor
vs.
felony) and different punishments.
The differences in the descriptions utilized by the media. How does the media depict the different types of criminals? Have there been any changes?
The differences in the theoretical applications for these types of crimes. How do the theories differentiate between these types of criminal behavior?
Submission Details:
.
In this module, we explore how sexual identity impacts the nature of.docxLizbethQuinonez813
In this module, we explore how sexual identity impacts the nature of friendship for all of us. With the legalization of gay marriages and rise of alternative unions, as well as the sociocultural prevalence of much wider acceptance of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer identity definitions in society, we are witnessing expanded definitions, beliefs, and values regarding sexual self-identity and the dynamics of friendship.
Philosopher Michael Foucault argues that we have an opportunity to expand our understanding of friendship, beyond the state of the current realm, where our connections remain quite limited: “Society and the institutions which frame it have limited the possibility of relationships (to marriage) because a rich, relational world would be very complex to manage” (p. 207).
Your initial post should be at least 250 words and must provide a minimum of one cited reference in APA style. For assistance with APA style formatting, visit the
Library
or the
Excelsior OWL
.
Please answer one of the following:
How do you perceive changes in social stereotypes, issues, and judgments regarding sexualities as potentially impacting changes in friendship, in the relationships, cultural expressions, and understandings of friendships?
Do you think that the social expansion of acceptance of "LGBTQ" identities and relationships has an impact upon the dynamics of friendship generally in the society?
Do you think that this has changed your own perspective?
.
More Related Content
Similar to httpsdoi.org10.11771044389419873240Families in Societ
The purpose of the present study is to analyze the differences between the lifestyle and the scholar culture from the university student’s perspective of five different schools. The results were obtained by a quantitative study, with a traversal design, open and observational, and they were derivate from a descriptive and comparative analysis with the ANOVA one factor test. The sample was took on a random way; the total of participants was of 890. The results showed that the principal characteristics from the university students´ lifestyle is exercise, sports practice, physical activity, health and unhealthy food ingest, alcohol consume, smoking and sedentary lifestyle. It was conclude that the university students have a Lifestyle that could be classify in three aspects, the first one, their free time (leisure), that is usually employ on social network and frequent alcohol consume. The second lifestyle aspect is related with the scholar culture, in this sense, is associated with dedication and compromise with the academic activities of their school (doing homework, projects, expositions and extracurricular activities) and the last one, their alimentation, which is characterized by consuming two kinds of food, healthy and unhealthy (high caloric content food). The schools in the Autonomous University of Coahuila are systemically working on the development of new strategies of cultural promotion for the integral development of their students.
This paper attempts to identify the service requirements for the aged in Bangladesh. As
aging is a matter of social concern, this study identifies the problems and limitations of
the services provided for the aged. Secondary data were used to conduct this study.
Findings show that being sympathized to the elders, some government and voluntary
institutions are taking part to mitigate their sufferings that are mostly inadequate and
cumbersome to the elders. This could be attributed by the disorganization of the services,
social myths and prejudice, social structures, negative attitude towards the aged and value
conflict. Expansion of community care services for the aged, social security programs,
counseling, awareness campaign etc. are the few recommendations by which this
problem could be addressed.
(Discussion 1)Describe a social theory that was discussed in the Socia.docxchristina345678
(Discussion 1)
Describe a social theory that was discussed in the “Social Relationships and Health” journal article and indicate how it was used to support the research.
From my understanding of the journal for this week, the social theory was how some ones health can be effected with or with out social relations. From the research it touches on how a person or people can be happy and also live longer with better health, when practicing social relationships. The article discuss how the theory of social relationships can make people stringer and healthier. It was used to support the research because the researchers conducted studies not only on humans but animals as well to prove this theory.
Choose one of the quantitative research results presented in the article; describe the evidence presented and indicate which variables of the experiment were highlighted.
The quantitative research results that I choose from the article was when the researchers were discovering that social relationships can cause a risk factors of mortality, and probably morbidity, from a wide range of diseases. From the readings the researchers shown that they used criteria include strength and consistencies of statistical association across a wide range of studies an cause and effect with animals and humans. An experiment of behavior pattern as an risk factor for (type A) heart disease. 1964 Surgeon general had evidence that social relationship and health increased that cigarette smoking was a cause or risk factor for mortality a range of disease. These factors are important because the researchers seen that there is less association of social relationships when it comes to smoking, because smoking is also linked to cancer.
Determine the article’s conclusion in regards to social relationships in society. Based on the accompanying media piece “Why Facebook Could Be Good for Your Health Links to an external site.,” how could modern social media sites support the research findings in the journal article?
Although social relationships as independent, overruling, and moderating variables affecting stress, health, or the relationships between them have been widely studied over the past decade, almost no attention has been paid to social relationships as dependent variables ( House, Landis & Umberson, 1988). I believe that modern social media sites support the claims that social variables determine both health and the nature of social relationships, both link social relationship to health. Modern social media is where you can give updates on thoughts and at one point it was some where you can express freedom of speech.
The course text reading discussed how research can also use the transformative paradigm in social theory to impact social change. How does it do this and what types of societal populations can the transformative paradigm specifically impact?
The researcher's role and the selection of particular paradigmatic perspectives are affected by the interse.
Running Head LITERATURE REVIEW1LITERATURE REVIEW6.docxwlynn1
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 1
LITERATURE REVIEW 6
Literature review
Literature review
The literature review aims to examine and evaluate the opinions, suggestions and assertions of different scholars about the overspending and overconsuming nature of millennials on materialistic items. The review takes a multi-disciplinary approach where the contribution of economics, psychology and adolescence studies are put into perspective. Moreover, the review seeks to examine and evaluate how the scholars relate to culture and area of origin of the millennials with their characteristics of overspending and overconsuming the materialistic items which they feel are necessary, but they are not required for survival.
Tania Modesto Veludo-de-Oliveira, Marcelo Augusto Falciano and Renato Villas-Boas Perito (2014) through a research study assessed the mediating and moderating roles of the credit card usage comparing the compulsive buying behaviour in relation to anxiety and distrust, retention-time and power-prestige. They found that the millennials with high levels of anxiety showed increased compulsive buying and hence misuse of credit cards. Tania Modesto Veludo-de-Oliveira, Marcelo Augusto Falciano and Renato Villas-Boas Perito (2014) notes that the finding of their research indicated non-significant mediation of credit card usage with regard to distrust effects on compulsive buying behaviour. Additionally, the levels of credit card usage did not reduce as a result of the price sensitivity of the millennials. The price sensitivity showed an over-spending effect when related to power-prestige and retention time.
Elkins (2017) examines how millennials spend their money in comparison with their parents. In support of a report from Charles Schwab, Elkins (2017) notes that the millennials spending is triggered by conveniences and comforts which makes them spend more than other generations. The study outlines pricey coffee, dining out and taxis as some of the comforts and conveniences on which the millennials overspend. In continuity, the study notes that approximately 60% of millennials spend money on purchasing clothes which they don’t necessarily require. Despite the over-spending and the over-consuming characteristics, the Charles Schwab report found out that the millennials are more planning-oriented than other generation groups including their parents. This note is in contradiction with the Elkins (2017) views that the millennials are falling short on savings due to the influence of over-spending.
Life’s core attitudes are largely influenced and locked in by the age of 5. This is an agreement brought forward by psychologists starting from the era of Sigmund feud going forward. In addition to contending with the agreement, Mauldin (2016) notes the historical living of the childhood influences the conclusion made by Neil Howe and William Strauss that a person's attitudes form in early childhood and the shaping of those attitudes. T.
Response 1Respond to at least two colleagues whose classificatio.docxmackulaytoni
Response 1
Respond
to at least two colleagues whose classifications differ from your own by critiquing their classifications. In addition, suggest one way you might apply each colleague's life-span classification to your social work practice.
Colleague 1: L
It is important because although; a young person may have held down a job, and acts mature, they have not yet experienced enough of life to be considered an adult. The same concept goes for middle aged people. Although; a middle aged person is active, and looks younger than their age, they are still considered to be middle aged. In other words regardless of the accomplishments of a person, their looks, and vitality, they are still catergorized in society by their age. Behaviors that might delay the cognitive, or social aspect of the aging process are socializing with friends and within the community, and participating in activities such as swimming, bingo, traveling, and other hobbies that enhance to cognitive apects of aging.It is proven that people who continue to be active socially, age gracefully, and without limits. They also continue to work brain cells that could eventually die out from dementia, and other illnesses.. Physically a person might speed up the aging process by isolating themselves from friends and family, by not focusing on health and nutrition, and by becoming a couch potato. When a person does not take care of themselves by exercising, and watching what they eat, they end up suffering from illnesses such as diabetes, limit their mobility, and are eventually confined to walkers, wheelchairs, and medications in their later years of life.
Colleague 2: E
According to Zastrow & Kirst Ashman (2016), individuals within the ages of 18 and 65 years are classified as young and middle adulthood. In as much as this classification has been in existence and popular, one can argue that, to determine the term adult hood may not be as easy as it sounds. Adulthood can be perceived differently from people, considering their culture, religion, personal belief, and social economic background. According to Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman (2016), “it is difficult to pinpoint the exact time of life we are referring to when we talk about young adulthood”. Some cultures such as the Nigerian culture, consider adulthood as a period where a child can comfortably carter for his /herself without seeking the help of the parents/guardian. Such age range may be around the ages 27to 30. Other cultures perceive young adulthood as the age where a child can comfortably make good decision in line with the expectation of older adults.
To replace or improve on Zatrow & Kirst Ashman classification on young and middle adulthood, I will suggest a classification of young adulthood and middle adulthood from the ages of 15 to 50. This classification is in line with Buhler theories of young adult hood. According to Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman (2016), Buhler’s theory clustered adolescent and young adulthood together to inclu.
Disability Studies What Is It andWhat Difference Does It Make.docxlynettearnold46882
Disability Studies: What Is It and
What Difference Does It Make?
Philip M. Ferguson
Chapman University
Emily Nusbaum
Colorado University Colorado Springs
The academic field of disability studies has expanded rapidly over the last two decades or so. With that expansion has also come some growing ambiguity about exactly what is meant by the term "disability studies." This article reviews the history and evolution of disability studies as an interdisciplinary approach to research and scholarship. While acknowledging the broad range of interests and approaches that can fall under the umbrella of the "disability studies" label, we argue that it may be useful to present a set of core themes or beliefs that seem central to disability studies as a field if it is to fulfill its promise as a truly different way of exploring the meanings of disability in society. Finally, we argue that disability studies should be of special interest to members of TASH and others with particular interest in the lives of people with significant intellectual and developmental disabilities.DESCRIPTORS: disability studies, social model of disability, inclusion, value-based research Over the last decade or so, the term "disability studies" has become a familiar usage throughout all areas of inqtiiry and scholarship involved in the study of issues affecting people with disabilities. Yet, the question arises as to whether the writing and research emerging from this still new and evolving area of study have any special relevance to those whose strongest interests are improving the lives of individuals with the most significant intellectual and developmental disabilities and their families. This article—as well as the others in this special issue—tries to demonstrate why that question should be answer redin the affirmative. The purpose, then, of this article is threefold. First, we provide a brief history of the emergence and evolution of the broad range of scholarship and inquiry that falls under the field called "disability studies." Second,we identify and briefly discuss what we see as at least some of the core concepts that underlie the relatively new field of study. Finally, we argue that, as a field of study, disability studies has particular salience for those interested in the development of research and policy in support of people with significant intellectual and developmental disabilities.
Certainly, if one goes simply by frequency of usage, the practice of "disability studies" has gained ample currency within academic settings of the humanities and social sciences (Cushing & Stnith, 2009; Taylor & ZubalRuggieri,2009). In such a context, disability studies is often compared with similar approaches to human difference that have a somewhat longer history, such as Gender Studies and Race/Ethnicity Studies. In its broadest terms,then, disability studies might initially portray itself as the interdisciplinary study and representation of the concepts,cultures, and personal .
In this module, we examined crimes against persons, crimes against p.docxLizbethQuinonez813
In this module, we examined crimes against persons, crimes against property, and white-collar crimes. These crimes are all treated differently by the legislature as well as the media. These differences are a reflection of how society views them. As you consider these differences, you should also consider how these differences have evolved over time.
Tasks:
Prepare a 3- to 5-page report that describes all of the following points:
The differences in the treatment of each type of crime by the legislature. Explore the different crime levels (misdemeanor
vs.
felony) and different punishments.
The differences in the descriptions utilized by the media. How does the media depict the different types of criminals? Have there been any changes?
The differences in the theoretical applications for these types of crimes. How do the theories differentiate between these types of criminal behavior?
Submission Details:
.
In this module, we explore how sexual identity impacts the nature of.docxLizbethQuinonez813
In this module, we explore how sexual identity impacts the nature of friendship for all of us. With the legalization of gay marriages and rise of alternative unions, as well as the sociocultural prevalence of much wider acceptance of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer identity definitions in society, we are witnessing expanded definitions, beliefs, and values regarding sexual self-identity and the dynamics of friendship.
Philosopher Michael Foucault argues that we have an opportunity to expand our understanding of friendship, beyond the state of the current realm, where our connections remain quite limited: “Society and the institutions which frame it have limited the possibility of relationships (to marriage) because a rich, relational world would be very complex to manage” (p. 207).
Your initial post should be at least 250 words and must provide a minimum of one cited reference in APA style. For assistance with APA style formatting, visit the
Library
or the
Excelsior OWL
.
Please answer one of the following:
How do you perceive changes in social stereotypes, issues, and judgments regarding sexualities as potentially impacting changes in friendship, in the relationships, cultural expressions, and understandings of friendships?
Do you think that the social expansion of acceptance of "LGBTQ" identities and relationships has an impact upon the dynamics of friendship generally in the society?
Do you think that this has changed your own perspective?
.
In this module, we have studied Cultural Imperialism and Americaniza.docxLizbethQuinonez813
In this module, we have studied Cultural Imperialism and Americanization. For this essay, you will address how Disney might be considered as a leading force of US imperialism. Do you agree with this concept? Why or why not? Give examples. This paper should be 2 pages, in APA style, 2-3 scholarly article as a minimum should be included in your essay.
.
In this Reflection Activity, you will be asked to think and write ab.docxLizbethQuinonez813
In this Reflection Activity, you will be asked to think and write about an important issue or theme from the chapter. Your response will be submitted directly to the instructor, rather than shared with the class. First, read the prompt below. Then, respond to the question(s) asked at the bottom of the activity. Follow your instructor’s guidelines in terms of word count and content.
The most visible manifestation of the Renaissance comes from artistic genius and innovation, but the defining feature of the period is an outlook or worldview called humanism. Both of these developed in a particular set of circumstances, a unique historical context that characterized the northern Italian city-states and that we call the Renaissance. Their dominance of Mediterranean trade made these Italian cities into prosperous commercial centers where powerful merchants displaced the old landed aristocracy in positions of power and influence. The resulting social structure bore little resemblance to the traditional ordered society of the Middle Ages. Another point of uniqueness was Italian cities’ relatively independent political development that led first to republican forms and then to despotism. In the process, they laid the foundations for modern political thought.
Of these two sets of circumstances, the political and the economic, which do you think was most important in creating an environment ripe for the Renaissance to flourish? Why?
.
In this lab, you will observe the time progression of industrializat.docxLizbethQuinonez813
In this lab, you will observe the time progression of industrialization and human development to help you write up a scientific paper that centers on the following:
If current human development does not change, will groundwater sustainability be affected? Explain your observations.
Human Impacts on the Sustainability of Groundwater
Sustainability is based on a simple principle: Everything that is needed for survival and well-being depends either directly or indirectly on the natural environment. Sustainability creates and maintains the conditions under which humans and nature can exist in productive harmony, while also helping to fulfill the social and economic requirements of present and future generations.
Part 1
:
Background Information
Planet Earth’s surface is over 70% water, but less than 1% of the water on Earth is considered accessible, usable freshwater for sustaining humans’ and other organisms’ lives. Of the accessible freshwater, approximately 99% is located in aquifers, natural underground water chambers, and other groundwater sources. Unfortunately, humans are depleting the aquifers faster than they can be recharged by the hydrological cycle. Therefore, three quarters of groundwater is considered nonrenewable.
Conditions
The main reason we using groundwater resources mainly for drinking and irrigation. As a result, this not only decreases an important source of freshwater—it also can cause pollution of that groundwater by saltwater intrusion. The recharge rate of groundwater is further hindered by land clearing and deforestation caused by human development. When land is cleared for human development, more flooding occurs, the
transpiration rate
(the amount of water that evaporates into the atmosphere from plants) is reduced, and rainwater is inhibited from adequately
percolating
(penetrating the soil) into the ground to allow for aquifers and groundwater to be recharged.
Figure below shows Saltwater Intrusion
:
(Wright & Boorse, 2010)
Impacts
Forty percent of the world’s food is produced via irrigation. As a result, if the current rate of groundwater usage continues, food production could be drastically reduced worldwide. This reduction in food supply would be detrimental in sustaining the projected worldwide human population of over 10 billion within the next 50 years.
Part 2:
Timeline
Use the Hydrologic Cycle Figure below to understand the impact of industrialization and human development on ground water over 3 centuries.
(Wright & Boorse, 2010)
The table below shows the impacts
:
Reference
:
Wright, R. T., & Boorse, D. F. (2010).
Environmental science: Toward a sustainable future
. (11th ed.) White Plains, NY: Addison Wesley.
.
In this module we have discussed an organizations design and how it.docxLizbethQuinonez813
In this module we have discussed an organization's design and how it lays out the foundation for an organization to operate. An important part of an organization's design is its structures and roles.
Write a 1-2 page paper analyzing an organization's structure and roles and cover the following:
Write a 1 paragraph introduction to briefly explain an organization's structure and roles
Discuss the importance of having an organizational structure.
Explain the importance of roles within an organization.
Provide 2 resources.
.
In this lab, you will gather data about CO2 emissions using the .docxLizbethQuinonez813
In this lab, you will gather data about CO
2
emissions using the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Web site (Earth System Research Laboratory, n.d.) to help you write up a scientific report centered around known phenomena of CO
2
emissions, related to the following question:
Would you expect to see an increase or decrease in CO
2
emissions in the data over the past 40 years? Why?
Part 1
:
Introduction
The natural balance that occurs between global atmospheric cooling and warming processes provides an important contribution to the Earth’s varied climates.
Troposphere gases
Planetary albedo from clouds low in the troposphere, sulfur dioxide (SO
2
) from active volcanoes, snow, and ice all reflect incoming solar radiation back into space. This causes a
cooling
effect on climates within a geographical area.
Clouds
high
in the troposphere and greenhouse gases such as water vapor(H
2
O), carbon dioxide (CO
2
) , methane (CH
4
) , and nitrous oxide (N
2
O) have a
warming
effect.
Along with the solar activity, these cooling and warming processes help ensure that the planet’s average surface temperature is a net value that is above freezing, helping to ensure that life is possible.
Theory on CO
2
Emissions
It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic effects (conditions caused by human activity) that are associated with industry, agriculture, and fossil fuel use have enhanced these warming processes by contributing greenhouse gases such as N
2
O, CH
4
,and CO
2
into the troposphere. As a result, CO
2
is believed to contribute the most to the atmospheric warming process.
Pollution
Pollution
is a substance that produces a detrimental change in the environment because of its composition and abundance. Anthropogenic sources of CO
2
fit this description because of the perception that there is evidence of a positive correlation between the increases in anthropogenic CO
2
and increases in temperature. In turn, as temperatures increase, climates can change worldwide, unbalancing ecosystems across the globe.
Strategies
Strategies and prediction models can be used to decrease or eliminate the effects that are associated with a particular pollutant. First, the cause of the pollution must be identified. Then, scientists can create innovate ways to reduce or eliminate its production.
Part 2:
Earth System Research Laboratory
Click on the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Earth System Research Laboratory, Global Monitoring Division Website.
or
https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/obop/
(Earth System Research Laboratory, n.d.). Here you will identify important sources of CO
2
emission to help you complete your lab assignment.
Reference
Earth system research laboratory: Global monitoring division
. (n.d.). Retrieved from the U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Research Web site: http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/obop//
.
In this five-page essay, your task is to consider how Enlightenment .docxLizbethQuinonez813
In this five-page essay, your task is to consider how Enlightenment philosophes sought change in their societies. Select a theme from Voltaire's Candide (for example, religion, government, slavery, marriage, patriarchy, etc.) and explain how Voltaire satirizes it as a way of calling for reform. Contextualize Voltaire's argument by incorporating one or two articles from the Encyclopedie, which you can find here:
https://quod.lib.umich.edu/d/did/
Your bibliography should include two or three sources: Voltaire's novel and one or two Encyclopedie articles. About five double-spaced pages, Due on 02/21/2017
.
In this reflection, introduce your professor to your project. Speak .docxLizbethQuinonez813
In this reflection, introduce your professor to your project. Speak about the pro and con sides of the controversy, and present your thesis statement. Then, consider some of the following questions as you reflect upon the road so far. If you want to, explain a little bit about your process. What have you experienced so far in writing your paper? Was it difficult or fairly easy to come up with your design? Do you feel confident about your progress so far? How do you feel about your thesis statement? What would you like to do in revisions? What step seems the most difficult or the easiest for you?
Your response should be at least 200 words. No references or citations are necessary.
.
In this discussion, please address the followingDiscuss how oft.docxLizbethQuinonez813
In this discussion, please address the following:
Discuss how often a project schedule should be reviewed.
Should a project schedule only be reviewed by the project manager and project management team?
Identify and discuss the advantages and disadvantages to creating a project schedule.
.
In this course, we have introduced and assessed many noteworthy figu.docxLizbethQuinonez813
In this course, we have introduced and assessed many noteworthy figures related to the colonizing and first 90 years of the United States. For this assignment, you will choose a significant figure who contributed to and influenced others during the time discussed in this course—with the exception of any U.S. President—and prepare a tribute focusing on his or her relevance to today. This is not a biography. Your argument should highlight how society remembers your historical figure now, based on the philosophies and ideals he or she presented or helped to change and evolve.
The style of this project is a multimedia presentation with both audio and video components; however, the medium used is up to you. Potential examples include, but are not limited to, a videotaped speech, a self-guided PowerPoint presentation, or a video with audio. Creativity and effort will impact the final grade.
Projects are due during Unit VII and will be graded on the following:
Prepare and submit a two-page reflection, ideally based on the outline assignment from Unit VI.
Create and submit a visual presentation with your reflection as an audio transcript.
Use a minimum two sources that can be found in CSU’s Online Library (at least one from the American History & Life database).
Proper citations and references for any use or identification of those sources must be used.
Length must fall within three to five minutes; in the case of PowerPoint, slides and audio should progress and stop automatically like a taped presentation.
Content accuracy and avoidance of anachronism are a must.
.
In this Assignment, you will focus on Adaptive Leadership from a.docxLizbethQuinonez813
In this Assignment, you will focus on Adaptive Leadership from a global perspective. When approaching this Assignment, do so from an international and global view
PLEASE SEE ATTACHED RUBRIC AND FOLLOW AS DIRECTED
NOTE THE PROGRAM : TURNITIN WILL BE USED TO DETECT A CERTAIN PERCENTAGE OF ORGINALITY
.
Inferential Analysis
Chapter 20
NUR 6812Nursing Research
Florida National University
Introduction - Inferential Analysis
We will discuss analysis of variance and regression, which are technically part of the same family of statistics known as the general linear method but are used to achieve different analytical goals
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used so often that Iversen and Norpoth (1987) said they once had a student who thought this was the name of an Italian statistician.
You can think of analysis of variance as a whole family of procedures beginning with the simple and frequently used t-test and becoming quite complicated with the use of multiple dependent variables (MANOVA, to be explained later in this chapter) and covariates.
Although the simpler varieties of these statistics can actually be calculated by hand, it is assumed that you will use a statistical software package for your calculations.
If you want to see how these calculations are done, you could try to compute a correlation, chi-square, t-test, or ANOVA yourself (see Yuker, 1958; Field, 2009), but in general it is too time consuming and too subject to human error to do these by hand.
IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY
Several terms are used in these analyses that you need to be familiar with to understand the analyses themselves and the results. Many will already be familiar to you.
Statistical significance: This indicates the probability that the differences found are a result of error, not the treatment. Stated in terms of the P value, the convention is to accept either a 1% (P ≤ 0.01), or 1 out of 100, or 5% (P ≤ 0.05), or 5 out of 100, possibility that any differences seen could have been due to error (Cortina & Dunlap, 2007).
Research hypothesis: A research hypothesis is a declarative statement of the expected relationship between the dependent and independent variable(s).
Null hypothesis: The null hypothesis, based on the research hypothesis, states that the predicted relationships will not be found or that those found could have occurred by chance, meaning the difference will not be statistically significant.
Effect size: This is defined by Cortina and Dunlap as “the amount of variance in one variable accounted for by another in the sample at hand” (2007, p. 231). Effect size estimates are helpful adjuncts to significance testing. An important limitation, however, is that they are heavily influenced by the type of treatment or manipulation that occurred and the measures that are used.
Confidence intervals: Although sometimes suggested as an adjunct or replacement for the significance level, confidence intervals are determined in part by the alpha (significance level) (Cortina & Dunlap, 2007). Likened to a margin of error, the confidence intervals indicate the range within which the true difference between means may lie. A narrow confidence interval implies high precision; we can specify believable values within a narrow range ...
Infancy to Early Childhood Case AnalysisPart IFor this diLizbethQuinonez813
Infancy to Early Childhood Case Analysis
Part I:
For this discussion board assignment, you will conduct an interview with a parent who has a child in the early childhood stage of development. In your interview, solicit information to understand the child's development from infancy to early childhood about the area of development assigned to you.
--please explore the social needs of the child's development.
Social Needs: For social needs, use Erikson's psychosocial theory of development.
ALL students should also explore how multi-cultural factors have impacted the area of development you are exploring (i.e., ethnicity, race, gender, socioeconomic status, ableism, religion, sexual orientation and other sub-cultural influences such as military). There are two optional videos in the learning module that will help you think about culture more deeply and generate ideas about possible areas/questions to explore with your interviewee.
Quality posts will integrate material from the textbook to support your analysis of the child's development. All material from the textbook should be cited in APA style. Students should define psychological terms and concepts used; assume your audience is not familiar with developmental psychology.
...
Infectious Diseases
Name
Course
Instructor
Date
Introduction
Infectious infections have created increased attention.
Covid-19 is the most recent challenges caused by infectious diseases.
https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/
Introduction
Infectious infections have created increased attention, especially after several outbreaks and pandemics that altered human health globally. Covid-19 and the related infections are the most recent challenges caused by infectious diseases affecting the whole world. This presentation illustrates common infectious diseases in the nature they are caused, their diagnosis, treatment, and possible prevention methods. It shall also describe the common symptoms of infectious diseases and when to seek medical attention.
2
Overview
Overview
Infectious diseases have attracted increased attention globally because of their various occurrence. Its symptoms range from mild to severe, and the treatment and management depend on the cause of infection. Infectious diseases are caused by several pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi, to mention a few. Transmission of pathogens in humans happens in numerous ways, including direct transmission through contact, water, and foodborne infections. Infection from insects such as ticks and mosquitoes can also effectively transmit pathogens.
3
Infectious diseases have numerous occurrences.
Symptoms range from mild to severe.
Pathogens include bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi.
Transmission include through contact, water and food, and insects.
Individuals with a higher risk of infectious diseases
All individuals are at risk of contracting infectious diseases.
Individuals with compromised immune systems are at higher risk.
They include;
People with suppressed immunities.
People unvaccinated for certain infectious diseases
Children and healthcare workers.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9axOFtPqS0c
Individuals with a higher risk of infectious diseases
All individuals are at risk of contracting infectious diseases. However, individuals with compromised immune systems are at higher risk of getting infectious diseases. Individuals at higher risks of getting infectious diseases include; people with suppressed immunities, such as patients of cancer, HIV, and recent organ transmissions. People unvaccinated for certain infectious diseases are also considered at higher risk of getting infectious diseases. Other individuals at higher risks of getting infectious diseases are children and healthcare workers.
4
How Common are infectious diseases?
How Common are infectious diseases?
Infectious diseases are common worldwide. Some infectious diseases are more common and strike more often than others. For instance, infections caused by E. coli are common and may not require medications because they may cause mild signs of complications. In the United States, a fifth of the population is infected with influenza annually. This indicates that infectiou ...
Individual Focused Learning for Better Memory Retention Through LizbethQuinonez813
Individual Focused Learning for Better Memory Retention Through Experience
CONFIDENTIAL
GCU – For Internal Use Only
1
Literature Review: Background to the Problem
10/9/2019
Cognitive theory focuses on experiences in three looping processes, comprehension, memory, and application
According to Goossens (2020), cognitive theories in learning is affected by biology, environment, and social constructs
Bottom-up and top-down influences define experience of learning and thus memory and its retention (Tyng et al., 2017)
Comprehension is interpretative with different people and methodologies of gaining skills require support for better retention of knowledge (Ford et al., 2020)
CONFIDENTIAL
GCU – For Internal Use Only
Objective:
The outline on this slide is used in the Prospectus to develop the Background of the Study in Chapter 1 and the Background of the Problem Space in Chapter 2.
Slide Requirements:
Use either a bulleted format or table format
Describe what is already understood about the problem - Historically, memory retention is dependent on biology, social determinants, and educational roles (Berger et al., 2012)
Present findings from prior research related to the history of the problem space – individual are unique by circumstances, cognition development is different for each person hence memory retention and its experiences are unique. In education sector today, curriculum caters to meeting outcomes of the larger group with less focus on individual pace of learning.
Focus on:
When the problem started – generalization of education and learning environment through general curriculum tends to segregate some learners
What has been discovered about the problem - According to Tyng et al. (2017), “the effects of emotion on learning and memory are not always univalent” it points to the fact that progression is a personal journey such that how learning is understood is directly linked to how it is taught, the environment it is taught in, and the emotional attachments of information processing. Therefore, productivity in learning can only be attained by training and task definition which can be versatile form one person to another.
The current state of the problem – Development of separate special classes for students with learning challenge is beneficial but with poor education systems, the program could be detrimental for the future especially in self teaching learners. With guidance for retention of knowledge being a taught skill, ineffective environments and lack of support could be detrimental especially to disadvantaged communities
Support information with APA compliant in-text citations in your slide, and then make sure to include the full reference for the citation in the List of References slide (last slide of this presentation)
2
Literature Review: Problem Space
10/9/2019
Perception plays a very important role in motivating learners
It is build on the foundation of the dynamics of instructor-student relationship hence role ...
Infectious diseases projectThis project is PowerPoint, or a paLizbethQuinonez813
Infectious diseases project
This project is PowerPoint, or a paper and is the mandatory 10% LIRN.
1- Guidelines for the Project: It could be either a PPT or a paper academic style
- Include name of the disease and student(s) name
- The paper must have academic style (you pick it)
- The PPT must have a minimum of 8 slides, do not type many lines in one slide make it easy to follow, add photos.
Either for the PPT or the paper, this work should have all of the following aspects about your disease: (Write each topic in the order given)
· Name the infectious disease.
· Mention the organism(s) that cause the disease.
· Pick the most common organism that causes the disease and tell about the organism: Classification of the organism, organism’s habitat, general characteristics and virulence factors of the organism (Include pictures of the microorganism (bacteria, virus, helminth).
· About the disease:
· Write how is the disease transmitted, what is the portal(s) of entry and, where does it cause problems in humans’ body (what organs or system(s) are affected.
· Signs and symptoms (include pictures of them).
· Diagnosis and Treatment.
· Prevention.
· Epidemiology: Include cases in U.S. and/or where is mostly present, who gets affected (kids, women, men, all), and it there are cases of nosocomial infections or not and why.
· References
WHOEVER HAS NOT PICKED UP A TOPIC NEEDS TO SEND ME AN EMAIL WITH THE TOPIC YOU CHOSE.
The style for the PPT or paper you decide it, just do it academically acceptable and interesting.
Due Date: 10/24/2021
Project assignments
Bacteria
Topic
Student
Paper
Presentation/PPT
1
Viral lung infections
Maylin, Eddy
Picked
2
Tuberculosis
3
folliculitis
4
Streptococcal skin diseases
5
Conjuctivitis
6
Trachoma and STD by C. trachomatis
7
Botulism
8
Meningitis
9
Tetanus
Enny
Picked
10
Peptic ulcers
11
Foodborne infections: Salmonellosis,
12
Amebiasis, or Taenia
13
Upper UTI’s
14
Lower UTI’s
15
HPV
16
Bacterial vaginosis
17
Gonorrhea
18
HSV-1, HSV-2
19
Syphilis
20
Sepsis
21
Zyca
22
Malaria
23
Endocarditis
24
Chikungunya
25
Yellow fever, or dengue
26
HIV,
27
Mononucleosis
28
Ebola,
29
Rabies
30
Prions
31
African sleeping sickness
32
Hepatitis
33
Lyme disease
34
COVID19
35
C. dif
36
Assignment: Psychotherapy for Clients With Addictive Disorders
Addictive disorders can be particularly challenging for clients. Not only do these disorders typically interfere with a client’s ability to function in daily life, but they also often manifest as negative and sometimes criminal behaviors. Sometime clients with addictive disorders also suffer from other mental health issues, creating even greater struggles for them to overcome. In your role, you have the opportunity to help clients address their addictions and improve outcomes for both the clients and their families.
To prepare:
· Review this week’s Learning Re ...
Individual Project You are a business analyst in a publicly-trLizbethQuinonez813
Individual Project You are a business analyst in a publicly-traded company. Your team is working with
stakeholders regarding options for expansion. The company must decide at least two possible countries
for expansion based on specific criteria. Your job is to present a report to identify the following
information. First, you will identify the countries where this company is currently operating. Next, you
will identify and then analyze at least two possible countries for expansion based on specific criteria
using a minimum of 10 distinct class concepts, such as: Formal and informal institutions in those
countries International trade and trade barriers Whether FDI is attractive or unattractive Foreign
exchange opportunities/issues Whether regional integration is present and how this may impact
expansion Possible modes of entry with recommendations Discuss marketing/HR items of note to
successfully operate in the new country The report should contain a minimum of 1,500 words, excluding
cover page/references section, and should follow the most current edition of APA formatting. The
report should contain a minimum of five citations to at least five distinct references used. You must
provide a reference list at the end of the report in addition to including in-text citations in the body of
the report to identify where resources are used. Instructors determine the due date for this project
during the week it is assigned. In the alternative, this assignment may be given as a group project as
determined by the instructor. Individual project is worth 250 points. It is due to the appropriate Dropbox
in Week 8.
...
Individual Differences
Self-Awareness and Working with Others
Dr.Nathanson
1
1
Individual Differences at Work
We seek to understand people in order to develop insight into our own behavior, and the behavior of others, and to respond in effective ways in work settings.
Insight
Effective Interactions
*
PersonalityWho are you, and why do you behave the way that you do?the combination of stable physical and mental characteristics that give an individual his or her identitystable over time, stable across situationsunique set of complex, interacting characteristics“Habits of Response”
*
Personality (cont.)Origins of personality?genetics (nature)early life experience (nurture)modeling, reinforcement, stability of context, family dynamicsImpact of personality at work?Person x Situation interactionorganizations are “strong situations”dependent on culture, job, group factors
*
Personality (cont.)“Big Five” Personality Dimensionsdecades of research and theoretical discussions of personality --> dozens of personality dimensions1970’s and 1980’s: statistical methods (e.g., factor analysis) provided a “clearer picture”conscientiousness, extroversion, openness to experience, neuroticism, agreeablenessonly moderate predictors
*
Group exerciseEach group member should discuss their profile, i.e are they high or low or in the middle for each of the Big 5 elements.
Then the group should discuss on average what the group personality is like.
Select a group leader and report to the class.
*
Personality (cont.)Locus of Controlan individual’s sense of control over his/her life, the environment, and external eventsHigh Internal LOCtask-oriented, innovative, proactive, self-confidentHigh External LOCsensitive to social cues, anxious changes with strong situational cues
*
Personality (cont.)Tolerance for Ambiguityextent to which individuals are threatened by or have difficulty coping with ambiguity, uncertainty, unpredictability, complexity…High Tolerance for Ambiguitycan handle more informationbetter at transmitting informationmore adaptivesensitive to other’s characteristics
*
Personality (cont.)Do organizations have personalities?SAS TheoryB. Schneiderthrough the combined processes of selection, attrition, and socialization, organizations create a culture with a “stable personality”implications?
*
Emotionscomplex, patterned, organismic reactions to how we think we are doing in our efforts to survive and flourish; goal orientedbiological, psychological, socialgoal oriented: related to our ability to achieve what we wantnegative emotions: triggered by frustration (anger, jealousy)positive emotions: triggered by attainment (pride, happiness)
*
Emotional IntelligencePredictive of “star performance”: who does well, who gets aheadDaniel Goleman: Working with Emotional Intelligencebased on research in 500+ organizationsmore important in predicting success than technical skills or IQHigh “EQ”: works well ...
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2. research. This article provides an updated
understanding of the LCP and its implications
for social workers.
The LCP looks at how biological, psycho-
logical, and socio-cultural factors act inde-
pendently, cumulatively, and interactively to
produce great diversity in life course journeys
and shape people’s lives across family gen-
erations. It is a relatively recent attempt to
contextualize human behavior, to understand
how people and their environments influence
each other and change over time. A primary
873240 FISXXX10.1177/1044389419873240Families in
SocietyHutchison
research-article2019
1PhD, professor emeritus, Virginia Commonwealth
University
Corresponding Author:
Elizabeth D. Hutchison, School of Social Work, Virginia
Commonwealth University. Mail: 3275 Iris Rose Drive,
Reno, NV 89509.
Email: [email protected]
An Update on the Relevance
of the Life Course Perspective
for Social Work
Elizabeth D. Hutchison1
Abstract
In recent years, the life course perspective has received
increasing support from researchers
3. across a number of behavioral science disciplines. The purpose
of this article is to examine the
relevance to social work of selected findings of the last 15 years
of empirical investigation of life
course concepts and themes. This discussion is organized
around five basic concepts (cohorts,
transitions, trajectories, life events, and turning points) and six
interrelated themes (interplay
of human lives and historical time, timing of lives, linked or
interdependent lives, human agency
in making choices, diversity in life course trajectories, and
developmental risk and protection).
Implications of life course theory and research for social work
are overviewed.
Keywords
evidence-based /evidence-informed practice, modes of practice,
theory /conceptual models
applied to practice, development across the lifespan, subjects of
practice, disparities/ social
determinants of health, equity issues/ human rights /social
justice, family systems and functioning
Manuscript received: May 22, 2019; Revised: July 23, 2019;
Accepted: August 6, 2019
Disposition editor: Sondra J. Fogel
352 Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social
Services 100(4)
contribution of the LCP is its focus on the life
course as a whole, on how what happens in
one period of a person’s life is connected to
4. what happens in other periods of that person’s
life. For example, it calls attention to the ways
in which what happens in adolescence is
influenced by what happened in childhood
and also influences the long period of adult-
hood (Johnson, Crosnoe, & Elder, 2011).
In the past 15 years, the LCP has grown in
popularity across a broad range of disciplines
(Alwin, 2012). It has been used to understand
the pathways of families (Min, Silverstein, &
Lendon, 2012), organizations (King, 2009),
and social movements (Della Porta & Diani,
2006) as well as individual life journeys. It has
potential for understanding patterns of stability
and change in all types of social systems. Ger-
ontologists increasingly use the perspective to
understand how old age is shaped by events
experienced earlier in life (Seabrook & Avison,
2012), but it has also become an increasingly
popular perspective for considering adolescent
and young adult transitions. The LCP has
become a major theoretical framework in crim-
inology (Prior, 2013) and the leading perspec-
tive driving longitudinal study of physical and
mental health (Bauldry, Shanahan, Boardman,
Miech, & Macmillan, 2012; Evans, Crogan,
Belyea, & Coon, 2009). It is also being used to
understand patterns of lifetime drug use (Lind-
ström, Modén, & Rosvall, 2013).
The LCP was developed from and contin-
ues to be amplified by empirical research. The
early roots came from two different streams of
research: Glen Elder, Jr.’s (1974) analysis of
three pioneering large-scale longitudinal stud-
5. ies, and inquiry by social historians of how
families change and adapt under changing his-
torical conditions (Hareven, 1978). Research-
ers in both of these traditions were interested in
the social, cultural, and economic contexts of
human behavior. The social historians were
interested in telling the historical story from the
point of view of ordinary people rather than
from the traditional vantage point of elites and
focused particularly on the extraordinary cop-
ing mechanisms families have used in the face
of adversity. In the ongoing development of the
LCP, large-scale national longitudinal studies
have continued be a dominant method of study,
and new methods of quantitative data analysis
have been designed for studying specific con-
cepts (see Elder & Giele, 2009). The social
history tradition of using life stories and other
qualitative methods to study the context of
human behavior continues to play a role in
ongoing LCP theoretical development (Sprague,
Scanlon, & Pantalone, 2017).
In keeping with these traditions, the most
common method of empirical research cited in
this article is large-scale panel national longitu-
dinal study (12 studies) following the same
people over time, using representative samples,
convenience samples, and stratified probability
samples. Seven of the cited studies report on
repeated cross-sectional studies using large-
scale nationally representative sample studies
taken at different time points to track trends in
social life. Four of the cited studies analyze
cross-sectional surveys based on convenience
6. samples. Other cited research includes three
studies based on qualitative interviews, two
experimental studies, two large-scale cross-
sectional random surveys, two population-
based studies, and one cross-sectional national
representative sample study. Consistent with
trends in life course research, two cited studies
use mixed methods, triangulating national rep-
resentative samples with qualitative interviews.
The cited studies are found in peer-reviewed
journals covering the disciplines of addiction
studies, criminology, demography, family stud-
ies, gerontology, medicine, psychology, public
health, and sociology. They include samples
from Australia, Canada, China, 27 European
countries, Israel, Japan, South Korea, and the
United States.
Basic Concepts of the Life
Course Perspective
Fifteen years of research have elaborated the
handful of LCP staple concepts noted in
Hutchison (2005): cohorts, transitions, trajec-
tories, life events, and turning points. Each of
these concepts is summarized here and shows
up again in discussion of major themes.
Hutchison 353
Cohorts
Life course scholars find the concept of cohort
to be particularly useful to emphasize the
7. important influence of the historical context
on human behavior, one of the major themes
to be discussed later. A cohort is a group of
persons who were born during the same time
period and who experience particular social
changes within a given culture in the same
sequence and at approximately the same age.
Generation is another term used to convey a
similar meaning, but life course scholars often
make a distinction between the two terms,
suggesting that a birth cohort becomes a gen-
eration only when it develops some shared
sense of its social history and a common iden-
tity (see Alwin, McCammon, & Hofer, 2006).
Cohorts differ in size, and these differences
affect opportunities for education, work, and
family life. The baby boom that followed
World War II (1946-1964) in the United States
produced a large cohort that faced tight com-
petition as they entered the labor market, a
situation that drove wages down and unem-
ployment up (Pearlin & Skaff, 1996). Baby
boomers adapted by marrying later, having
fewer children than earlier generations, and
increasing the presence of mothers in the
labor force. Generation X, born from 1965 to
1979, grew up with fewer siblings and experi-
enced higher rates of parental divorce than
the baby boomers. They have been less likely
than earlier generations to marry (Carlson,
2009). The Millenial Generation, born from
1980 to the late 1990s, has now surpassed the
Baby Boomers as the largest adult demo-
graphic group in the United States. They have
been found to have more student loan debt,
8. poverty, and unemployment when compared
to the previous two generations at the same
age, and it is not clear how these circum-
stances will affect the long-term trajectories
of their lives (Drake, 2014). They are also
more ethnically diverse than previous cohorts
and grew up in a time of great technological
innovation. Not surprisingly, they have been
found to be more tolerant of diversity and
more media-connected than earlier cohorts
(Fry, Igielnik, & Patten, 2018).
Although it is too early to know what major
social, cultural, or economic factors might
influence the adult trajectories of Generation
Z, born from the late 1990s until about 2012,
recent survey research indicates that they are
as large as the Millennial Generation and even
more diverse. As children and youth, they
have lived in households that are, on average,
more well educated and more affluent than
any earlier cohort, and they are on track to be
the best-educated generation yet (Fry &
Parker, 2018). As they enter adulthood, they
are reporting attitudes on social issues such as
sexual orientation, gender identity, and cli-
mate change that are very similar to the atti-
tudes of the Millennial Generation, attitudes
that are more liberal than the Generation X
and Baby Boomer generations (Parker, Graf,
& Igielnik, 2019). It remains to be seen how
the Millennial and Generation Z cohorts will
adapt to changing circumstances across the
life course and, more importantly, what effects
they will have on major social institutions.
9. These four cohorts have grown up with
different communication technologies. Baby
Boomers grew up as television was becoming
ubiquitous; Generation Xers grew up in the
computer revolution, Millenials as the Internet
exploded, and Generation Zers with multi-pur-
pose mobile devices (Dimock, 2019). These
differences will have an impact on receptivity
to different social work interventions.
Transitions
The LCP puts a spotlight on the numerous
transitions in roles and statuses experienced by
individuals across the life course (Torres &
Young, 2016). A transition can produce both
stress and opportunity (Benner, 2011). Many
transitions relate to family life: marriages,
births, divorces, remarriages, and death, all
transitions that involve entrances and exits of
family members. Social workers McGoldrick,
Preto, and Carter (2016) make a distinction
between normative life course transitions and
unpredictable transitions in the lives of individ-
uals and families. Health professionals have
used the LCP and the concept of transitions
to understand role changes that occur in the
354 Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social
Services 100(4)
family caregiving of older adults (Carpentier,
Bernard, Grenier, & Guberman, 2010). The
concept of transitions is also increasingly used
10. to study the migration/immigration process
(Gong, Xu, Fujishiro, & Takeuchi, 2011).
Transitions in collectivities other than the fam-
ily, such as small groups, communities, and
formal organizations, also involve exits and
entrances of members as well as changes in
statuses and roles. The concept of transitions is
useful for social workers, no matter the setting
or role; in all settings, social workers must be
mindful of the stress as well as the opportunity
for positive change created by transitions.
Trajectories
Each life course transition is embedded in a
trajectory that gives form to the life course
(Alwin, 2012). Transitions are entry points to a
new life phase. Trajectories involve relatively
stable long-term processes and patterns of life,
involving multiple transitions (Ruark et al.,
2016). For example, Hser, Hamilton, and Niv
(2009) recommend the LCP for understanding
drug use trajectories (or careers) that may
include onset of use, acceleration of use, regu-
lar use, cessation of use, and relapse. Treatment
may or may not be included in this trajectory.
Trajectories are best understood in the rearview
mirror; the multiple transitions of a trajectory are
usually not anticipated at earlier points along the
life course. Because individuals and families
live in multiple spheres, their lives are made up
of multiple intertwined trajectories—such as
educational trajectories, family life trajectories,
health trajectories, and work trajectories (Leong,
Eggerth, & Flynn, 2014). These strands are
woven together to form a life story.
11. Life Events
A life event is a significant occurrence that
may produce serious and long-lasting effects
for an individual or a collectivity. We experi-
ence both positive and negative life events, but
researchers have paid much more attention to
the impact of negative life events. Psycholo-
gists have long studied the short- and long-
term impact of stressful life events on child,
adolescent, and adult functioning. More
recently, they have also studied the relation-
ships among stressful life events, genetics, and
personality. Three examples of that research
are presented here.
A Swiss research team (Orth & Luciano,
2015) studied the relationships among self-
esteem (defined as one’s evaluation of one’s
worth), narcissism (characterized by grandi-
ose self-concept, feelings of superiority, and
self-centeredness), and stressful life events.
They found that people who are high in nar-
cissism have an increased likelihood of expe-
riencing a larger number of stressful life
events. They also found that an increase in
stressful life events was predictive of lower
self-esteem.
A team of international researchers (Salvatore
et al., 2015) studied a U.S. sample to investigate
the interaction of stressful life events and the
GABRA2 gene in producing intergenerational
continuity in parents’ and adolescents’ external-
12. izing behavior. They found that parental exter-
nalizing behavior predicts a greater number of
stressful life events for their adolescents, which
in turn predicts higher levels of adolescent
externalizing behavior. However, they found
that the pattern of parental externalizing →
stressful life events → adolescent externaliz-
ing was stronger for those adolescents with a
specific GABRA2 genotype.
Another international research team
(Hygen et al., 2015) studied longitudinal data
from a sample of children living in Norway to
investigate the relationships among child
exposure to stressful life events, the COMT
gene, and aggression. They found that chil-
dren with the COMT gene were more likely to
behave aggressively in reaction to stressful
life events than children without the gene.
Taken together, these three studies suggest
that both genetic and personality factors play
a role in how people respond to stressful life
events, and that the same interventions may
have different outcomes for different people.
Turning Points
A turning point is a time when major change
occurs in the life course trajectory, a lasting
change not just a detour. Turning points may
occur in the individual life course, but social
Hutchison 355
13. science researchers also study turning points
in social systems such as families, communi-
ties, organizations, cultures, economies, and
governments. At the individual level, the turn-
ing point may involve a transformation in how
the person views the self in relation to the
world and/or a transformation in how the per-
son responds to risk and opportunity (Cappe-
liez, Beaupré, & Robitaille, 2008; Ferraro &
Shippee, 2009).
The addition of the concept of turning point
is an important way that the LCP departs from
traditional developmental theory. In life course
theory, the human life course is not smooth
and predictable. Inertia tends to keep us on a
particular trajectory but turning points add
twists and turns or even reversals to the life
course. One research team interviewed older
adults aged 60 to 87 about perceived turning
points in their lives and found that the most
frequently reported turning points involved
health and family. The perceived turning
points occurred across the entire life course,
but there was some clustering at midlife (ages
45-64) (Cappeliez et al., 2008). Gender differ-
ences have been found in reported turning
points in samples of young adults as well as
sample of older adults, with women reporting
more turning points in the family domain and
men reporting more turning points in the work
domain (Cappeliez et al., 2008). It is not clear
whether this gender difference will be mani-
fested in future cohorts if women’s work tra-
jectories continue to become more similar to
men’s. Researchers have studied the turning
14. points that lead women to leave abusive rela-
tionships (Khaw & Hardesty, 2007); the turn-
ing points in the care-giving careers of
Mexican American women who care for older
family members (Evans et al., 2009), and the
role transitions that can become turning points
in a criminal career, leading to desisting from
criminal activities (Kirk, 2012).
Most life course pathways include multiple
turning points, some that send life trajectories
off track and others that bring life trajectories
back on track. In fact, we could say that the
intent of many social work interventions is to
precipitate a turning point that will get life
course trajectories on track (Olsson, Strand, &
Kristiansen, 2014). Such interventions may
occur at the individual, family, small group,
community, organizational, or institutional
level. By calling attention to turning points,
the LCP puts a spotlight on human strengths
and capacity for positive change, even revolu-
tionary change.
Major Themes of the Life
Course Perspective
In 1994, Elder (1994) identified four domi-
nant, and interrelated, themes in the life course
approach: interplay of human lives and histori-
cal time, timing of lives, linked or interdepen-
dent lives, and human agency in making choices.
Two other related themes were later identified
by Elder (1998) and Michael Shanahan (2000):
diversity in life course trajectories and devel-
15. opmental risk and protection. These six themes
continue to be the framework for life course
researchers, with different researchers empha-
sizing different themes. Each of these themes,
and relevant examples of recent research about
them, are discussed below.
Interplay of Human Lives and
Historical Time
Persons born in different years face different
social, political, and economic worlds, with
different options and constraints. Historical
eras may produce cohort effects when distinc-
tive formative experiences are shared at the
same point in the life course and have a lasting
impact on a birth cohort. The same events of a
particular historical era may affect different
cohorts in different ways. For example, Aus-
tralian researchers (Page, Milner, Morrell,
& Taylor, 2013) found that the cohort born
in the years immediately following 1974 was
more prone to suicide across the young adult
period than earlier cohorts. The researchers
also found that this cohort faced higher rates of
unemployment and underemployment as they
entered young adulthood than earlier cohorts
and propose a relationship between these two
factors.
356 Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social
Services 100(4)
Analysis of large data sets by a number of
16. researchers provide forceful evidence that
changes in social institutions impinge on family
and individual life course trajectories (Vikat
et al., 2007). Researchers have examined the
impact of globalization, declining labor mar-
ket opportunities, and rising housing costs on
young adult transitions (Arnett, 2015). Tran-
sitions associated with young adulthood (leav-
ing home, marriage, first parenthood) are
occurring later for the current cohort of young
adults than for their parents in many countries,
particularly in countries with weak welfare
states. Military service during non-war eras
often has been found to be a protective factor
for later health and mortality, but this benefit
does not accrue to veterans who serve during
war eras (Landes, Wilder, & Williams, 2017).
Shifting immigration policies and attitudes
toward particular immigrant groups change
the landscape for immigrants over different
historical eras (Torres & Young, 2016).
Public policy often lags behind such social
changes, presenting social workers with a
responsibility to keep the public informed
about the impact of changing social condi-
tions on individuals, families, communities,
and organizations. For example, many service
members from the wars in Afghanistan and
Iraq are living with horrific combat injuries;
others are experiencing substance abuse, post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), relationship
problems, and work problems from prolonged
periods of combat stress (Tanielian & Jaycox,
2008; Wadsworth & Southwell, 2011). Social
workers in all practice settings should be alert
17. to possibilities for engaging the involved mili-
tary families in supportive services and to the
need for more supportive public policies and
programs.
Timing of Lives
Every society appears to use age as an impor-
tant variable, and many social institutions are
organized, in part, around age: age for starting
school, age to be legally recognized as an
adult, retirement age, and so on. Age is a prom-
inent attribute in efforts by social scientists to
bring order and predictability to understanding
human behavior. Life course scholars are inter-
ested in the age at which specific life events
and transitions occur, which they refer to as
timing of lives. They may classify entrances
and exits from particular statuses and roles as
“off-time” or “on-time,” based on social norms
or shared expectations about the timing of such
transitions (McFarland, Pudrovska, Schieman,
Ellison, & Bierman, 2013). One research team
found that people who are diagnosed with can-
cer at earlier ages had a greater increase in reli -
giosity than people diagnosed at later ages,
suggesting that off-time transitions are more
stressful than on-time transitions or require
different coping strategies (McFarland et al.,
2013). Another researcher found that non-
normative early entry into family formation
and parenthood is associated with lower self-
reported health over the life course (Barban,
2013). Chronological age itself is not the only
factor involved in timing of lives. Age-graded
18. differences in roles and behaviors are the result
of biological, psychological, and social pro-
cesses (Solomon, Helvitz, & Zerach, 2009).
Biological age indicates a person’s level of
biological development and physical health, as
measured by the functioning of various organ
systems. It is the present position of the bio-
logical person in relation to the potential life
cycle. There is no simple, straightforward way
to measure biological age, but there is an ongo-
ing effort to identify an optimal set of bio-
markers for accurate measure of biological age
(Jee & Park, 2017). One method is to compare
an individual’s physical condition with the
conditions of others, for example, bone den-
sity scans are compared with the scans of a
healthy 20-year-old.
Psychological age has both behavioral and
perceptual components. Behaviorally, psycho-
logical ages refers to the capacities that people
have and the skills they use to adapt to chang-
ing biological and environmental demands,
skills in memory, learning, intelligence, moti-
vation, emotion regulation, and so forth. Per-
ceptually, psychological age is based on how
old people perceive themselves to be. Recent
research has referred to this perceptual aspect
of age as “subjective age” or “age identity.”
Culture plays a role in subjective age, with
Hutchison 357
19. older adults in Western societies consistently
found to feel younger than their chronological
age (Stephan, Chalabaev, Kotter-Grühn, &
Jaconelli, 2013). This has not been found in
research among Chinese older adults, but
recent research indicates that this may be
changing as traditions around filial piety
weaken (Liang, 2014). Subjective age among
early adolescents has been found to be influ-
enced by pubertal timing (Hubley & Arim,
2012). Subjective age of middle-aged and
older adults is related to self-reported health
(Stephan, Demulier, & Terracciano, 2012). A
workforce that, on average, feels younger than
their chronological age has been found to be
associated with an improvement in the overall
performance of the organization (Kunze, Raes,
& Bruch, 2015).
Social age refers to the age-graded roles
and behaviors expected by society, the socially
constructed meaning of various ages. Age
norms indicate the behaviors expected of peo-
ple of a specific age in a given society at a
particular point in time. They may be informal
expectations, or they may be encoded as for-
mal rules and laws. Life course scholars sug-
gest that age norms vary not only across
historical time and across societies, but also
by gender, race, ethnicity, and social class
within a given time and society. They have
paid particular attention to recent changes in
age norms for the transitions of young adult-
hood (Arnett, 2015; Newman, 2008; Scherger,
2009). Social age receives special attention in
the LCP, and life course scholars call attention
20. to the changing nature of the social construc-
tion of life phases, noting that mass longevity
is leading to finer gradations in life phases.
For example, Arnett (2015) proposes that the
changing nature of young adult transitions
calls for the acknowledgment of a life phase
between adolescence and young adulthood, a
phase he calls emerging adulthood.
Linked or Interdependent Lives
The LCP emphasizes the interdependence of
human lives and the ways in which people
are reciprocally connected on several levels
(Djundeva, 2015). It calls attention to how
relationships both support and control an indi-
vidual’s behavior. Social support is an obvi-
ous element of interdependent lives, but
relationships also control behavior through
expectations, rewards, and punishments. The
family is seen as the primary source of both
support and control, and life course scholars
have paid particular attention to how lives of
family members are linked across genera-
tions, with both opportunity and misfortune
having an intergenerational impact. They
have also been interested in how families are
linked to the wider world.
Links with family members. We are all linked
genetically to our intergenerational families,
and we may live with both genetic vulnerabil-
ity and genetic advantage. But shared genetics
is not the only way that parents’ and children’s
lives are linked. The connection between fam-
21. ily hardship, family nurturance, and child
behaviors and well-being is now well estab-
lished (e.g., Barajas, Philipsen, & Brooks-
Gunn, 2008). In addition to the economic
connection between parents and children,
racial discrimination has an intergenerational
effect (Rowley, Helaire, & Banerjee, 2010). In
recent years, we are also aware that deporta-
tion-related family separation impacts long-
term relationships between children and
parents (Yoshikawa, 2011). Parental hardship
has a negative impact on child development,
but parents also provide social capital for their
children, in terms of role models and networks
of social support (Szydlik, 2012).
Parents’ lives are also influenced by the
trajectories of their children’s lives. For exam-
ple, parents may need to alter their work tra-
jectories to respond to the needs of a terminally
ill child. Or parents may forgo early retire-
ment to assist their young adult children with
education expenses. Parents may be nega-
tively affected by stressful situations that their
young and adult children face (Greenfield &
Marks, 2006).
Older adults and their adult children are
also interdependent. Midlife adults may need
to alter their social and work roles to take on
greater caregiving roles with their aging par-
ents. The pattern of mutual support between
358 Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social
22. Services 100(4)
older adults and their children is formed by
life events and transitions across the life
course. They may be fundamentally changed
when families go through historical disrup-
tions such as wars, major economic down-
turns, or by the migration of younger
generation family members (Clark, Glick, &
Bures, 2009).
Family roles must often be synchronized
across three or more generations at once, and
sometimes the synchronization does not go
smoothly. Divorce, remarriage, and disconti-
nuities in adult work and educational trajecto-
ries may conflict with the needs of children
and aging parents (Huinink & Feldhaus,
2009). When a significant life event in one
generation (such as death of a grandparent) is
juxtaposed with a significant life event in
another generation (such as birth of a child),
families and individual family members are
especially vulnerable to stress pile-up.
Links with the wider world. The LCP has its ori-
gins in Elder’s research (Elder, 1974) on the
ways that families and individuals are linked
to situations in the economic institution, and
in recent years life course researchers have
been documenting the ways that individual
and family life course trajectories are linked
to situations in the labor market, housing mar-
ket, education system, and social welfare sys-
tem (Newman, 2008; Scherger, 2009; Szydlik,
2012). Newman (2008) examined young adult
23. transitions in Western Europe and Japan and
found that changes in the labor market that
result in less secure employment are driving
the delayed departure of young adults from the
parental home in southern Europe and Japan
but not in the Nordic countries. These regional
differences are at least partially explained by
differences in other social institutions.
Newman (2008) found that timing of depar-
ture from the parental home is linked to situ-
ations in the housing market. In Southern
European countries, great emphasis is put on
owner-occupied housing and relatively little
rental housing is available. In contrast, there is
a large rental sector in the housing market in
Nordic countries, a situation that facilitates
early home leaving. Timing of departure is also
linked to the education system. Young adults
who participate in post-secondary education
tend to leave the parental home later than those
who do not pursue post-secondary education,
but regional differences are found in this rela-
tionship as well. Nordic countries have a higher
proportion of emerging adults in post-secondary
education than countries in Southern Europe,
and yet young adults in the Nordic countries
depart the parental home earlier than those in
Southern Europe. This regional difference is
related to differences in the social welfare sys-
tems of the two regions. The earlier departure
from the parental home in Nordic countries is
subsidized by a liberal welfare system that pro-
vides generous housing and educational bene-
fits. Newman’s research (2008) indicates that it
24. is a confluence of policies in different social
institutions that impact individual and family
life trajectories.
The importance of social policy in life course
trajectories has also been found in relation to
family solidarity between older adults and their
adult children (Szydlik, 2012) and in the career
trajectories of mothers (Abendroth, Huffman,
& Treas, 2014). Family-friendly social policies
support family solidarity and decrease the
motherhood penalty in career trajectories. These
findings have important implications for legis-
lative advocacy by social workers.
It is important for social workers to remem-
ber that lives are also linked in systems of
institutionalized privilege and oppression.
Philip McMichael (2017) reminds us that, in
the global economy, lives are linked around
the world. The lifestyles of people in affluent
countries depend on cheap labor and raw
products from Africa, South America, the
Caribbean, parts of Asia, and other places.
Children and women in impoverished coun-
tries labor long hours to make an increasing
share of low-cost products consumed in afflu-
ent countries. Women migrate from impov-
erished countries to become the domestic
laborers in affluent countries, allowing women
in affluent countries to leave the home to take
advantage of career opportuni ties and allow-
ing the domestic workers to send money they
make home to support their own families.
Social workers should be well informed about
25. Hutchison 359
these international linkages in an increasingly
globalized world.
Human Agency in Making Choices
Human agency is the LCP theme most rele-
vant to social work’s emphasis on individual,
family, and community strengths. Hitlin and
Elder (2007) note that although the concept of
human agency is used differently by different
disciplines, life course theorists and research-
ers use it to refer to “attempts to exert influ-
ence to shape one’s life trajectory” (p. 182).
It involves acting with an orientation toward
the future, with an eye for “possible selves”
(Markus & Nurius, 1986). Possible selves
represent our ideas of what we might become,
what we would like to become, and what we
are afraid we will become. They serve as
incentives for action and may be enacted at
the individual, family, small group, commu-
nity, organization, or institutional level.
Emphasis on human agency in the LCP has
been greatly aided by the work of psycholo-
gist Albert Bandura. Bandura (2006) proposed
three modes of human agency: personal
agency is exercised individually to shape
environmental events or one’s own behavior;
proxy agency is exercised when others who
have greater resources act on one’s behalf to
meet needs or accomplish goals; and collec-
26. tive agency is exercised on the group level
when people act together to meet needs and
accomplish goals. Cultural psychology critics
of the concept of human agency argue that it is
a culture-bound concept that does not apply as
well in collectivist societies as in individualis-
tic societies (Markus & Kitayama, 2003).
Bandura (2006) responds that although people
in all cultures must use all three modes of
agency, there are cultural variations in the
relative emphasis put on the different modes,
with some cultures putting greater emphasis
on personal agency and other cultures putting
greater emphasis on collective agency. Par-
sell, Eggins, and Marston (2017) argue that
“human agency is core to social work” (p.
238), but social workers also recognize barri-
ers to expressing personal agency. The con-
cepts of proxy agency and collective agency
add important dimensions to the discussion of
human agency and can serve to counterbal-
ance the extreme individualism of U.S. soci-
ety. Human agency is a major resource for
positive turning points in the life trajectories
of individuals and collectivities.
Diversity in Life Course Trajectories
Life course researchers have long had strong
evidence of diversity in individual life pat-
terns. Early research emphasized differences
between cohorts, but over time more and more
attention was paid to diversity within cohorts.
Recently, life course researchers have begun
to incorporate intersectionality theory to under-
27. stand diversity in life course trajectories (see
Raphael & Bryant, 2015; Warner & Brown,
2011). Intersectionality theory recognizes that
all of us are jointly and simultaneously mem-
bers of a number of socially constructed iden-
tity groups, such as those based on gender,
race, ethnicity, social class, sexual orientation,
gender identity, age, religion, geographic loca-
tion, abilities, and so on. Our social location, or
place in society, is at the intersection of our
multiple identity groups. Either advantage or
disadvantage can be associated with each iden-
tity group, and when considering the life jour-
ney of any one individual, it is important to
consider the multiple identity groups of which
that person is a part (see Hankivsky, 2012).
Developmental Risk and Protection
As the LCP has continued to evolve, it has
more clearly emphasized the links between the
life events and transitions of childhood, adoles-
cence, adulthood, and old age (Gilman, 2012).
Studies indicate that childhood events some-
times shape people’s lives 40 or more years
later (Shonkoff, Garner, Committee on Psycho-
social Aspects of Child and Family Health,
Committee on Early Childhood, Adoption, and
Dependent Care, & Section on Developmen-
tal and Behavioral Pediatrics, 2012). Indeed,
recent biomedical research suggests we should
look at factors that occur earlier than child-
hood, focusing on fetal undernutrition as a
contributing factor in late-life cognition and
28. 360 Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social
Services 100(4)
late-life health conditions such as coronary
heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and hypertension
(see Rooij, Wouters, Yonker, Painter, & Rose-
boom, 2010).
It is quite an old idea that what happens at
one point in the life journey influences what
happens at later points, However, the idea of
earlier life experiences affecting later develop-
ment has taken on new energy since the explo-
sion of longitudinal research a few decades ago.
Two different research traditions have exam-
ined how early life experiences affect later out-
comes, one based in sociology and the other
based in ecological developmental psychology.
The sociological tradition is interested in cumu-
lative advantage/cumulative disadvantage. The
ecological developmental tradition is interested
in risk, protection, and resilience.
Sociologists propose that social institutions
and societal structures develop mechanisms
that ensure increasing advantage for those who
are well-resourced early in life and increasing
disadvantage for those who struggle (Ferraro
& Shippee, 2009). Researchers have applied
these concepts to study racial health disparities
across the life trajectory (Pais, 2014), financial
assistance from midlife parents to adult chil-
dren (Padgett & Remle, 2016), and evolving
patterns of inequality among late-life adults
(Crystal, Shea, & Reyes, 2017).
29. Through the lens of ecological develop-
mental risk and protection theory, longitudinal
researchers have identified multidimensional
risk factors at one stage of development that
increase the probability of developing and
maintaining problem conditions at later stages.
They have also identified protective factors
or resources that decrease the probability of
developing and maintaining problem condi-
tions, a process known as resilience. In the
past decade or so, biomedical researchers have
proposed an ecobiodevelopmental framework
for studying health and disease across the life
course. They are articulating the ways that
genetic predispositions interact with social and
physical environments to drive development,
referring to the human life course as “nature
dancing with nurture over time” (Shonkoff
et al., 2012, p. e234). The major focus of eco-
biodevelopmental research is on the ways that
early toxic stress disrupts development in the
brain and other biological systems. It is impor-
tant to note, however, that neither cumula-
tive advantage/disadvantage theory nor the
ecological developmental risk and protection
approach argue that early deprivations and
traumas inevitably lead to a trajectory of
failure. When resources are mobilized, the
effects of deprivation and trauma are reduced
(Gilman, 2012).
Implications of the Life
Course Perspective for
Social Work Practice
30. Like other professions, social work aspires to
engage in evidence-informed practice and that
requires using evidence-based theories of
human behavior as well as evidence-based
models of practice. The LCP was developed
from empirical research and continues to be
refined by ongoing research. The theoretical
perspective, and the research that supports it,
has many implications for social work prac-
tice. It can be used at multiple levels of prac-
tice and to support a variety of social work
roles. The most important implication for
social work’s efforts to promote societal well-
being is the robust evidence that what happens
throughout the life course is strongly influ-
enced by what happens in the early years,
beginning with conception, and even before in
the preconceptual health of the mother. Soci-
etal health is associated with public policies
that support early development, and social
workers can play an important role in promot-
ing supportive public health and child and
family policies.
The extensive research on risk and protec-
tion has implications for both policy and pro-
gram development. Social workers Jenson
and Fraser (2016) make use of available
research on risk and resilience to propose pol-
icy recommendations in a variety of policy
sectors, including antipoverty, child welfare,
education, health, child mental health, disabili-
ties, substance abuse, and juvenile justice. The
Communities That Care (CTC) model of com-
munity prevention developed at the University
31. of Washington School of Social Work trains
Hutchison 361
and supports community coalitions to promote
positive youth development by identifying
and prioritizing community risk factors and
suppressed protective factors that can be mobi-
lized to become community strengths. Recent
program evaluation found that involvement in
the CTC system during adolescence was
associated with reduced drug use, antisocial
behavior, and violence perpetration at age 21
(Oesterle et al., 2018). These two examples
provide a window into the far ranging implica-
tions of risk and protection research for social
work intervention.
Social work, at its best, is a profession that
puts human behavior in context. A major
thrust of the LCP is to provide contextual
understanding of human behavior, to place it
in the context of biology, culture, historical
time, and social systems. Special attention to
the forces that create diversity in life course
trajectories is consistent with social work’s
goal to “engage diversity and difference in
practice” (Council on Social Work Education,
2015, p. 7). Life course research can help social
workers recognize the many ways of enacting
personal identity and inform the process of
engaging a diverse client population. Research
on cohorts alerts social workers to the spe-
cific opportunities and challenges faced by
32. members of particular cohorts and may sug-
gest ways to tailor interventions to the charac-
teristics of a particular cohort. For example,
younger cohorts may respond better to Inter-
net and wireless-supported interventions than
older cohorts (National Association of Social
Workers, Association of Social Work Boards,
Council on Social Work Education, & Clinical
Social Work Association, 2017).
The LCP emphasis on linked lives is con-
sistent with the National Association of Social
Worker’s (2017, p. 1) stated value of the
“importance of human relationships.” It sup-
ports social work’s historical tendency to
engage in family, small group, and community
interventions. It recommends interventions that
enhance social support and open lines of com-
munication. Life course research is beginning
to provide evidence that family-friendly pub-
lic policies support family solidarity and alter
individual and family life course trajectories,
findings with implications for social work
involvement in legislative advocacy. The LCP
emphasis on linked lives also calls social work-
ers to keep a laser focus on how lives are linked
in systems of institutionalized privilege and
oppression and to seek ways to advance “social,
economic, and environmental justice” (Council
on Social Work Education, 2015, p. 7).
LCP emphasis on transitions, trajectories,
life events, and turning points can inform
practice at multiple system levels. Research
on human reactions to transitions alerts social
33. workers to the possibility of at least tempo-
rary dysfunction in relationships at times of
major transition and suggests that targeted
interventions may help to avoid communica-
tion breakdowns and stress pileup in times
of pronounced change. Indeed, social work-
ers have often targeted interventions to peo-
ple involved in transitions, such as the use of
support groups for children involved in
divorcing families and for people living with
a recent major loss. Life course research also
indicates that transitions can create opportu-
nities for positive change and social workers
should be mindful of such opportunities.
Imber-Black (2016) proposes the use of ther-
apeutic rituals to assist families with difficult
transitions and life events.
With its emphasis on life stories (trajecto-
ries) that unfold over time, the LCP is a particu-
larly good fit with narrative approaches to social
work. Narrative practice focuses on helping
clients examine the meanings they attribute
to events in their life journeys. It attempts to
uncover clients’ dominant story lines and to
help them move from problem-centered stories
to coping and empowering stories (Burack-
Weiss, Lawrence, & Mijangos, 2017). Narra-
tive approaches to practice can be used with
families, small groups, communities, and orga-
nizations, as well as with individuals. For exam-
ple, the appreciative model of organizational
change seeks to engage organizational stake-
holders in identifying positive components of
the organization and shared dreams of what it
can become. Stakeholders are encouraged to
34. recall and tell stories about events when the
organization was vibrant, energetic, and lively
(Newhard, 2012).
362 Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social
Services 100(4)
Research on life events suggests that social
workers should be alert to recent stressful life
events when assessing individuals, families,
and communities, as well as to stressful life
events, especially traumatic ones, in earlier life
stages that may be impacting current function-
ing. The expanding research on turning points
in life trajectories can help social workers
design turning point interventions that help to
break cycles of dysfunction in individuals and
the social systems with which they interact.
The LCP emphasis on human agency is con-
sistent with social work approaches that focus
on individual, family, community, and organi-
zational strengths. It is a source of hope even in
the most intractable situations. Making careful
assessments about whether circumstances call
for personal agency of the client, proxy agency
by the social worker or some other advocate, or
for organizing for collective agency opens
more opportunities for action. Enhancing col-
lective agency is a major goal of family, small
group, and community interventions.
Conclusion
35. The Council on Social Work Education (2015)
states that social work practice is guided by
“knowledge based on scientific inquiry” (p. 5)
and informed by “multi-disciplinary sources
and multiple ways of knowing” (p. 8). It fur-
ther states that social workers critically
evaluate and apply theories of human behav-
ior to engage with, assess, intervene with, and
evaluate practice with individuals, families
groups, organizations, and communities. This
article has demonstrated that the LCP is a theo-
retical perspective on human behavior that is
informed by multiple methods of scientific
inquiry in multiple disciplines. It shows that
the LCP and the research that supports it have
implications for practice with families, groups,
organizations, and communities, as well as
with individuals. It is an important perspective
for social workers to add to their multi-theoret-
ical tool kit.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of
interest with respect to the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the
research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
ORCID iD
Elizabeth D. Hutchison https://orcid.org/0000
36. -0002-9344-8757
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1
4
Unit Topic for Grade 2
Student name:
Affiliated Institution:
Course:
Instructor name:
52. Due Date
Unit Topic for Grade 2
Unit and grade level overview
In this English Literacy Unit in grade 2 levels, the Unit is about
SIMPLE SENTENCES that will take five days a lesson plan for
English strand, accommodating English/LA for writing
investigative reports, grouping students into assessment groups
of 4 for effective collective and collaborative learning,
accommodating ability, personality and form of assessment
either formative or summative.
Mississippi standards second grade
In this case, three fundamental Mississippi standards for second
grade will include:
· L.2.1 Demonstrate command of the conventions of Standard
English grammar and usage when writing (printing, cursive, or
keyboarding) or speaking
· L.2.2 Demonstrate command of the conventions of Standard
English capitalization, punctuation, and spelling when writing
· L.2.3 Use knowledge of the language and its conventions when
writing, speaking, reading, or listening
The five key questions to be asked in each lesson will include:
1. What are the vocabulary words in Baby Farm Animals?
2. What are some of the collective nouns in the Baby Farm
Animals?
3. What are some of the examples of simple sentences in the
Baby Farm Animals?
4. How is the story, Baby Farm Animals punctuated?
5. How do we write, speak, read and listen to the content of
Baby Farm Animals?
Unit graphic Organizer
On this unit graphic organizer, there is a fundamental
53. articulation on key points, the key questions, and activities
acting as a visual display of the formwork for effective lesson
management in a unit SIMPLE SENTENCES.
Unit graphic Organizer
5
Topic: TYPES OF SENTENCES
Writing, speaking, reading, and listening to the content of Baby
Farm Animals
List of Books
1. Cornwall, J. 2017. Jabari Jumps. ISBN-13 : 978-0763678388
2. Carson Dellosa. 2020. English Language Arts, Grade 2
(Common Core Connections) Csm Edition. ISBN-13 : 978-
1624420436
3. Debra, J. 2009. Writing Sentences Grade 2 (Practice Makes
Perfect) Csm Edition. ISBN-13 : 978-1420634648
4. Evan Moor. 2007. Evan-Moor Daily Academic Vocabulary,
Grade 2 Teacher ed. Edition. ISBN-13 : 978-1596732018
5. Khan, R. 2014. King for a Day. ISBN-13 : 978-1600606595
6. Kumon.2005. My Book of Simple Sentences: Learning about
Nouns and Verbs (Kumon Workbooks). ISBN-13 : 978-
1933241050
7. Norris, S. 2016. English & Language Arts Grade 2
Workbooks: ELA 2nd Grade Reading Comprehension & Writing
Book. ISBN-13 : 978-1628454024
8. Pimentel, A. B.2021. Pura’s Cuentos: How Pura Belpré
Reshaped Libraries with Her Stories. ISBN-13 : 978-
1419749414
9. Teacher Created Resources.2002. arts of Speech Grades 2-3:
Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives: Grades 2-3 (Language Arts). ISBN-
13 : 978-0743933384
10. Williams G. 2011. Baby Farm Animals. ISBN-13 : 978-
56. CCSS for this Lesson:
Lesson Objective:
Introduction:
Procedures:
Materials:
Assessment/Evaluation of the Objective:
Closure of the Lesson:
Life Span and Resiliency Theory: A Critical Review
Alexa Smith-Osborne
Abstract: Theories of life span development describe human
growth and change
over the life cycle (Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 2006). Major
types of develop-
mental theories include biological, psychodynamic, behavioral,
and social learn-
ing, cognitive, moral, and spiritual, and those influenced by
systems, empower-
ment, and conflict theory. Life span development theories
commonly focus on onto-
genesis and sequential mastery of skills, tasks, and abilities.
Social work scholars
have pointed out that a limitation of life span and other
developmental theory is
57. lack of attention to resilience (Greene, 2007; Robbins et al.,
1998).
The concept of resilience was developed to “describe relative
resistance to psy-
chosocial risk experiences” (Rutter, 1999b, p. 119).
Longitudinal studies focused on
typical and atypical child development informed theory
formulation in develop-
mental psychopathology (Garmezy & Rutter, 1983; Luthar,
Cichetti, & Becker, 2000)
and in an evolving resilience model (Richardson, 2002; Werner
& Smith, 1992).
Research on resilience has found a positive relationship
between a number of indi-
vidual traits and contextual variables and resistance to a variety
of risk factors
among children and adolescents. More recently, resilience
research has examined
the operation of these same factors in the young adult, middle-
age, and elder life
stages.
This article examines the historical and conceptual progression
of the two devel-
opmental theories—life span and resiliency—and discusses their
application to
social work practice and education in human behavior in the
social environment.
Keywords: Life span, resiliency theory, life cycle, critique
T
heories of life span development describe human growth and
change over
the life cycle (Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 2006). Major
59. addressed.
Therefore, this paper focuses on personality and psychosocial
theories, which
form the historical foundation for much of the other life span
theories.
Resiliency theory is an emerging theoretical perspective that
has been devel-
oped within developmental psychopathology and ecosystems
perspectives and is
influenced by stress and coping theories. Although this theory
has not been
explicitly developed as an outgrowth of life span theory, it is
developmental in
focus, and theory-driven research typically examines a specific
chronological life
stage as a starting point. This theoretical framework addresses
health develop-
ment of at-risk populations, and overcoming stress and
adversity to achieve func-
tional outcomes either during a life stage, a specific trajectory
(e.g., educational
or deviancy), or throughout the life span. The initial focus of
theory development
has been on childhood and adolescence and associations of
traits and events at
these life stages with outcomes later in life. Some recent
research in this field has
applied resiliency constructs to adults at risk (Daining, 2005;
Smith, 2003; Smith-
Osborne, 2006).
Historical Context
The notion that life can be understood as a series of significant
and sequential
60. stages can be traced to the earliest human civilizations and has
appeared consis-
tently in literary, religious, and philosophical writings
throughout history
(Erikson, 1968; Robbins et al., 1998). The scientific approach to
human develop-
ment throughout the life cycle was stimulated by the emergence
of evolutionary
theory at the turn of the century (Darwin, 1872), which led to
the development of
biologically focused maturational and psychosexual
perspectives, such as those
of G. Stanley Hall in 1904, Sigmund Freud in 1905, and Arnold
Gesell in 1925.
These seminal theories challenged the Victorian (and earlier)
conception of chil-
dren as little adults, and childhood as a time of relative
stability, while the chil-
dren were simply waiting to grow physically (Colby, 1970;
Karl, 1964).
These theories also established the conceptualization of human
development as
occurring in a series of essentially stable stages, with periods of
instability during
transitions between stages and the mastery of stage-specific
skills or conflicts as
the foundation for progress to the next stage (Hoffman, Paris,
Hall, & Schell, 1988).
Freudian theory came to dominate much of human development
theory and
clinical practice in the early 20th century, with several of
Freud’s students, notably
Jung and Erikson, expanding on his concepts on the basis of
their own clinical
61. and cross-cultural experiences. These amplifications of
Freudian theory occurred
against the backdrop of the rise of fascism, the Holocaust, and
World War II. The
originator of what is now called the life span approach to human
psychological
development, Erik Erikson, had been a student of Freud’s and
trained as a psy-
153Smith-Osborne/LIFE SPAN AND RESILIENCY THEORY
choanalyst in Germany. Erickson fled Nazi Germany in 1939 to
immigrate to
America, where he expanded Freud’s stages to apply to the
entire life span,
emphasizing psychosocial, rather than biological drive theory.
Resiliency theory, in contrast, originated on the basis of
prospective longitudinal
research on cohorts of children at risk (Garmezy, 1993; Rutter,
Quinton, & Hill,
1990; Werner & Smith, 1982, 1992), rather than on the basis of
individual clini-
cians’ observations and case studies. Such studies were
informed by prevention
science (Greene, 2007) and the application of the
epidemiological concepts of
immunity and resistance to disease to human development and
psychopatholo-
gy (Thoits, 1983). In particular, Werner and Smith’s
longitudinal study of 698
infants, many of Hawaiian and Asian descent, provided a major
empirical basis
for the inception of resiliency constructs and hypotheses for
62. further testing, as
did Rutter’s work with early onset mental disorders and with
institutionalized
Romanian children (e.g., Rutter, 1983; Rutter et al., 1990).
Resiliency theory’s salu-
togenic orientation has been heavily influenced by the Hawaiian
study’s focus on
those in childhood adversity who overcome the odds by the time
they reach
adulthood. The initial formulation of theoretical concepts and
constructs based
on this research proceeded within the developmental
psychopathology frame-
work in psychiatry (e.g., Rutter, 1987) and developmental
psychology (e.g.,
Garmezy, Masten, & Tellegen, 1984) and within family stress
and adjustment the-
ory (e.g., McCubbin & Dahl, 1976; McCubbin & Patterson,
1983) in social work.
Much of the seminal research in this field was begun in the late
1950s (e.g., Werner
& Smith began their study in 1955) and initial findings were
reported in the 1980s.
Thus, this early theoretical development was situated
historically in the post-
Vietnam War and the post-colonial era of globalization, and it
often focused on
identifying factors in overcoming trauma and adverse events,
such as war-
induced family separations. Later, as social work educators and
researchers gave
more attention to salutogenic, strengths-based (Saleebey, 1997)
theoretical mod-
els for practice, resiliency constructs were further developed
within the ecologi-
cal perspective (e.g., Fraser & Galinsky, 1997; Gilgun, 1996) in
63. social work theory,
rather than in life span theory. Social workers have continued to
draw on resilien-
cy theory constructs and empirical findings in research (e.g.,
Herrenkohl, Hill,
Chung, Guo, Abbott, & Hawkins, 2003) and in human behavior
and practice texts
(e.g., Haight & Taylor, 2007; Johnson, 2004; Thomlison, 2007),
either within the
ecological perspective (e.g., Haight & Taylor) or, more
commonly, outside a spec-
ified theoretical frame of reference. Furthermore, some social
workers have
explicitly identified and used resiliency theory as a theoretical
framework, inde-
pendent of other perspectives, for education (Greene, 2007) and
research (Smith-
Osborne, 2005a, 2006; Ungar, 2004).
THEORETICAL CONCEPTS AND CRITICAL ANALYSIS
Life Span Theory
Life span theory utilizes the central concept of ontogenesis, the
chronological
unfolding of human development (Gunnar & Thelen, 1989;
Thelen & Smith,
1994), which includes both change in size and change in the
complexity and dif-
ferentiation of function (e.g., the change in motor reflexes at
various stages in
154 ADVANCES IN SOCIAL WORK
64. life). Some theorists include deterioration or diminishment in
size and function,
particularly if the focus is on aging and the adult life cycle, as
well as accretion or
augmentation ( Jung, 1965; Newman & Newman, 1975;
Santrock, 1989).
Erikson (1950) proposed the concept of “epigenesis” to convey
that human
development unfolds from part to whole, with elements of the
chronologically
appropriate ability or personality feature gradually emerging in
a prescribed
sequence until the functional whole was achieved. The term has
since been used
within the developmental psychopathology theoretical
perspective to also apply
to the chronological unfolding over the life span of the disease
process, such as
schizophrenia (e.g., Cannon, Rosso, Bearden, Sanchez, &
Hadley, 1999). He saw
this emergence as occurring within an interactional and adaptive
framework,
within which the individual develops through interaction and
adaptation to the
immediate social environment as well as to the larger society,
culture, and histor-
ical context. Thus, Erikson postulated that mutual
responsiveness on the part of
both the individual and society was necessary for optimal
development.
Another key life span concept associated with the work of Freud
and Erikson is
the life stage. The life stage is seen as an age-related period of
life characterized by
65. predictable features, tensions, and changes and leads into a
subsequent stage.
Erikson formulated the notion of the psychosocial crisis, a
period of tension and
disorganization centered on a stage-specific theme, the
resolution of which was
the goal of the transition phase from one stage to the next.
Freud and Erikson
conceptualized stages as prescriptive, in that their sequence was
unvarying and
defined optimal mature development, was associated with
specific tensions/con-
flicts, and was prerequisite, in that each stage must be worked
through and the
associated conflicts resolved before successful transition to the
next stage could
be accomplished. Freud’s and Erikson’s life stage models are
presented in
Hoffman et al. (1988, pp. 30 and 32).
Erikson (1950) moved beyond Freud’s life stage constructs in
proposing that ego
development in childhood is a process of identification, which
he defined as
internalization of another person’s values and standards in an
attempt to become
like that person or parts of that person. It was in adolescence
that Erikson
observed (1968) the identity was formed through a process of:
repudiation and mutual assimilation of childhood identifications
and
their absorption in a new configuration, which in turn, is
dependent
on the process by which a society (often through subsocieties)
identi-
66. fies the young individual, recognizing him as somebody who
had to
become the way he is and who, being the way he is, is taken for
grant-
ed. (p. 159)
In Erikson’s theory, then, the concept of the mature ego identity
as a complex
sense of self, comprising societally-defined life roles as well as
aspects of person-
ality, is crucial. The “identity crisis” in adolescence is
normative and revolves
around issues of personal sameness and historical continuity,
which serve as a
link between the individual and the larger society. Prolonged
adolescence, in
Erikson’s schema, provides a psychosocial moratorium in which
the sexually
mature individual engages in free role experimentation,
sanctioned by society, in
155Smith-Osborne/LIFE SPAN AND RESILIENCY THEORY
order to find a defined niche in society, while postponing adult
sexual roles.
Erickson saw this as a second period of delay in the life cycle,
with the first being
Freud’s psychosexual moratorium of the latency life stage,
which permits the
young to learn the basics of society’s work situations before
embarking on mature
sexual roles, such as spouse and parent. Erikson used the term
identity diffusion,
and later the term identity confusion (1968), to describe the
67. state of mild confu-
sion commonly experienced by adolescents in the process of
identity formation.
James Marcia (1980) developed this concept further to apply to
adolescents who
are not in an identity crisis, because they are not committing
themselves to occu-
pational or ideological goals and are not concerned about the
situation.
Based on the mature and socially acceptable ego identity, the
young adult, in
Erikson’s schema, could then take up the mature sexual role in
seeking a spouse
or intimate partner. In the middle adult stage, the individual was
seen as transi-
tioning to the ego strength made up of procreativity,
productivity, and creativity,
such as in forming a family and mentoring future generations on
a personal, soci-
etal or even global level. The last stage of life was that of ego
integrity, which
involves the older adult’s acceptance of his/her own live as
meaningful and
coherent, and the perspective that one has handled life’s tasks in
the best way
possible under given circumstances.
Contemporary theorists have proposed expanded models,
particularly in the
adolescent and adult stages. Two such models, proposed by
Vaillant (1993, p. 145)
and Newman and Newman (1988, p. 45).
Erikson (1982, 1986, 1988) built on his earlier work in the last
life stage, as he and
68. his wife reflected on their own adult development in later life,
conceptualizing
aging in terms of revisitation of earlier stages of development
within his Stage 8 of
Integrity vs. Despair.
Erikson and other psychodynamic theorists, such as Vaillant
(1993), acknowl-
edge developmental influences such as culture, race, and
gender, but tend to view
intrapsychic and biological factors, including IQ, as being more
important to
development.
Other theorists conceptualize human development as being more
fluid
throughout the life span, rather than the product of invariant and
chronological-
ly sequential stages, and as being more heavily influenced by
social roles
(Goffman, 1959; Neugarten, 1985), demographic variables, such
as gender, race,
or socioeconomic status, culture and historical “moment,” and
even the recipro-
cal, interactive effects of the immediate physical/social
environment (Gunnar &
Thelen, 1989).
Resiliency Theory
The concept of resilience was developed to “describe relative
resistance to psy-
chosocial risk experiences” (Rutter, 1999b, p. 119). It has been
further defined as
“a dynamic process encompassing positive adaptation within the
context of sig-
69. nificant adversity” (Luthar, Cicchetti, & Becker, 2000) and “the
process of coping
with adversity, change, or opportunity in a manner that results
in the identifica-
tion, fortification, and enrichment of resilient qualities or
protective factors”
156 ADVANCES IN SOCIAL WORK
(Richardson, 2002, p. 308). Research on stress reactions and
recovery from stress,
with implications for education, has also informed this theory
(Benotsch et al.,
2000; D’Imperio, Dubow, & Ippolito, 2000; Dubow, Schmidt,
McBride, Edwards, &
Merk, 1993; Dubow, Tisak, Causey, Hryshko, & Reid, 1991;
Fontana, Schwartz, &
Rosenheck, 1997; Garmezy & Rutter, 1983; Golding, 1989;
Keenan & Newton,
1984; Lazarus, 1993; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Thus,
resilience is conceptualized
as relative resistance to psychosocial stressors or adversity.
Although varying
models of resiliency have been tested, researchers and theorists
agree that the
construct is salient in the context of stress and adversity and is
not operative in
the absence of environmental stressors ( Jew, Green, & Kroger,
1999; Rutter, 1999).
The central constructs of the theory include risk
factors/mechanisms, vulnera-
bility factors, and protective factors/mechanisms. Risk factors
and mechanisms
70. have been conceptualized in alternate ways in the literature:
either as 1) the
events or conditions of adversity (for example, poverty)
themselves for which
there is empirical evidence of association with
psychopathology, illness, or dys-
functional developmental outcomes or as 2) factors that operate
to reduce resist-
ance to stressors/adversity. Vulnerability factors are traits,
genetic predisposi-
tions, or environmental and biological deficits (such as
cognitive impairments)
for which there is empirical evidence of heightened response,
sensitivity, or reac-
tion to stressors or risk factors. The constructs of vulnerability
factors and risk fac-
tors are sometimes used interchangeably in the literature.
Protective factors and
mechanisms are traits, contextual characteristics, and
interventions that operate
to enhance or promote resistance, or which may moderate the
effect of risk fac-
tors, and for which there is empirical evidence of association
with health and
functional developmental outcomes. Rutter (1987) suggests that
protective
mechanisms may operate in one of four ways to allow
overcoming odds in the
face of adversity: by reducing risk impact, by reducing negative
chain reactions to
risk factors, by promoting resiliency traits (i.e., the opposite of
vulnerability fac-
tors, such as self-efficacy and optimism), and by setting up new
opportunities for
success. Reducing risk impact can occur not only by way of
buffering events and
71. social networks, but also by inoculation due to successful
coping with earlier,
milder stressful events. Protective and risk mechanisms have
been found to vary
according to the type of adversity, type of resilient outcome,
and life stage under
analysis; risk factors in one context may be protective in
another (Rutter, 1999;
Smith-Osborne, 2006; Ungar, 2004).
Research on resilience among children, adolescents, and young
adults has
found a positive relationship between spirituality, social
support, social capital,
income, and personal/family traits (e.g., hardiness, coherence,
social compe-
tence and self-efficacy, normal attachment, healthy attributions,
active stress
appraisal, and coping), and resistance to a variety of risk
factors, including psy-
chiatric disorders and school failure/drop-out (Daining, 2005;
Garmezy, 1991;
Luthar et al., 2000; Masten & Coatsworth, 1998; Richardson,
2002; Rutter, 1999a;
Smith & Carson, 1997; Werner, 1992). Research on military
families dealing with
war-induced separation and trauma has found associations
between resilience
and similar protective mechanisms (Benotsch et al., 2000; Lavee
et al., 1985;
McCubbin & Dahl, 1976; McCubbin, Dahl, Lester, Benson, &
Robertson, 1976;
157Smith-Osborne/LIFE SPAN AND RESILIENCY THEORY
72. McCubbin, Hunter, & Dahl, 1975; McCubbin et al., 1980;
McCubbin & McCubbin,
1996; Patterson, 2002; Sutker et al., 1995; Thoits, 1983) .
Units of Analysis
Life span theory is most commonly applied to the individual and
family as the
units of analysis (McCubbin et al., 1980). However, Erikson
(1962, 1968, 1969) pro-
posed that this theory could apply to humanity as an entity, thus
not being limit-
ed to one’s interactions with individuals, groups, or specific
environments/insti-
tutions.
Subsequent theorists, such as Coles (1990, 1991, 1997) and
Strauss and Howe
(1991), have focused on the more macro-level implications of
Erikson’s concepts,
for example, in investigating human development within
generations and reli-
gious reference groups.
Like life span theory, resiliency theory has been most
commonly applied to
individuals and family units that are consistent with these
theories’ shared devel-
opmental focus. More recent investigations of specific risk and
protective factors,
however, have shown a trend toward the examination of macro-
level or contextu-
al variables (Herrenkohl et al., 2003; Schafft, 2006; Smith-
Osborne, 2005, 2006;
Ungar, 2004), such as neighborhoods (e.g., disorganized,
73. residentially unstable)
and institutional policies.
Aspects of Human Development
Rapid advances in the knowledge base about the biological
underpinnings of
human development tend to lend support to conceptualizations
of the life stages
that are more fluid throughout the life span, rather than
invariant or even neces-
sarily sequential (Robbins et al., 1998; Thelen & Smith, 1994).
Incorporation of
this new knowledge is seen most clearly in researchers who
focus on adult devel-
opment and aging. George Vaillant (1993), for example, pointed
out that:
If adult development is to be conceived as a psychobiological
process
then it must conform to biology, and neither to social mores nor
to
chronological age. This means that, as with shaving and
menstruation,
not everybody will reach a given stage at the same
chronological age (p.
166).
Similarly, Sharon McQuaide, in her research on “Women at
Midlife” (1998),
examined biological and cohort variables to add to life span
theory. She found
that “The generation of women now entering midlife differs
from previous gener-
ations” (p. 21), and that women who were “’blocked from being
in the world’
74. (through disability, poor health, involuntary unemployment,
limited spending
power)” (p. 29) were less likely to achieve well-being and other
indicators of gen-
erativity, Erikson’s designation for the midlife stage issue. Life
span theory, then,
has the flexibility to address various aspects of human
development throughout
its stages.
Resiliency theory has, from its inception, been remarkable for
encompassing
the broad biopsychosocial aspects of human development, as
well as for cross-
referencing empirical findings on normative or healthy human
development with
findings on pathological development (Cichetti & Cannon,
1999). Early develop-
158 ADVANCES IN SOCIAL WORK
ment of the theory gave more attention to individual
characteristics and to fac-
tors present in childhood, which were associated with adult
outcomes, thus priv-
ileging enduring traits from earlier life stages. Although recent
cross-sectional
studies have begun to offer more possibilities for developing an
understanding of
resiliency in middle and later adulthood, this theory’s current
utility is, in its
application to the broad aspects of human development, from
infancy through
early adulthood.
75. Philosophical Underpinnings
The life span theory philosophical underpinnings, most of which
have been
noted previously in this paper, include: a health and adaptation
orientation,
rather than a medical illness-oriented orientation; a special
interest in the earlier
stages of life; an ontogenetic perspective with emphasis on
predictable and dis-
continuous life stages; a transition period between stages, which
may be charac-
terized by increased tension and disorganization (Erikson’s
“psychosocial crises”);
an intrapsychic focus and an interactive focus; and lifelong
development. As
noted previously, the life span theorists who built on Erikson’s
work have gone far
in addressing the limitations of many of these philosophical
underpinnings, as
well as the biases built into the original theory. Resiliency
theory is characterized
as similarly salutogenic, but with a philosophical orientation
toward the linear,
cumulative connections between earlier life stages and
adulthood for those at
risk. Resiliency research to date has been largely conducted by
Western scientists
and has had a linear, positivistic paradigm. Thus, it has been
criticized as hege-
monic and, thereby, limited in its scope in accounting for
diverse resiliency expe-
riences. Philosophically, resiliency theory is more heavily
focused than life span
theory on interactions between the environment and person in
76. terms of environ-
mental adversity and personal protective traits. As with life
span theory, more
recent work in resiliency theory has tipped the balance
philosophically more in
the direction of contextual protective variables, often
operationalized as social
groups and community and institutional characteristics.
Strengths and Weaknesses
The evident strengths of life span theory include its expansion
of understanding
of personality development through the life span, its utility
across a variety of
human service settings and functions, and its “generativity,” to
borrow Erikson’s
term and reapply it to theory-building. Life span theory gave
rise to a rich pletho-
ra of human development models, not only to increase
understanding of specific
life stages or the entire life cycle, but also to address
intermediate and macro-level
entities, such as families, family-run businesses, social
movements led by “great”
personalities, faith communities and religious reference groups,
and entire gen-
erational cohorts. In so doing, this theory has been applied to
disciplines beyond
the human service domain. For example, the sociological
concept of the bour-
geois bohemian (Brooks, 2001), the theological concept of Gen
X religiosity
(Beaudoin, 2000), and the economic concept of style as a form
of self-expression
(Postrel, 2003), all owe their origins ultimately to life span
77. theory.
Several of the most cogent points of criticism of life span
theory weaknesses
have been noted above: the Euro-American, middle class, male
bias; the rigidity
159Smith-Osborne/LIFE SPAN AND RESILIENCY THEORY
of the life stage concept; and the notable lack of empirical
support. Another, less
frequently discussed weakness is the theory’s failure to address
or adequately
explain the sources of the stage shifts (Haroutunian, 1983;
Oyama, 1985) and the
application of those stage shifts across domains (Thelen, 1987).
Concomitantly,
the theory has been targeted by critics for failure to account for
the emergence of
new forms in each stage (e.g., why do immobilized Hopi babies
start walking at
the same age as mobile WASP babies) in the context of the
nature versus nurture
dichotomy.
Resiliency theory shows promise as an emerging theory, which
extends life span
theory in offering predictive and explanatory constructs relevant
to healthy
development in the face of adversity. Its constructs and models
have been used
flexibly by social workers in concert with other theoretical
perspectives, such as
the ecosystems perspective (Fraser, 1997; Gilgun, 1997),