Disability Studies: What Is It and
What Difference Does It Make?
Philip M. Ferguson
Chapman University
Emily Nusbaum
Colorado University Colorado Springs
The academic field of disability studies has expanded rapidly over the last two decades or so. With that expansion has also come some growing ambiguity about exactly what is meant by the term "disability studies." This article reviews the history and evolution of disability studies as an interdisciplinary approach to research and scholarship. While acknowledging the broad range of interests and approaches that can fall under the umbrella of the "disability studies" label, we argue that it may be useful to present a set of core themes or beliefs that seem central to disability studies as a field if it is to fulfill its promise as a truly different way of exploring the meanings of disability in society. Finally, we argue that disability studies should be of special interest to members of TASH and others with particular interest in the lives of people with significant intellectual and developmental disabilities.DESCRIPTORS: disability studies, social model of disability, inclusion, value-based research Over the last decade or so, the term "disability studies" has become a familiar usage throughout all areas of inqtiiry and scholarship involved in the study of issues affecting people with disabilities. Yet, the question arises as to whether the writing and research emerging from this still new and evolving area of study have any special relevance to those whose strongest interests are improving the lives of individuals with the most significant intellectual and developmental disabilities and their families. This article—as well as the others in this special issue—tries to demonstrate why that question should be answer redin the affirmative. The purpose, then, of this article is threefold. First, we provide a brief history of the emergence and evolution of the broad range of scholarship and inquiry that falls under the field called "disability studies." Second,we identify and briefly discuss what we see as at least some of the core concepts that underlie the relatively new field of study. Finally, we argue that, as a field of study, disability studies has particular salience for those interested in the development of research and policy in support of people with significant intellectual and developmental disabilities.
Certainly, if one goes simply by frequency of usage, the practice of "disability studies" has gained ample currency within academic settings of the humanities and social sciences (Cushing & Stnith, 2009; Taylor & ZubalRuggieri,2009). In such a context, disability studies is often compared with similar approaches to human difference that have a somewhat longer history, such as Gender Studies and Race/Ethnicity Studies. In its broadest terms,then, disability studies might initially portray itself as the interdisciplinary study and representation of the concepts,cultures, and personal .
1
Prejudice, Stereotyping and
Discrimination: Theoretical
and Empirical Overview
J o h n F . D o v i d i o , M i l e s H e w s t o n e ,
P e t e r G l i c k , a n d V i c t o r i a M . E s s e s
ABSTRACT
This chapter has two main objectives: to review influential ideas and findings in the literature and to
outline the organization and content of the volume. The first part of the chapter lays a conceptual and
empirical foundation for other chapters in the volume. Specifically, the chapter defines and distinguishes
the key concepts of prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination, highlighting how bias can occur at
individual, institutional, and cultural levels. We also review different theoretical perspectives on these
phenomena, including individual differences, social cognition, functional relations between groups, and
identity concerns. We offer a broad overview of the field, charting how this area has developed over
previous decades and identify emerging trends and future directions. The second part of the chapter
focuses specifically on the coverage of the area in the present volume. It explains the organization of the
book and presents a brief synopsis of the chapters in the volume.
Throughout psychology’s history, researchers
have evinced strong interest in understanding
prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination
(Brewer & Brown, 1998; Dovidio, 2001;
Duckitt, 1992; Fiske, 1998), as well as the phe-
nomenon of intergroup bias more generally
(Hewstone, Rubin, & Willis, 2002). Inter-
group bias generally refers to the systematic
tendency to evaluate one’s own membership
group (the ingroup) or its members more
favorably than a non-membership group (the
outgroup) or its members. These topics have a
long history in the disciplines of anthropology
and sociology (e.g., Sumner, 1906). However,
social psychologists, building on the solid
foundations of Gordon Allport’s (1954) mas-
terly volume, The Nature of Prejudice, have
developed a systematic and more nuanced
analysis of bias and its associated phenom-
ena. Interest in prejudice, stereotyping, and
discrimination is currently shared by allied
disciplines such as sociology and political
science, and emerging disciplines such as neu-
roscience. The practical implications of this
4 OVERVIEW OF THE TOPIC
large body of research are widely recognized
in the law (Baldus, Woodworth, & Pulaski,
1990; Vidmar, 2003), medicine (Institute of
Medicine, 2003), business (e.g., Brief, Dietz,
Cohen, et al., 2000), the media, and education
(e.g., Ben-Ari & Rich, 1997; Hagendoorn &
Nekuee, 1999).
In recent years, research on prejudice and
stereotyping has rapidly expanded in both
quantity and perspective. With respect to
quantity, even when the term ‘discrimination’
is omitted because of its alternative meaning
in perception and learning, a PsychInfo search
for entries with prejudice, stereotypes, or
stereotyping in the title reveals a geometric
progression, roughly doubling or tripling
from each decade ...
BEHS103 – Interdisciplinarity and the Social SciencesSocial scie.docxikirkton
BEHS103 – Interdisciplinarity and the Social Sciences
Social science refers to any field of study that examines human behaviors within the context of society. Included in the social sciences are the fields of anthropology, criminology, economics, geography, gerontology, history, law, political science, psychology, and sociology. Each of these fields has its own vocabulary, theories, and methodologies. Each makes sense of social problems from a disciplinary lens that is necessarily biased and limited in scope. Increasingly, social scientists recognize that social phenomena are best understood when examined from the perspectives of multiple disciplines and within the social sciences we see greater collaboration across fields as well as the borrowing of methods and terminology.
At UMUC, the BEHS designator identifies courses that examine social problems from an interdisciplinary perspective. The term “interdisciplinarity” suggests that we can gain a richer and more meaningful understanding of social phenomena by incorporating the perspectives of more than one traditional discipline. In John Godfrey Saxe’s (1963) famous poem, “The Blind Men and the Elephant,” six blind men attempt to describe the characteristics of an elephant from their different vantage points. One man, feeling the elephant’s knee, describes it as a tree, while another holding onto the tail compares it to a rope. Though each man is accurate, each focuses so narrowly on one part of the elephant that none can appreciate the whole.
And so these men of Indostan
Disputed loud and long,
Each in his own opinion
Exceeding stiff and strong,
Though each was partly in the right,
And all were in the wrong!
MORAL.
So oft in theologic wars,
The disputants, I ween,
Rail on in utter ignorance
Of what each other mean,
And prate about an ElephantNot one of them has seen!
In the social sciences, there is a growing recognition that the complexities of social issues cannot be fully understood through just one disciplinary lens. Social forces exert their impact at multiple levels (e.g. individual, group, community, society), often with far-reaching consequences that are best appreciated by a sweeping assessment across disciplines.
In Nissani’s (1997) classic article “Ten Cheers for Interdisciplinarity,” the advantages and pitfalls of interdisciplinary exploration are outlined. There are many reasons why interdisciplinarity is valuable, including:
· Greater opportunities for creative thinking
· Greater likelihood of detecting errors through the eyes of someone with different background
· Greater ability to explore and understand complex social problems
· Greater flexibility and branching out in research
· Willingness to explore new territory
· Ability to serve as translators and moderators between disciplines
· Creating greater synergy between disciplines resulting in outcomes that cut across disciplines and advance science and social justice
OVERVIEW OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
Alth ...
Required ResourcesText· Crapo, R. H. (2013). Cultural anthro.docxsodhi3
Required Resources
Text
· Crapo, R. H. (2013). Cultural anthropology [Electronic version]. Retrieved from https://content.ashford.edu/
· Chapter 5: Gender and Culture
· Chapter 6: Social Organization and Lifecycle
Article
· Atran, S. (2003). Genesis of suicide terrorism. Science, 299(5612), 1534-1539. Retrieved from the EBSCOhost database.
· The full-text version of this article is available through the EBSCO host database in the Ashford University Library. In this article, Atran discusses common misconceptions about terrorists, covering the research on what motivates terrorists and how to potentially defend against them. This article will assist you in your Summarize Your Sources for the Final Research Paper worksheet assignment this week.
· Becker, A. E. (2004). Television, disordered eating, and young women in Fiji: Negotiating body image and identity during rapid social change. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 28(4), 533-559. Retrieved from the EBSCOhost database.
· The full-text version of this article is available through the EBSCO host database in the Ashford University Library. In this article, Becker examines the effect that the introduction of television has had upon an indigenous island culture in Fiji, particularly young women’s perceptions of the “ideal” body type. This article will assist you in your Summarize Your Sources for the Final Research Paper worksheet assignment this week.
· Duthie, L. (2005). White collars with Chinese characteristics: Global Capitalism and the formation of a social identity. Anthropology of Work Review, 26(3), 1-12. Retrieved from the AnthroSource database.
· The full-text version of this article is available through the AnthroSource host database in the Ashford University Library. In this article, Duthie discusses the emerging class of white collar workers in China due to the increasing presence of foreign-invested multinational corporations. The author explores the process of identity formation for these workers. This article will assist you in your Summarize Your Sources for the Final Research Paper worksheet assignment this week.
· Hoodfar, H. (1993). The veil in their minds and on our heads: The persistence of colonial images of Muslim women. Resources for Feminist Researchers, 22(3/4), 5-18. Retrieved from http://www.umass.edu/wost/syllabi/spring06/hoodfar.pdf
· In this article, Hoodfar discusses the many misconceptions that people have about Muslim women who wear the veil, the history of veiling, and the many Muslim cultures encompassed by this tradition. This article will assist you in your Summarize Your Sources for the Final Research Paper worksheet assignment this week.
· Jonsson, R. (2014). Boys’ anti-school culture? Narratives and school practices. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 45(3), 276-292. Retrieved from the AnthroSource database.
· The full-text version of this article is available through the AnthroSource host database in the Ashford University Library. In this ar ...
1
Prejudice, Stereotyping and
Discrimination: Theoretical
and Empirical Overview
J o h n F . D o v i d i o , M i l e s H e w s t o n e ,
P e t e r G l i c k , a n d V i c t o r i a M . E s s e s
ABSTRACT
This chapter has two main objectives: to review influential ideas and findings in the literature and to
outline the organization and content of the volume. The first part of the chapter lays a conceptual and
empirical foundation for other chapters in the volume. Specifically, the chapter defines and distinguishes
the key concepts of prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination, highlighting how bias can occur at
individual, institutional, and cultural levels. We also review different theoretical perspectives on these
phenomena, including individual differences, social cognition, functional relations between groups, and
identity concerns. We offer a broad overview of the field, charting how this area has developed over
previous decades and identify emerging trends and future directions. The second part of the chapter
focuses specifically on the coverage of the area in the present volume. It explains the organization of the
book and presents a brief synopsis of the chapters in the volume.
Throughout psychology’s history, researchers
have evinced strong interest in understanding
prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination
(Brewer & Brown, 1998; Dovidio, 2001;
Duckitt, 1992; Fiske, 1998), as well as the phe-
nomenon of intergroup bias more generally
(Hewstone, Rubin, & Willis, 2002). Inter-
group bias generally refers to the systematic
tendency to evaluate one’s own membership
group (the ingroup) or its members more
favorably than a non-membership group (the
outgroup) or its members. These topics have a
long history in the disciplines of anthropology
and sociology (e.g., Sumner, 1906). However,
social psychologists, building on the solid
foundations of Gordon Allport’s (1954) mas-
terly volume, The Nature of Prejudice, have
developed a systematic and more nuanced
analysis of bias and its associated phenom-
ena. Interest in prejudice, stereotyping, and
discrimination is currently shared by allied
disciplines such as sociology and political
science, and emerging disciplines such as neu-
roscience. The practical implications of this
4 OVERVIEW OF THE TOPIC
large body of research are widely recognized
in the law (Baldus, Woodworth, & Pulaski,
1990; Vidmar, 2003), medicine (Institute of
Medicine, 2003), business (e.g., Brief, Dietz,
Cohen, et al., 2000), the media, and education
(e.g., Ben-Ari & Rich, 1997; Hagendoorn &
Nekuee, 1999).
In recent years, research on prejudice and
stereotyping has rapidly expanded in both
quantity and perspective. With respect to
quantity, even when the term ‘discrimination’
is omitted because of its alternative meaning
in perception and learning, a PsychInfo search
for entries with prejudice, stereotypes, or
stereotyping in the title reveals a geometric
progression, roughly doubling or tripling
from each decade ...
BEHS103 – Interdisciplinarity and the Social SciencesSocial scie.docxikirkton
BEHS103 – Interdisciplinarity and the Social Sciences
Social science refers to any field of study that examines human behaviors within the context of society. Included in the social sciences are the fields of anthropology, criminology, economics, geography, gerontology, history, law, political science, psychology, and sociology. Each of these fields has its own vocabulary, theories, and methodologies. Each makes sense of social problems from a disciplinary lens that is necessarily biased and limited in scope. Increasingly, social scientists recognize that social phenomena are best understood when examined from the perspectives of multiple disciplines and within the social sciences we see greater collaboration across fields as well as the borrowing of methods and terminology.
At UMUC, the BEHS designator identifies courses that examine social problems from an interdisciplinary perspective. The term “interdisciplinarity” suggests that we can gain a richer and more meaningful understanding of social phenomena by incorporating the perspectives of more than one traditional discipline. In John Godfrey Saxe’s (1963) famous poem, “The Blind Men and the Elephant,” six blind men attempt to describe the characteristics of an elephant from their different vantage points. One man, feeling the elephant’s knee, describes it as a tree, while another holding onto the tail compares it to a rope. Though each man is accurate, each focuses so narrowly on one part of the elephant that none can appreciate the whole.
And so these men of Indostan
Disputed loud and long,
Each in his own opinion
Exceeding stiff and strong,
Though each was partly in the right,
And all were in the wrong!
MORAL.
So oft in theologic wars,
The disputants, I ween,
Rail on in utter ignorance
Of what each other mean,
And prate about an ElephantNot one of them has seen!
In the social sciences, there is a growing recognition that the complexities of social issues cannot be fully understood through just one disciplinary lens. Social forces exert their impact at multiple levels (e.g. individual, group, community, society), often with far-reaching consequences that are best appreciated by a sweeping assessment across disciplines.
In Nissani’s (1997) classic article “Ten Cheers for Interdisciplinarity,” the advantages and pitfalls of interdisciplinary exploration are outlined. There are many reasons why interdisciplinarity is valuable, including:
· Greater opportunities for creative thinking
· Greater likelihood of detecting errors through the eyes of someone with different background
· Greater ability to explore and understand complex social problems
· Greater flexibility and branching out in research
· Willingness to explore new territory
· Ability to serve as translators and moderators between disciplines
· Creating greater synergy between disciplines resulting in outcomes that cut across disciplines and advance science and social justice
OVERVIEW OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
Alth ...
Required ResourcesText· Crapo, R. H. (2013). Cultural anthro.docxsodhi3
Required Resources
Text
· Crapo, R. H. (2013). Cultural anthropology [Electronic version]. Retrieved from https://content.ashford.edu/
· Chapter 5: Gender and Culture
· Chapter 6: Social Organization and Lifecycle
Article
· Atran, S. (2003). Genesis of suicide terrorism. Science, 299(5612), 1534-1539. Retrieved from the EBSCOhost database.
· The full-text version of this article is available through the EBSCO host database in the Ashford University Library. In this article, Atran discusses common misconceptions about terrorists, covering the research on what motivates terrorists and how to potentially defend against them. This article will assist you in your Summarize Your Sources for the Final Research Paper worksheet assignment this week.
· Becker, A. E. (2004). Television, disordered eating, and young women in Fiji: Negotiating body image and identity during rapid social change. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 28(4), 533-559. Retrieved from the EBSCOhost database.
· The full-text version of this article is available through the EBSCO host database in the Ashford University Library. In this article, Becker examines the effect that the introduction of television has had upon an indigenous island culture in Fiji, particularly young women’s perceptions of the “ideal” body type. This article will assist you in your Summarize Your Sources for the Final Research Paper worksheet assignment this week.
· Duthie, L. (2005). White collars with Chinese characteristics: Global Capitalism and the formation of a social identity. Anthropology of Work Review, 26(3), 1-12. Retrieved from the AnthroSource database.
· The full-text version of this article is available through the AnthroSource host database in the Ashford University Library. In this article, Duthie discusses the emerging class of white collar workers in China due to the increasing presence of foreign-invested multinational corporations. The author explores the process of identity formation for these workers. This article will assist you in your Summarize Your Sources for the Final Research Paper worksheet assignment this week.
· Hoodfar, H. (1993). The veil in their minds and on our heads: The persistence of colonial images of Muslim women. Resources for Feminist Researchers, 22(3/4), 5-18. Retrieved from http://www.umass.edu/wost/syllabi/spring06/hoodfar.pdf
· In this article, Hoodfar discusses the many misconceptions that people have about Muslim women who wear the veil, the history of veiling, and the many Muslim cultures encompassed by this tradition. This article will assist you in your Summarize Your Sources for the Final Research Paper worksheet assignment this week.
· Jonsson, R. (2014). Boys’ anti-school culture? Narratives and school practices. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 45(3), 276-292. Retrieved from the AnthroSource database.
· The full-text version of this article is available through the AnthroSource host database in the Ashford University Library. In this ar ...
Self Awareness Essay. An Essay On Self AwarenessWendy Fricke
Self Awareness Explanation Free Essay Example. Leading Through Self Awareness Education Essay - PHDessay.com. Developing self-awareness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written .... Experience & self awareness Free Essay Example. Self-awareness: My Experience On Path to Better Me: [Essay Example .... Self Awareness and Career Management Essay Example | Topics and Well .... Self Awareness (500 Words) - PHDessay.com. ⇉Self-Reflection and Self-Awareness Essay Essay Example | GraduateWay. A Moment of Self Awareness Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well .... (PDF) Self‐Awareness Part 1: Definition, Measures, Effects, Functions .... (PDF) Self Awareness.
Thomas Jefferson UniversityJefferson Digital CommonsScho.docxjuliennehar
Thomas Jefferson University
Jefferson Digital Commons
School of Nursing Faculty Papers & Presentations Jefferson College of Nursing
2-10-2011
Defining and Assessing Organizational Culture
Jennifer Bellot PhD, RN, MHSA
Thomas Jefferson University, [email protected]
Let us know how access to this document benefits you
Follow this and additional works at: http://jdc.jefferson.edu/nursfp
Part of the Nursing Commons
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Jefferson Digital Commons. The Jefferson Digital Commons is a service of Thomas
Jefferson University 's Center for Teaching and Learning (CTL). The Commons is a showcase for Jefferson books and journals, peer-reviewed scholarly
publications, unique historical collections from the University archives, and teaching tools. The Jefferson Digital Commons allows researchers and
interested readers anywhere in the world to learn about and keep up to date with Jefferson scholarship. This article has been accepted for inclusion in
School of Nursing Faculty Papers & Presentations by an authorized administrator of the Jefferson Digital Commons. For more information, please
contact: [email protected]
Recommended Citation
Bellot PhD, RN, MHSA, Jennifer, "Defining and Assessing Organizational Culture" (2011). School of
Nursing Faculty Papers & Presentations. Paper 34.
http://jdc.jefferson.edu/nursfp/34
http://jdc.jefferson.edu?utm_source=jdc.jefferson.edu%2Fnursfp%2F34&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages
http://jdc.jefferson.edu/nursfp?utm_source=jdc.jefferson.edu%2Fnursfp%2F34&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages
http://jdc.jefferson.edu/nurs?utm_source=jdc.jefferson.edu%2Fnursfp%2F34&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages
http://jeffline.jefferson.edu/Education/surveys/jdc.cfm
http://jdc.jefferson.edu/nursfp?utm_source=jdc.jefferson.edu%2Fnursfp%2F34&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages
http://network.bepress.com/hgg/discipline/718?utm_source=jdc.jefferson.edu%2Fnursfp%2F34&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages
http://www.jefferson.edu/university/teaching-learning.html/
Organizational Culture 1
As submitted to:
Nursing Forum
And later published as:
Defining and Assessing Organizational Culture
Volume 46, Issue 1, pages 29–37, January-March 2011
DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-6198.2010.00207.x
The target of much debate, organizational culture has occupied a prominent
position in multidisciplinary publications since the early 1980s. Fraught with
inconsistencies, the early research and literature addressing organizational culture was
often conflicting and recursive. As one researcher stated, culture is “one of the two or
three most complicated words in the English language” (Williams, 1983). Years of
conceptualization, comparison and assessment have led to an emerging consensus on the
appropriate definition and role for organizational culture. This manuscript documents the
h ...
Sujay Horizontal collaboration in science FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL (3).pdfSujay Rao Mandavilli
In a previous paper on cross-cultural research design, we had underlined the importance of crosscultural research design in scientific activity. We had also underlined the importance of obtaining
various types of emic and etic perspectives on various kinds of issues, and had also attempted to bucket
cultures into various categories. In this paper, we attempt to take those concepts a step forward, and
call for a horizontal collaboration among nations. We also define the terms horizontal collaboration and
vertical collaboration as being the two types of collaboration involved in cross-cultural research. Thus,
this paper adds on meaningfully and significantly to the concepts introduced in our paper on crosscultural research design, and introduces several new concepts and terms as well. The concepts proposed
in this paper hold good for all branches and fields of sciences, though they assume added meaning for
various fields of the social sciences where culture-specific data plays a major role in the formulation of
hypotheses. Horizontal collaboration must not replace vertical collaboration entirely, but only
complement it in places where such collaboration makes eminent sense. Western science has
contributed greatly to human welfare, and developing countries must also not be self-centric. They must
also contribute to human welfare and human progress in general. This also assumes added importance
because the dividing line between developed countries and developing countries will become thin in the
times to come as economic performance of various nations also converges.
Assignment User FrustrationThe quality of the user experience i.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment: User Frustration
The quality of the user experience is very important to the success of an application. In the early days of computing, users often experienced long delays since computing power was poor and networks had comparatively slow throughput. Modern systems have largely eliminated these delays due to increased network and computing power, yet users still report a high level of frustration.
Write a four to five (4-5) page paper in which you:
Describe three (3) reasons users are still frustrated with modern applications.
Suggest one (1) method for reducing the frustrations for each of the reasons you supplied in Question one (1).
Describe methods for determining if user frustration is caused by poor system design or from the natural frustration associated with learning a new software product.
Suggest at least three (3) methods to reduce the frustrations among the disabled population and how this population can be better served.
Use at least three (3) quality resources in this assignment. Note: Wikipedia and similar Websites do not qualify as quality resources.
The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:
Describe the inherent design issues across HCI environments.
Explain the use of interaction devices.
Use technology and information resources to research issues in human-computer interaction.
Write clearly and concisely about HCI topics using proper writing mechanics and technical style conventions.
.
Assignment Upstream Approaches to Canadian Population HealthAlt.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment: Upstream Approaches to Canadian Population Health
Although Canada is contiguous to the United States and has some cultural and historical similarities, Canada’s population enjoys a vastly superior health status. Reasons are many, can be traced historically, and are related to a different view of the role of government. The experience of Canada demonstrates that neither a heterogeneous population, nor a health system that has waiting lines for services, are reasons for poor health. By looking critically at what produces good health in Canada, much can be learned about steps the U.S. might need to take if population health is its goal.
The Canadian Best Practices Portal challenges Canadian public health practitioners and researchers to create upstream interventions aimed at the source of a population health problem or benefit. What is being done to address the influences on population health in Canada?
To prepare
for this Assignment, review your Learning Resources. Search the Internet and scholarly research for examples of Canadian “upstream interventions” that can be put forth as examples of either effective or ineffective efforts to improve population health.
The Assignment (2–4 pages):
Provide a description of an existing intervention in Canada, intended to improve health inequities. Include an explanation of the inequity and how the intervention targets upstream determinants of health.
Describe the organizations involved and/or social policies enacted in the implementation of the intervention.
Explain whether or not the intervention was/is successful and what lessons public health practitioners can learn from that experience that might improve population health in the United States.
Expand on your insights utilizing the Learning Resources.
Use APA formatting for your Assignment and to cite your resources.
.
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Self Awareness Essay. An Essay On Self AwarenessWendy Fricke
Self Awareness Explanation Free Essay Example. Leading Through Self Awareness Education Essay - PHDessay.com. Developing self-awareness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written .... Experience & self awareness Free Essay Example. Self-awareness: My Experience On Path to Better Me: [Essay Example .... Self Awareness and Career Management Essay Example | Topics and Well .... Self Awareness (500 Words) - PHDessay.com. ⇉Self-Reflection and Self-Awareness Essay Essay Example | GraduateWay. A Moment of Self Awareness Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well .... (PDF) Self‐Awareness Part 1: Definition, Measures, Effects, Functions .... (PDF) Self Awareness.
Thomas Jefferson UniversityJefferson Digital CommonsScho.docxjuliennehar
Thomas Jefferson University
Jefferson Digital Commons
School of Nursing Faculty Papers & Presentations Jefferson College of Nursing
2-10-2011
Defining and Assessing Organizational Culture
Jennifer Bellot PhD, RN, MHSA
Thomas Jefferson University, [email protected]
Let us know how access to this document benefits you
Follow this and additional works at: http://jdc.jefferson.edu/nursfp
Part of the Nursing Commons
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Jefferson Digital Commons. The Jefferson Digital Commons is a service of Thomas
Jefferson University 's Center for Teaching and Learning (CTL). The Commons is a showcase for Jefferson books and journals, peer-reviewed scholarly
publications, unique historical collections from the University archives, and teaching tools. The Jefferson Digital Commons allows researchers and
interested readers anywhere in the world to learn about and keep up to date with Jefferson scholarship. This article has been accepted for inclusion in
School of Nursing Faculty Papers & Presentations by an authorized administrator of the Jefferson Digital Commons. For more information, please
contact: [email protected]
Recommended Citation
Bellot PhD, RN, MHSA, Jennifer, "Defining and Assessing Organizational Culture" (2011). School of
Nursing Faculty Papers & Presentations. Paper 34.
http://jdc.jefferson.edu/nursfp/34
http://jdc.jefferson.edu?utm_source=jdc.jefferson.edu%2Fnursfp%2F34&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages
http://jdc.jefferson.edu/nursfp?utm_source=jdc.jefferson.edu%2Fnursfp%2F34&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages
http://jdc.jefferson.edu/nurs?utm_source=jdc.jefferson.edu%2Fnursfp%2F34&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages
http://jeffline.jefferson.edu/Education/surveys/jdc.cfm
http://jdc.jefferson.edu/nursfp?utm_source=jdc.jefferson.edu%2Fnursfp%2F34&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages
http://network.bepress.com/hgg/discipline/718?utm_source=jdc.jefferson.edu%2Fnursfp%2F34&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages
http://www.jefferson.edu/university/teaching-learning.html/
Organizational Culture 1
As submitted to:
Nursing Forum
And later published as:
Defining and Assessing Organizational Culture
Volume 46, Issue 1, pages 29–37, January-March 2011
DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-6198.2010.00207.x
The target of much debate, organizational culture has occupied a prominent
position in multidisciplinary publications since the early 1980s. Fraught with
inconsistencies, the early research and literature addressing organizational culture was
often conflicting and recursive. As one researcher stated, culture is “one of the two or
three most complicated words in the English language” (Williams, 1983). Years of
conceptualization, comparison and assessment have led to an emerging consensus on the
appropriate definition and role for organizational culture. This manuscript documents the
h ...
Sujay Horizontal collaboration in science FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL (3).pdfSujay Rao Mandavilli
In a previous paper on cross-cultural research design, we had underlined the importance of crosscultural research design in scientific activity. We had also underlined the importance of obtaining
various types of emic and etic perspectives on various kinds of issues, and had also attempted to bucket
cultures into various categories. In this paper, we attempt to take those concepts a step forward, and
call for a horizontal collaboration among nations. We also define the terms horizontal collaboration and
vertical collaboration as being the two types of collaboration involved in cross-cultural research. Thus,
this paper adds on meaningfully and significantly to the concepts introduced in our paper on crosscultural research design, and introduces several new concepts and terms as well. The concepts proposed
in this paper hold good for all branches and fields of sciences, though they assume added meaning for
various fields of the social sciences where culture-specific data plays a major role in the formulation of
hypotheses. Horizontal collaboration must not replace vertical collaboration entirely, but only
complement it in places where such collaboration makes eminent sense. Western science has
contributed greatly to human welfare, and developing countries must also not be self-centric. They must
also contribute to human welfare and human progress in general. This also assumes added importance
because the dividing line between developed countries and developing countries will become thin in the
times to come as economic performance of various nations also converges.
Assignment User FrustrationThe quality of the user experience i.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment: User Frustration
The quality of the user experience is very important to the success of an application. In the early days of computing, users often experienced long delays since computing power was poor and networks had comparatively slow throughput. Modern systems have largely eliminated these delays due to increased network and computing power, yet users still report a high level of frustration.
Write a four to five (4-5) page paper in which you:
Describe three (3) reasons users are still frustrated with modern applications.
Suggest one (1) method for reducing the frustrations for each of the reasons you supplied in Question one (1).
Describe methods for determining if user frustration is caused by poor system design or from the natural frustration associated with learning a new software product.
Suggest at least three (3) methods to reduce the frustrations among the disabled population and how this population can be better served.
Use at least three (3) quality resources in this assignment. Note: Wikipedia and similar Websites do not qualify as quality resources.
The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:
Describe the inherent design issues across HCI environments.
Explain the use of interaction devices.
Use technology and information resources to research issues in human-computer interaction.
Write clearly and concisely about HCI topics using proper writing mechanics and technical style conventions.
.
Assignment Upstream Approaches to Canadian Population HealthAlt.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment: Upstream Approaches to Canadian Population Health
Although Canada is contiguous to the United States and has some cultural and historical similarities, Canada’s population enjoys a vastly superior health status. Reasons are many, can be traced historically, and are related to a different view of the role of government. The experience of Canada demonstrates that neither a heterogeneous population, nor a health system that has waiting lines for services, are reasons for poor health. By looking critically at what produces good health in Canada, much can be learned about steps the U.S. might need to take if population health is its goal.
The Canadian Best Practices Portal challenges Canadian public health practitioners and researchers to create upstream interventions aimed at the source of a population health problem or benefit. What is being done to address the influences on population health in Canada?
To prepare
for this Assignment, review your Learning Resources. Search the Internet and scholarly research for examples of Canadian “upstream interventions” that can be put forth as examples of either effective or ineffective efforts to improve population health.
The Assignment (2–4 pages):
Provide a description of an existing intervention in Canada, intended to improve health inequities. Include an explanation of the inequity and how the intervention targets upstream determinants of health.
Describe the organizations involved and/or social policies enacted in the implementation of the intervention.
Explain whether or not the intervention was/is successful and what lessons public health practitioners can learn from that experience that might improve population health in the United States.
Expand on your insights utilizing the Learning Resources.
Use APA formatting for your Assignment and to cite your resources.
.
Assignment Type up an essay on one of two prompts and submit the .docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment:
Type up an essay on one of two prompts and submit the final draft online.
Choose
only
one
topic:
1.
Symbols are important in Fahrenheit 451. Identify 3 symbols and analyze their references and meanings throughout the novel.
2.
Illustrate how each of Montag's three mentors - a new mentor for each part of the novel - help to spur Montag's ideological progression.
This is the final draft of your individual research paper essay.
1.
Essay must be 7-8 pages typed, not including the works cited page.
2.
Essay must follow MLA format.
3.
Research must include a minimum of 8 sources, 4 of which must be from Library Databases: Proquest, CQ Researcher, Infotrac, Opposing Viewpoints, etc.
4.
Essay must have a complete Works Cited page that cross references correctly to all in-text citations.
Note:
Please submit your document with YOUR last name first. (Example:
Schilf-Research-Paper-Final-Draft.pdf
)
Format:
Follow the BASIC OUTLINE TEMPLATE ( i have already done this part and attached pictures)
A.
Introduction
: Type up an Introduction with an opening strategy (OS) that grabs the readers attention using a story based example (PE, OPE, HYPO, CS, or HYPO/COMBO) that also supports your chosen topic. End the Intro with the Thesis Statement. (Limit 1 to 2 paragraphs)
B.
Body
: Present the analysis position through 3 topic points. Type up the topic sentence and bullet point the evidence (in this case, only quotes from the primary source material). A minimum of 3 quotes for support are needed for each topic point. Ideally, you provide 4 or 5 supporting quotes
C.
Quoting
: Avoid long quotes. Instead, be concise with quoting. You want quotes that are short, dynamic, and memorable. You will still need to set up quotes with a signal phrase that sets up the context of the quote.
D.
Analysis
: Never assume that the quote itself is self-explanatory. You must respond to each quote with your Original Voice (ROV) to illustrate, explain, compare, contrast, identify, analyze, etc. Do not simply restate the quote in your own words. Your response needs to go deeper.
F.
Conclusion
: Type up a Conclusion that revisits the opening strategy story based example. (Limit to 1 paragraph)
G.
Format
: Essay must follow MLA format with a Works Cited page that cross references correctly to all in-text citations.
H.
Length
: Essay should be 3 to 4 pages typed.
Note:
Please submit your document with YOUR last name first. (Example:
Schilf-Fahrenheit-451-Final-Essay.pdf
)
.
Assignment Type:
Individual Project
Deliverable Length:
8–10 slides
Points Possible:
150
Management utilities can be vendor-specific or vendor-neutral. There are many utilities that are
available to provide a proactive approach to monitoring each node of the cluster.
Submit a PowerPoint presentation of 8–10 slides that includes the following:
• Identify 1 vendor-specific server-monitoring utility.
• Identify 1 vendor-neutral monitoring utility.
• In your presentation, list advantages and disadvantages of using one or the other.
Your answer should clearly identify what notification and management interfaces each utility has
available (i.e., e-mail enabled, management console, Web-based)
.
Assignment Type Individual discussion Board; 450 – 550 word.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment Type
: Individual d
iscussion Board;
450 – 550 words
Leadership varies widely by culture and personality. An international organization with locations in several countries must balance the local customs and cultures with those of the primary culture of the organizations’ headquarters. Using the USA as the headquarters, pick two other countries that might be part of a international internet retail organization and research and discuss the differences that leaders would have to navigate in approach and adapting to different standards of behavior and culture within the countries.
Grading criteria: students are graded on the quality and originality of their posts and responses, not the quantity. Responses should indicate the dilemma that leaders will face in working in cultures where values and leadership styles vary widely from those of the US. Examples may include the use of payments for access, the difficulty that women might experience in dealing with a patriarchal country or other theoretically sound differences in leadership
.
Assignment Two UNIT 2Student Name _______________________.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment Two UNIT 2
Student Name: ______________________________________________
(Your NAME must be exactly as it is on the roll in e campus and in WEBCOM2)
Your Section Number _____________ (you must enter your section number)
The Unit 2 Assignment 2: Unit Two in the Textbook. ONLINE HUMA 1315send this to professor through WEBCOM 2
DIRECTIONS: The assignment is in WORD. Save the document to your computer and write your answers in the spaces given. You may change the spacing as needed. You are also asked to just write what your thoughts are and what you think such as your own opinion for some answers for some questions.
NOTE: Turn in assignments using WEBCOM2 Internal Messages found under MENU in the top left corner of the site. You may either attach your Word file or copy and paste your entire submission in the message box. Be thorough in your answers. You should use the Textbook, Essential Humanitiesthird edition and/or the Study Guide. The Study Guide is not mandatory; however, it is there for your enrichment. The Study Guide is in WEBCOM 2 in the tab labeled Student Resources. You may also want to use additional information for any assignments from the Internet. If you do, please remember to cite your source at the end of your answer. If you add additional information from the Internet, this is great, but you must cite sources. This applies to photos as well. (Remember that SLO and ULO are for evaluator and for this course to be certified and you do not have to do anything with them. However, they show that the assignments are aligned with the text, WEBCOM 2 and with the test questions.)
When completing your assignment questions, you should use the text for your answers. You may also want to look at the WEBCOM 2 website and the PowerPoints related to the great artists and individuals mentioned in Unit II, and the colored timeline. The timeline shows historical periods. These are available in the Student Resources’ tab. Do not worry about timeline dates being exact. Different sources give different dates depending upon who wrote the timeline. Dates also overlap with time periods, so dates are sometimes given as “approximate dates”. Subject in a question means what it is about. Answer all the following questions:
1. Explain what makes Giotto an important artist and why many historians consider him important in history?
Why is Giotto considered a “transitional” artist? (SLO2: ULO 2.3)
(EXPLAIN WHAT MAKES HIS WORK SIGNIFICANT IN YOUR TWO ANSWERS FOR #1)
2. Distinguish what subject matter the artist, Johannes Vermeer painted during the Baroque Period in Holland? Refer to textbook appendix for visuals.(SLO 1: ULO 1:3; SLO 2, ULO 2.2) You should also write about what you think about his paintings.
EXPLAIN WHAT HIS PAINTING WERE ABOUT SUCH AS WHAT WAS IN HIS PAINTINGS?
3. Pieter Brueghel’s work is unique for his time. Examine the cultural heritage of the people in his paintings. Refer to textbook appendix for visual.
Assignment Two Select a college or university and provide th.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment Two
Select a college or university and provide the information listed below for the university.
History of the Institution
Mission Statement
Accreditation Status of the Institution
Institutions Goals and Objectives
.
Assignment Two
Objectives
• Understand how the AVL tree works
• Give you further practice with C and data structures
Admin
Marks 10 marks, excluding bonus marks. Marking is based on the correctness and
efficiency of your code. Your code must be well commented.
Group? This assignment is completed individually.
Due Time 23:59:59 pm on Sunday 31 March 2019. 23:59:59 pm on Wed 3 April 2019
Late Submissions Late submissions will not be accepted!
In this assignment, you will implement AVL tree and a set of functions associated with AVL
tree. For simplicity, we make the following assumptions:
1. Each item of an AVL tree contains an integer key and an integer value.
2. No AVL tree contains duplicate items. Two items (k1, v1) and (k2, v2) are duplicates
iff k1=k2 and v1=v2 hold.
3. An AVL tree may contains multiple items with the same key and the number of
duplicate keys is a constant.
A template file named MyAVLTree.c is provided. MyAVLTree.c contains the type definitions of
AVL tree and AVL tree node as well as some basic functions. You can add your own helper
functions and auxiliary data structures for better performance in terms of time complexity.
You need to implement the following functions:
1. AVLTree *CreateAVLTree(const char *filename). This function creates an AVL tree by
reading all the items from a text file or from the standard input (keyboard)
depending on the argument filename. If filename is “stdin”, this function will read all
the items from the standard input. Otherwise, it will read all the items from a text
file with filename as its full path name. (2 marks)
An input text file contains zero or more items where each item is of the form (key,
value). Any characters such as white space between two adjacent items are ignored.
For example, the following sample file contains 10 items:
(2, 50) (4, 30) (9, 30) (10, 400) (-5, -40)
(7, 20) (19, 200) (20, 50) (-18, -200) (-2, 29)
Similarly, when reading from the standard input, each input line may have zero or
more items, separated by one or more white space characters. An empty line
indicates the end of input.
In case of an error in the input, this function will print the error and your program
terminates.
You may assume that the input does not contain duplicate items and thus this
function does not need to check for duplicate items.
The time complexity of this function cannot be higher than O(n logn), where n is the
size of the resulting AVL tree. If your time complexity is higher, you will get 0 mark
for this function. You may assume that each call to a C built-in function takes O(1)
time.
2. AVLTree *CloneAVLTree(AVLTree *T). This function creates an identical copy (clone)
of the input AVL tree T, and returns a pointer to the clone tree. (1 mark)
The time complexity of this function cannot be higher than O(n), where n is the size
of T. If your time complexity is high.
Assignment Topic Exploration and Analysis (Proposal)In Week 6 o.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment: Topic Exploration and Analysis (Proposal)
In Week 6 of this course, you will submit an 8-page research paper (Final Project) in which you are required to:
Analyze an important social change movement of the
pre-modern era
(pre-1945).
Analyze an important social change movement of the
modern era
(post 1945).
Compare and contrast both movements.
Analyze and explain the leadership structure of both movements. Who led these social change efforts? Was it an individual or a collective effort? What prompted individuals to become leaders of the movements?
Analyze how the movements parallel or complement each other.
Evaluate the success of these movements in promoting social change.
This week, as part of the Final Project writing process, you will complete a Topic Exploration and Analysis (Proposal). In this proposal, you will select your research topics (the two social change movements), create a beginning outline of what you plan to cover in the Final Project, provide a short summary of your initial research findings, and provide an initial bibliography.
In preparation:
Review the Final Project Guidelines document, located in this week’s Learning Resources.
Select and begin to research a social change movement pertinent to the
pre-modern era
(pre-1945). For ideas, look at content contained in Weeks 1–3 of this course. Pay particular attention to the selection of readings in the course text for each of these weeks.
Select and begin to research one of the following social change movements pertinent to the
modern era
(post 1945):
African American civil rights movement
Chicano movement
American Indian or ”Red Power” movement
Women’s rights movement
LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer) rights movement
Disability rights movement
Maintain a listing of scholarly resources that you locate and are using. The Walden Library provides a rich selection of material. Keep in mind that websites are generally not considered sources of scholarly material.
Note:
In your initial research this week, look at the historical background of each issue, the leadership structure in each movement, examples of specific changes that resulted related to each movement, and challenges the movement faced or is still facing. Consider the impact, successes, and failures of each movement.
The Assignment
Write a 1- to 2-page essay that includes:
Identification of the two social movements you will address in your Final Project
A brief outline of what you plan to cover in the paper
A short summary of your initial research findings
A bibliography of resources you used
.
Assignment To consider three sources about the Fall of Rome and w.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment:
To consider three sources about the Fall of Rome and write an analytical essay.
Purpose:
To demonstrate proficiency in integrating historical sources and producing a well-informed analytical essay.
Part 1:
Research
Examine three sources:
1.
The textbook explanation concerning the decline and fall of Rome (chapter 7).
2.
The class presentation lecture on the Roman Empire.
3.
An article on the subject (“Friends, Romans, Countrymen” – see the Reading & Study link).
Write a 1,000–1,300-word essay concerning the decline and fall of the Roman Empire.
The paper should have a clear thesis statement, located at the end of the introduction.
The paper should cover the following:
1.
The various viewpoints given in the three sources (focus on the viewpoints you agree with)
2.
The variables involved (social, economic, military, etc.).
3.
Lessons the United States (our people and our government) can learn from Rome’s decline and fall.
4.
Similarities between the actions and attitudes of ancient Rome in their decline and fall and our American society today
Be careful that you use only the three sources provided. Use of other sources will be penalized.Textbook:
Perry, M., Chase, M., Jacob, J. R., Jacob, M. C., & Von Laue, T. H. (2013).
Western civilization: Ideas, politics, and society
(10th ed.). Boston: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. ISBN: 9781111831707.
Williams, S., & Friell, G. (1994). Friends, romans or countrymen? barbarians in the empire.
History Today,
44
(7), 34.
http://bb7.liberty.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-22815357-dt-content-rid-159718173_1/xid-159718173_1
.
Assignment topic Rapid Influenza Testing in Children and Adult.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment topic : Rapid Influenza Testing in Children and Adults.
When seeking to identify a patient’s health condition, advanced practice nurses can use a diverse selection of diagnostic tests and assessment tools; however, different factors affect the validity and reliability of the results produced by these tests or tools. Nurses must be aware of these factors in order to select the most appropriate test or tool and to accurately interpret the results.
Not only do these diagnostic tests affect adults, body measurements can provide a general picture of whether a child is receiving adequate nutrition or is at risk for health issues. These data, however, are just one aspect to be considered. Lifestyle, family history, and culture—among other factors—are also relevant. That said, gathering and communicating this information can be a delicate process.
For this Assignment, you will consider the
validity
and
reliability
of different assessment tools and diagnostic tests. You will explore issues such as
sensitivity,
specificity,
and
positive
and
negative predictive values
. You will also consider examples of children with various weight issues. You will explore how you could effectively gather information and encourage parents and caregivers to be proactive about their children’s health and weight.
To Prepare
· Review this week’s Learning Resources and consider factors that impact the validity and reliability of various assessment tools and diagnostic tests. You also will review examples of pediatric patients and their families as it relates to BMI.
· Search the Library and credible sources for resources explaining the tool or test you were assigned. What is its purpose, how is it conducted, and what information does it gather?
· Also, as you search the library and credible sources, consider what the literature discusses regarding the validity, reliability, sensitivity, specificity, predictive values, ethical dilemmas, and controversies related to the test or tool.
Assignment
(3–4 pages, not including title and reference pages)
:
For the Adult Assessment Tools or Diagnostic Tests:
Include the following:
· A description of how the assessment tool or diagnostic test you were assigned is used in healthcare.
o What is its purpose?
o How is it conducted?
o What information does it gather?
· Based on your research, evaluate the test or the tool’s validity and reliability, and explain any issues with sensitivity, reliability, and predictive values. Include references in appropriate APA formatting.
For the Child :
Include the following:
· An explanation of the health issues and risks that are relevant to the child you were assigned.
· Describe additional information you would need in order to further assess his or her weight-related health.
· Identify and describe any risks and consider what further information you would need to gain a full understanding of the child’s health. Think about how you could gather this infor.
Assignment Topic 1Choose a contemporary painting, sculpture, o.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment Topic 1
Choose a contemporary painting, sculpture, or piece of art that captures your interest. This should be a piece created between the end of World War II (about 1945) and today. You may choose one of the illustrations or color inserts in the textbook, or try a virtual museum (check the links in this week's My Humanities Kit).
Before you begin writing your post, view the “Closer Look” art critiques from the unit My Humanities Kit resources. Consider what features are discussed in the piece you select. Aim for an evaluation that notes small details in a work, considers the purpose of various elements, and perhaps investigates the artist’s life.
In the post, begin by introducing the piece of contemporary art created between 1945 and present. What is the title? Who created it and when? What is the style? How would you describe it to someone who had not seen it? Finally, explain why viewing this work is a valuable experience. Connect the Unit 5 reading material in your response; include APA formatting.
Student 1
Hello Class and Professor,
For my piece of Art I have chosen Andy Warhol’s painting “Diamond Dust Shoes 1980”. I not only love the colors that are presented in the piece but the meaning to me signifies how many shoes women fill in our daily lives such as a mother, a friend, a lover, a daughter and etc. I fell a since of gratitude when I look at this colorful piece.
Andy Warhol was born in 1928; he left a huge legacy behind when he passed away in 1987 (Janaro & Altshuler, 2012, p. 142). From drawings, paintings and prints to videography, publishing and performance, he produced more than art -- he was essentially his own brand. From haunting black and white self-portraits to Polaroid snapshots of celebrities, many of the photos in the collection later became the inspiration for Warhol's most well-known Pop Art pieces (Janaro & Altshuler, 2012, p. 142).
Warhol's focus on consumer goods and pop-culture icons, as well as his own taste for money and fame, suggest a life in celebration of the very aspects of American culture that his work criticized (A & E Television Networks, 1996-2013). When looking at this piece of work you have a sense of what life is everyday!
Please look at the link provided below to take a look at this peice of Art. (The last reference below)
Margaret
A & E Television Networks, L. (1996-2013). bio.true story. Retrieved from Andy Warhol Biography: http://www.biography.com/people/andy-warhol-9523875?page=2
Student 2
Hello Class and Professor,
For some reason many of the illustrations in our text I cannot view. So I decided to search for contemporary art photos. There were quite a few interesting images but I found a sculpture or performance piece by Rook Floro that really caught my eye. Oddly, there is no title; at least I have not been able to locate one. Parts of this three-dimensional art look like it has some kind of wiry texture. The piece seems to be an imitation of human emotion. .
Assignment TitleAssessment Item 03 Case Study Analysis – Engagi.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment Title
Assessment Item 03: Case Study Analysis – Engaging and Motivating staff
Length
3000-3500 wordsLearning outcomes
1. Knowledge - Describe and critically discuss key principles and theories of Human Resource Management.
2. Problem Solving Skills - Critically evaluate and synthesize relevant information to solve real world issues associated with Human Resource Management.
3. Change Management - Analyse the role of Human Resource Management in implementing change within a global context.
4. Global Environment - Identify and critically discuss local, global and international workforce trends and assess the implications for human resource managementLecturer Discretion
Lecturers may, at their discretion, ask students to verbally present their assignment submission or rewrite some selected part/s of their answer in a controlled setting.Task Details
Engaging and motivating employees is at the centre of Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) practices. It is therefore important to identify the organisational practices that can be used to foster the cognitive, emotional and behavioural qualities that will positively impact on employees and enhance their motivation.
To understand what motivates people to work is essential to this assignment. The focus of the assignment is to identify the motivational theories, the characteristics of a positive work environment and the HR practices that positively influence affective processes (e.g. motivation, commitment, job satisfaction, wellbeing) and behavioural processes (e.g. effort, reduced turnover and absenteeism).
To complete this assignment successfully students at a minimum should:
· Identify the key motivational theories and discuss which of the theories strongly influences employees’ affective processes and behavioural processes.
· Describe the characteristics of a positive work environment and discuss how HR designs jobs to motivate employees.
· Discuss the synthesis of Hackman and Oldham’s (1976) job characteristics and employees’ psychological states in relation to work outcomes, such as intrinsic work motivation, job satisfaction, and high quality work performance.
International Human Resource Management
· Discuss the possible relationship between Maslow’s general components and job characteristics in view of engaging and motivating employees in organisations.
Your assignment must be formatted with heading.
Harvard referencing style must be used.
References
Gallup Consulting 2010, The state of the global workplace: A worldwide study of employee engagement and wellbeing, viewed 20 February 2015
<http://www.gallup.com/services/176300/state-global-workplace.aspx>
Jackson, S & Schuler, R 1995, Understanding Human Resource Management in the context of organisations and their environments, Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 46, pp. 237-264.
Pfeffer, J & Veiga, F 1999, Putting people first for organisational success, Academy of
Management Executive, vol. 13, no. 2, pp.37-48.
Runni.
Assignment Title Knowledge management cycle process in or.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment Title:
Knowledge management cycle process in organizations and significance communities of practice
Note:
Each question/concept/ topic must be supported with peer reviewed journal references.
Assignment Structure:
Part A.
1.
Provide brief description about knowledge management processes in organizations. (
1 Mark
)
2. Explain the concept of organizational learning and describe the link between individual and organizational leaning. (
2 Marks
)
3. Describe role of organizational culture in knowledge management. (
2 Marks
)
Part B.
1. Describe the concept of community. Describe its key components. (
1 Mark
)
2. Discuss how communities can be linked to organizational memory in order to foster organizational learning and innovation. (
2 Marks
)
3. Highlight some of the key steps you would need to carry out in order to conduct social network analysis of an organization. What sort of questions could the social network analysis answer? (
2 Marks
)
NO plagiarism/ 700 WORDS
.
Assignment Three Technical Descriptions Due March 2 (1155 PM .docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment Three: Technical Descriptions
Due: March 2 (11:55 PM on Moodle)Peer:Feb 29
For this assignment you will either be creating a technical description or an extended technical definition. Officially, an extended technical definition is a microgenre of a technical description, but there are some differences worth noting. Technical descriptions are “longer explanation[s] . . . of the physical or operational features of an object, mechanism, or process”(Markel 534). While technical descriptions include technical definitions, an extended technical definition is slightly different.
An extended definition includes the three parts of a basic sentence definition, “[1] the term being defined, [2] the category in which the term belongs, and [3] the distinguishing features that differentiate it from its category” (Johnson Sheehan 155). It also expands the definition by adding more details of an object, process, or idea (Markel 534). It is divided by adding some (all) of the following: examples, partition, principle of operation, analogy, negation, and etymology (Markel 538 – 541).
Technical descriptions need a title/indication of the nature/scope of what the description will accomplish; an introduction that answers the questions in table 20.1 on page 545; a body with appropriate detail that discusses each step or section with detail, creativity, and clarity; and a conclusion that usually explains how the steps work together or summarizes the main steps. Look at the guidelines on page 547 for writing tips and additional help.
What you choose to do this on is up to you. You are free to choose any object, place, or process (and the definition of these can be pretty loose—think about my spider example). If you want to choose something that interests you, something you currently work with, something from your future workplace, or something else entirely—go for it. If you want to do something out of the ordinary you can always ask me if it’s okay.
Requirements
· The description/definition should be between 600 to 1000 words.
· It should be typed in a serif font.
· It must focus on clear writing that uses creative and technical writing techniques.
· It should be written for an audience similar to Wikipedia.
· It should follow checklist on page 571 – 572.
Green Hospitality: Green Hospitality:
Saving the EnvironmentSaving the Environment
A student Webzine from the International Council
on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education
for Future Hospitality & Tourism Professionals
Vol. 17 No. 1 • ISSN: 1095-7898 Spring 2008
HOSTEUR
INTERNATIONAL
CHRIE
The Hospitality &
Tourism Educators
Volume 17, No. 1 | Spring/Summer 2008 Issue2 HOSTEURTM
Sustainability Standards for the Hotel Industry............5
by Andrew Moreo
Destination “Green”land - a Look at the Sustainable
Efforts of the Air Travel Industry......................9
by Katie Fontaine
Green Hotels..................................................
Assignment ThreeUNIT 3 – ON LINE CLASSStudent Name __________.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment Three
UNIT 3 – ON LINE CLASS
Student Name: ______________________________________________
(Name must be exactly as it is on the e campus roll and the same in WEBCOM 2) Turn in assignment through WEBCOM 2 to Professor on time
Your Section Number _____________ (you must enter your section number)
The Unit 3 Assignment 3: Unit Three in the Textbook.
DIRECTIONS: The assignment is in WORD. Save the document to your computer and write your answers in the spaces given. You may change the spacing as needed.
NOTE: Turn in assignments to me through WEBCOM 2 see the place where you send me the assignment. You may either attach your Word file or copy and paste your entire submission. Be thorough in your answers. You should use the Textbook, Essential Humanitiesthird edition and/or the Study Guide. The Study Guide is not mandatory; however, it is there for your enrichment and it is helpful. The Study Guide is in WEBCOM 2 in the tab labeled Student Resources. You may also want to use additional information for any assignments from the Internet. If you do, please remember to cite your source at the end of your answer. If you add additional information from the Internet, this is great, but then be sure to cite your source at the end of your paragraph. You must cite sources. This applies to photos as well.
DIRECTIONS FOR FULL CREDIT: You will need to show how the architectural structure is significant (importance in history and explain its legacy). You should explain how it fits into the historical period and what it reflects about its time and place. Include names of important individuals connected to the construction and especially the name of the architect, if known. Mention the materials used in the construction and include information about how it was built. Also include location. Use full sentences in your answers and be sure to site your answers if you use photos and the internet if you use google. Do not just write in your site that you used google. You must place exact address. Google is too broad of a site for a reference. Thank you
1. List the major time periods in sequential order. The first period is Prehistoric. Then comes Mesopotamia, and then Egypt etc. Under each period, list the minimum of 3 major accomplishments or achievements of that period. See the WEBCOM 2 Resources tab that has the heading timeline and the Textbook Index in front of the textbook for Unit III which lists the periods of time in order
1. Discuss in written statements at least 2 major differences between the Paleolithic Era (Old Stone Age) and the Neolithic Era (New Stone) found during the Prehistoric Period? (Unit 3, Chapter 3). (SLO 3: ULO 3.4).
EXPLAIN ANSWER FULLY USING THE CHART THAT YOU WILL SEE ON A PAGE IN YOUR TEXT
1. Explain how the Sumerian marble statuettes, sculptures, and Queen Puabi’s Harp that were excavated in modern times help us understand how the Sumerian people’s lived and what their beliefs were during the anc.
Assignment title An Evaluation of the Business Strategy at Mc D.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment title: An Evaluation of the Business Strategy at Mc Donald’s.
Word count: 4242
Student name: Shane Sunil Mohan
Student number: A001753898
Subject name: 9050PROJ
AQF Level: 9
Discipline: Strategic Management
Theme: Critical Evaluation of a Business Strategy
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This paper was fundamentally about conducting a research and analyzing the findings on an evaluation of the business strategy at Mc Donald’s. Mc Donald’s establishment is a centralized, international organization which competes in the fast food industry by supplying hamburgers, french fries, and other consumable items using standardization. Substantial expansion and branding as the main driving force. As mentioned previously, operating in an open market in the food chain sector, one of Mc Donald’s major competition would be Wendy’s. These two establishments offer the exact same service which tends to make it difficult for Mc Donald’s to gain market share. With this being said, this report outlines different strategic strategies in which Mc Donald’s can gain competitive advantage against Wendy’s by providing substantial evidence on Mc Donald’s weaknesses and how it can be improved by using the case study method to help assist presenting its findings.
Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction 4
2.0 Literature Review: 5
2.1 Application of the literature to Mc Donald’s 6
2.2 Analysis with respect to Neoclassical microeconomics: 7
2.3 Analysis with respect to Evolutionary economics: 8
3.0 Research Methodology: 9
3.1 Case study method: 9
3.2 Data Collection: 10
3.3 Presentation of findings: 10
3.4 Analyzing the data: 11
4.0 Data Analysis and Reflections 11
4.1 Presentation of data 11
4.2 Reflection on findings and implications: 12
5.0 Conclusion and Recommendations: 14
5.1 Addressing social changes with differentiation strategy: 15
5.2 Recommendation: Improved Promotional Strategy: 16
5.3 Conclusion 16
References 18
1.0 Introduction
With the increase in the trend of globalization and the increasing competition in global markets, companies work day and night to come with effective strategies. Some of the multinational companies are known for the strategies they use and practice. In this paper, two of the companies operating in the United States of America will be discussed and compared along with the suggestion of a competitive strategy for McDonald’s. One of the companies that was researched in this paper name is McDonald's. This company operates internationally while the opposition organization which is Wendy’s also known as a fast food restaurant operates in the United States of America. As far as McDonald's is concerned, McDonald's was established in the year 1940 by Richard and Maurice McDonald, in San Bernardino, California, United States. The organization's business structure depends on three basic axes: representatives, franchisees, and suppliers. This business structure made by the founder of the organization, Ray Kroc, is known as "the three-legged sto.
ASSIGNMENT The student will submit a research project that compares.docxlynettearnold46882
ASSIGNMENT: The student will submit a research project that compares and contrasts two organizations in the same sector (Career Education Corporation and the Apollo Group Inc. or any other that you prefer), including analysis of the following criteria: legal, social, and economic environments; management structure; operational and financial issues; and impact of potential change factors.
1) Student should analyze the basic legal, social, and economic environments of the organization
2) Student should analyze the managerial, operational and financial issues of the organization
3) Student will analyze the impact of potential change factors as they related to the organization.
4) Student should apply appropriate college level writing standard.
the submission should be in APA Format. LENGTH of Paper: 5 Body Pages
.
Assignment Three Case study report – mixed mediaValue 40 .docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment Three: Case study report – mixed media
Value: 40% of the total marks for the unit
Length: 2000 words, or 5-6 minute video, or audio-narrated powerpoint of 10-15 slides, or photo essay supported with 500 words
Due: Week 12
Task description
Attend the event nominated in Assignment 2.
Briefly describe the event – name, date, location and venue, and attendance numbers and demographics.
Describe and critically analyse the positive and negative impacts of the event utilising the principles of sustainability and the triple bottom line approach.
Describe and discuss how the event’s program elements related to the aims and objectives identified in Assignment Two.
Describe and discuss the marketing of the event and how the promoted experience related to the actualisation and attainment of its aims and objectives (include actual audience details – numbers, demographic composition).
Provide recommendations for future activities which clearly identify issues relevant to event management.
The task is a report on the event nominated in Assignment Two that uses the triple bottom line approach to identify and critically analyse - the attainment of the events aims and objectives; the positive and negative economic, environmental, sociocultural impacts of the event; and recommendations which clearly identify issues relevant to the event management.
The evaluation report should use creativity in the approach to the task style.
The assignment may be presented as a 2000 word essay, or a 5-6 minute video, or an audio-narrated powerpoint of 10-15 slides, or a photo essay supported with 500 words. The process for submission of this assessment will depend upon the format chosen and prior negotiation with the tutor is required.
.
Assignment The Nurse Leader as Knowledge WorkerThe term kn.docxlynettearnold46882
Assignment: The Nurse Leader as Knowledge Worker
The term “knowledge worker” was first coined by management consultant and author Peter Drucker in his book,
The Landmarks of Tomorrow
(1959). Drucker defined knowledge workers as high-level workers who apply theoretical and analytical knowledge, acquired through formal training, to develop products and services. Does this sound familiar?
Nurses are very much knowledge workers. What has changed since Drucker’s time are the ways that knowledge can be acquired. The volume of data that can now be generated and the tools used to access this data have evolved significantly in recent years and helped healthcare professionals (among many others) to assume the role of knowledge worker in new and powerful ways.
In this Assignment, you will consider the evolving role of the nurse leader and how this evolution has led nurse leaders to assume the role of knowledge worker. You will prepare a PowerPoint presentation with an infographic (graphic that visually represents information, data, or knowledge. Infographics are intended to present information quickly and clearly.) to educate others on the role of nurse as knowledge worker.
Reference: Drucker, P. (1959).
The landmarks of tomorrow. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers.
To Prepare:
Review the concepts of informatics as presented in the Resources.
Reflect on the role of a nurse leader as a knowledge worker.
Consider how knowledge may be informed by data that is collected/accessed.
The Assignment:
Explain the concept of a knowledge worker.
Define and explain nursing informatics and highlight the role of a nurse leader as a knowledge worker.
Develop a simple infographic to help explain these concepts.
Your PowerPoint should Include the hypothetical scenario you originally shared in the Discussion Forum. Include your examination of the data that you could use, how the data might be accessed/collected, and what knowledge might be derived from that data. Be sure to incorporate feedback received from your colleagues’ responses.
.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Azure Interview Questions and Answers PDF By ScholarHat
Disability Studies What Is It andWhat Difference Does It Make.docx
1. Disability Studies: What Is It and
What Difference Does It Make?
Philip M. Ferguson
Chapman University
Emily Nusbaum
Colorado University Colorado Springs
The academic field of disability studies has expanded rapidly
over the last two decades or so. With that expansion has also
come some growing ambiguity about exactly what is meant by
the term "disability studies." This article reviews the history
and evolution of disability studies as an interdisciplinary
approach to research and scholarship. While acknowledging the
broad range of interests and approaches that can fall under the
umbrella of the "disability studies" label, we argue that it may
be useful to present a set of core themes or beliefs that seem
central to disability studies as a field if it is to fulfill its
promise as a truly different way of exploring the meanings of
disability in society. Finally, we argue that disability studies
should be of special interest to members of TASH and others
with particular interest in the lives of people with significant
intellectual and developmental disabilities.DESCRIPTORS:
disability studies, social model of disability, inclusion, value-
based research Over the last decade or so, the term "disability
studies" has become a familiar usage throughout all areas of
inqtiiry and scholarship involved in the study of issues affecting
people with disabilities. Yet, the question arises as to whether
the writing and research emerging from this still new and
evolving area of study have any special relevance to those
whose strongest interests are improving the lives of individuals
with the most significant intellectual and developmental
disabilities and their families. This article—as well as the
others in this special issue—tries to demonstrate why that
question should be answer redin the affirmative. The purpose,
then, of this article is threefold. First, we provide a brief history
2. of the emergence and evolution of the broad range of
scholarship and inquiry that falls under the field called
"disability studies." Second,we identify and briefly discuss what
we see as at least some of the core concepts that underlie the
relatively new field of study. Finally, we argue that, as a field
of study, disability studies has particular salience for those
interested in the development of research and policy in support
of people with significant intellectual and developmental
disabilities.
Certainly, if one goes simply by frequency of usage, the
practice of "disability studies" has gained ample currency
within academic settings of the humanities and social sciences
(Cushing & Stnith, 2009; Taylor & ZubalRuggieri,2009). In
such a context, disability studies is often compared with similar
approaches to human difference that have a somewhat longer
history, such as Gender Studies and Race/Ethnicity Studies. In
its broadest terms,then, disability studies might initially portray
itself as the interdisciplinary study and representation of the
concepts,cultures, and personal experiences of disability in all
its variations. Equally important, of course, is the implication
that just as we have come to understand race and gender as
complicated and shifting mixtures of the physical and the
cultural—the personal and the public—so must we place
disability and impairment within a social and historical context.
Yet, at the same time that the term "disability studies"has come
into more and more cotnmon usage, it has also become less
clear as to what exactly the term refers. As the introduction to
this special issue outlines, the meaning of "disability studies"
seems to many to have become more diffuse just as the term's
adoption has become more popular. Others may feel confident
that they understand well enough what the term means but that
it ultimately has little relevance to the more urgent questions of
reforming policies and improving practices in all of the contexts
that affect the lives of people with intellectual disabilities and
their families. This analysis explores both of these issues. We
describe our understanding of what is, admittedly, a diverse and
3. changing field. More importantly, we argue that the teaching
and research emerging from this field do, indeed, have
important implications for people with the most significant
disabilities and the professionals trying to provide them with
support.
Some History It is probably impossible to pinpoint an exact date
for the beginning of disability studies as a distinct field of
academic scholarship.^ The Society for Disability. Studies—the
oldest academic organization explicitly dedicated to this area—
traces its beginning to 1982 (see the brief account at
http;//www.disstudies.org/about/history).However, even before
that date, there were isolated examples of individual researchers
or even entire programs that helped create the foundations of
this radically different approach to the study of both the
concepts and the experiences of disability. Perhaps the simplest
way to think of this emergence is to identify disability studies
as the academic side of the disability rights movement. The
political theorist Michael Walzer has succinctly characterized
"social criticism" as "the educated cousin of the common
complaint" (Walzer, 1987, p. 65) to make his argument that
effective social theory must never move too far from the very
real problems faced by everyday people. So, it should be with
disability studies. Born of theprotests and growing self-
advocacy of ordinary people in the 1970s (Shapiro, 1993),
disability studies reflected the efforts of scholars with
disabilities (and some nondisabled colleagues) to conceptualize
and interpret the common complaints of people with disabilities
and their fatnilies. What had been the sporadic and often
unconnected work of isolated researchers and theorists began to
coalesce around a set of core ideas and shared experiences.
Fields within the social sciences were perhaps the earliest
disciplines in the United States to present research that seemed
to capture some of these new assumptions about the cultural
meatiing of disability. As early as the 1960s, sociologists such
as Erving Goffman (1961, 1963) and anthropologists such as
Robert Edgerton (1967) were using the social construct of
4. stigma to explore the phenomenological and cultural experience
of disability. In the 1970s and 80s, the medical sociologist
Irving Zola illustrated how the study of disability could usefully
employthe methods and concepts of the social sciences to place
the personal experience of physical disability within a social
context (Zala, 1982a, 1982b). In 1980, Zola began publishing a
newsletter that was to become what is now the Disability
Studies Quarterly, the oldest academic journal devoted
specifically to works representing "the full range of methods,
epistemologies, perspectives, and content" embraced by this
interdisciplinary field of study. At Syracuse University, Burton
Blatt recruited social scientists and policy analysts (e.g., Robert
Bogdan, Steven Taylor, and Douglas Biklen) to blend vigorous
advocacy with scholarly rigor in exposing the institutional
abuses that were the daily experience of hundreds of thousands
of people with intellectual disabilities (Biklen & Bogdan, 1977;
Bogdan & Biklen, 1977; Bogdan & Taylor, 1976; Taylor, 2006).
In 1982, four young sociologists^ from various parts of the
country came together at a conference of the Western Social
Science Association to form a special section for the "Study of
Chronic IUness, Impairment, and Disability." By 1986, the
group became a separate orgatiization called the Society for
Disability Studies (SDS), soon having separate conferences and
publishing proceedings
(e.g., Kiger & Hey, 1989). As noted before, since these early
rumblings in the late 1970s and 1980s, disability studies has
grown exponentially At least in its North American context,
disability studies has moved well beyond its origins in the
social sciences, developing entire subcategories of work in
history (e.g., Baynton, 2001; Carey, 2009; Kudlick, 2003;
Longmore & Umansky, 2001), humanities (Davis, 2010;
Garland-Thomson, 2009; MitcheU & Snyder, 2000; Siebers,
2008; Snyder, Bmeggemann, & Garland-Thomson, 2002), and
the arts (Cmtchfield & Epstein, 2000; Hevey, 1992; Lubet,
2010; Sandahl & Auslander, 2005). In both North America and
Etirope, work has emerged in interdisciplinary fields such as
5. feminism (Hillyer, 1993; Thomas, 1999), bioethics (Kittay &
Carlson, 2010), and Queer Studies (McRuer, 2006). Powerful
memoirs reflecting on the meanings and experiences of
disability from a personal perspective served as critical
testimony to the generations of voices that had been largely
silenced or ignored both in the sciences and the humanities
(e.g., Ferguson & Asch, 1988; Finger, 2006; Fries, 1997;
Johnson, 2005; Linton, 2006; Sherry, 2006). Equally important
for our purposes here, groups of researchers within the
traditional fields related to disability began to identify their
work as part of disability studies. The label of "disability
studies in education" became used by sotne to denote a newly
critical stance toward the traditional assumptions of the more
familiar "special education" (Connor, Gabel, Gallagher, &
Morton, 2008; Danforth & Gabel, 2006; Gabel, 2005).
Psychologists were challenged to reconsider "the relationship
between disability studies and psychology in ways that
contribute to the emancipation - rather than the exclusion - of
disabled people" (Goodley & Lawthom, 2006, p. xvü). Policy
analysts and human service professionals began to talk about
how a newly theorized understanding of disability could change
approaches to both policy and practice (Devlieger, Rusch, &
Pfeiffer, 2003; O'Brien & Sullivan, 2005; Schriner, 2001). Out
of all of this diverse scholarship, the description of disability
studies adopted by the Society for Disability Studies comes
perhaps as close as anything to an "official" definition of this
new, interdisciplinary field of study: Disability studies
recognizes that disability is a key aspect of human experience,
and that disability has important political, social, and economic
implications for society as a whole, including both disabled and
nondisabled people. Through research, artistic production,
teaching and activism, disability studies seeks to augment
understanding of disability in all cultures and historical periods,
to promote greater awareness of the experiences of disabled
people, and to advocate for sodal change. (Society for Disability
Studies, n.d.) Still, despite such attempts at official definitions,
6. it is probably not surprising that a certain messiness came to
characterize the usage of the term "disability studies." It
became somewhat unclear whether disability studies could be
framed as a coherent and definable, if mulfidisciplinary, field of
academic endeavor. As more and more academic programs
began to spring up using the label of disability studies,
disagreements began to emerge about who could and could not
make legitimate use of the term. A growing list of questions
came to accompany almost any introductory discussion of this
new approach. Did "real" disability studies have to be based in
a nonclinical or applied setting (e.g., in the humanities or social
sciences) or could certain programs in the rehabilitation
sciences or in special education also lay claim to the term as
well? Could it be used in a medical or health care setting of any
kind or was that a contradictory juxtaposition of the medical
and social models used to approach disability is drastically
different ways? Was it an approach that worked for certain
disability categories such as physical disabilities or deafness
but not for others such as significant intellectual disabuifies
(Anastasiou & Kauffman, 2011)? Did the field have any
connection to actually improving the lives of children and
adults with disabilities or was it just an over-theorized
distracfion from the types of applied science needed to find out
what works and what does not in the prevention, cure, or
remediation of disabilities of all kinds? What was the role of
people without disabilities in the doing of disability studies?
The fact that these quesfions of use and definition arose, of
course, was a marker of success and maturation of the field
itself. The term "disability studies" became contested precisely
because of the power and insight found in the growing body of
research and commentary that popularized the term.
What disability studies is not In her influential introduction to
disability studies (Linton, 1998), Simi Linton has a chapter
titled "Disability Studies/Not Disability Studies." In the
chapter, she makes an extended argument for "setting off
disability studies as a socio-political-cultural examination of
7. disability from the interventionist approaches that characterize
the dominant traditions in the study of disability" (p. 132). For
Linton, it is important to have boundaries about how and where
legitimate disabuity studies could be done. Despite that
argument, as we have noted, the use of the term "disability
studies" to characterize many new or restructured academic
programs and research initiatives based within those "dominant
traditions" (e.g. special educafion, health care, and human
services) has confinued to grow over the last decade or so.
While we worry that some uses of the term have more to do
with image than substance, we also are reluctant to restrict the
term to certain areas of knowledge and inquiry. A lively debate
over definitions and appropriate usage can be a healthy activity
that energizes the field. Nonetheless, it is easier in many ways
to begin our discussion of where we locate the core of disabuity
studies by making some broad comments about what disability
studies is not—or at least should not be—rather than what it is.
It should be clear from what we have said so far that the term
"disability studies" should not be allowed to become little more
than a synonym for special education or rehabilitation sciences.
Nor should the term become interchangeable with research into
community support and inclusive education (even though most
scholars in disability studies would probably agree in general
with these orientations). Finally, disability studies is not the
same as disability rights, although again the two are closely
related. Disability studies may be many things to many people,
but if its full potenfial to reshape the way that society
understands people with disabilities is to be realized, then it
must avoid being seen as simply a new bottle for old wine.
Some Core Concepts of Disability Studies If there are some
elements or characteris: ics that we can say are arguably not
part of what most scholars in the area would identify as central
to disability studies as a field, then it is equally true that that
there are other features that we would regard as core concepts.
These are themes or contentions that we find so basic to
thetheory and practice of disability studies as to be at the
8. heart of any discussions about its relevance for any specific
program or content area. Our argument here again is not to set
up some sort of purity test for what is—and should be—a
messy, interdisciplinary field. However, the following five
concepts strike us as a minimal set of arguments with which to
put some flesh on to the bare bones of rhetoric about what is
different and important about disability studies. Concept 1: The
study of disability must be social Just as gender is more than
chromosomes and race is more than skin color, disability is
more than an individual impairment. This simple statement is
one version of what is, perhaps, the one concept closely
associated with disability studies that has gained the greatest
familiarity and even acceptance within the academy: the so-
called "social model" of disability. Usually contrasted with
something called the "medical" or "deficit" model, the social
model has become one of those umbrella terms—indeed, much
like the term "disability studies" itself—that has a broad
recognifion and tmderstanding, while also being constantly
debated by those who find one or another of its usages
problemafic (Anastasiou & Kauffman, 2011). Our purpose here
is not to settle—or even enter into— those debates. Rather, it is
to point to the concept as the single idea that most people would
cite as one of themost iniluenfial contributions to the
theorefical study of disability in the last 40 years. Even the
World Health Organization (WHO) in its current version of the
International Classification of Functioning, Disability and
Disease
Disability Studies: What Is It? 73 (WHO, 2001) acknowledges
the import
importance of this idea and tries to "merge" it witb the more
traditional medical model. The WHO definition of this concept
summarizes the most common understanding of the social
model: Disability is not an attribute of an individual, but rather
a complex collection of conditions, many of wbicb are created
by the social environment. Hence the management of the
problem requires social action, and it is the collective
9. responsibility of society at large to make tbe changes necessary
for full participation of people with disabilities in all areas of
social Ufe. (WHO, 2001, p. 28) What the WHO definition
leaves implied but unstated is tbat tbe concept of the social
model requires not merely social "action" but social analysis as
well. The importance of the social model as a core concept of
disability studies is not only that disability is more than
individual pathology and deficit but also that its meaning is
more than a personal problem. Disability must be studied in its
social, cultural, and historical context as much as tbe personal
conditions of impairment and functioning must be studied in
their medical and educational
contexts.This does not have to be an either-or proposition. Most
scholars in disability studies readily acknowledge the personal
reality of impairments. Studying tbe socialbi story of
intellectual disability does not mean that the personal
experience is irrelevant. Indeed, much recent writing has urged
renewed attention to the "embodiment" of disability (Finger,
2006; Shakespeare, 2006; Siebers, 2008). Nor does the emphasis
on the social model negate the importance of medical and
educational research on diagnostics, assessments, treatments,
and interventions. Even with these more traditional approaches
to the health and education of individuals with specific
impairments, however, disability studies can contribute a social
perspective from which to view and interpret scienfific findings.
Indeed, for most disability studies scholars, this is not really a
choice. All research, all knowledge exists unavoidably in a
cultural and historical context. The only choice is in how openly
that context is acknowledged and explored. Concept 2: The
study of disability must be foundational
It is certainly the case that scholars in disability studies argue
that their approach to disability and impairment is fundamental
to deepening our understanding of how that status is
experienced in society. However, disability studies also makes
the argument tbat perhaps the most important reason to explore
the meaning(s) of disability is not to understand disability itself
10. but to understand other categories of human difference. In other
words, tbe study of disability (and the concept of "disability") is
at the foundation of our understanding of the social construction
of race, gender, class, and other ways in which we differentiate
ourselves from one another. It is essential, in short, to our
understanding of how we see ourselves as same and different
(Devlieger et al., 2003). It would be difficult to find
professional preparation programs these days in special
education or rehabilitation sciences that did not pay some
attention in their curriculum to issues of race, class, gender, and
other social categories. Tbe issue of disproportional
representation of racial minorities within at least some
categories of special education has certainly received growing
attention over the last several decades (Arfiles, 2003; Harry &
Klingner, 2006; Losen & Orfield, 2002). Virtually every future
special education teacher, rehabilitation therapist, or adult
services professional at least learns the rhetoric—if not always
the deeper convictions—of culture competence and reciprocity.
However, the difference between this welcome growth of
attention to cultural issues within applied disciplines and the
concept of disability as foundational that is brought forth by
disability studies remains important. Disability studies is
arguing that the issue is more than the distortion of science by
social intrusions of systemic injustices sucb as racism, sexism,
and poverty. Throughout history, the label of "disability" has
functioned as an accusation more often than an assessment. In a
review of how discriminafion against African Americans and
women has been justified at various times in American history,
the historian Douglas Baynton makes this claim overt: "Not
only has it been considered jusfifiable to treat disabled people
unequally, but the concept of disability has been used to justify
discriminafion against other groups by attributing disability to
them" (Baynton, 2001, p. 33). In the opposition to suffrage and
women's rights in tbe early part of the 20th century, male
politicians and others would cite the feebleness and instability
of women generally as reasons to "protect" them from the
11. responsibilities of voting, running for political office,or
learning a profession (Baynton, 2001, p. 42). The medicalized
racism of the same era was used to bolster the rise of Jim Crow
laws and policies in the South and antiMexican laws in the West
(Molina, 2006). Tbe imagery of disabuity has always been used
to symbolize the dangerous and inferior. The concept of
disability is used to hide what scares us, to remove what
repulses us, and to medicalize what shocks us. The logic was
irrefutable. Disability was the ulfimate "other" (Kudlick, 2003).
In many ways, disability continues, by definition, to be a lesser
state of being that justifies paternalism at best and
extermination at worst. To apply that label to the LGBT
community, to the homeless poor, and to those who do not
speak English is to justify the practices of exclusion and neglect
that are still tacitly understood as a legitimate corollary of the
disability status. In opposition,tbose being labeled often
challenge the accuracy of the attribution but seldom challenge
the logic behind the accusation. In discussions of current social
issues such as the overrepresentation of certain racial groups 74
Ferguson and Nusbaum in special education, the problem is
analyzed primarily as an instance of systemic racism without an
equal review of the negative assumptions about disability that
make the concept understandable as source of exclusion.
Disability—and the concept of disability—must be part of the
very foundation of attempts to understand what is different as
well as what is normal. Concept 3: The study of disability must
be interdisciplinary If disability is social and foundational, then
our efforts to understand the experience and concepts behind
that status must cut across traditional academic disciplines.
Disability studies demands that the study of disability be as
broad as culture itself. We must draw upon the tools
and traditions of all our ways of knowing about the world.
Again, in many ways, the best analogy here is to similar
interdisciplinary fields such as women's studies or race and
ethnic studies. Just as these more established fields have drawn
upon the history and sociology of women and the concept of
12. femininity or the cultural and literary representation of African
Americans, so does disability studies look for ways to explore
the meanings of disability as it emerges in aU of our in
academic departments. In its early days, this core feature of
disability studies was focused on the need to bring the study of
disability into the arts and humanities, and areas of the social
sciences other than psychology. In making that case, the
impression was sometimes given that disability studies could
only exist within these non-applied disciplines.Efforts to
legitimize the study of disability outside of applied fields such
as special education and social work, sometimes led to attempts
to delegitimize the practice of disability studies within those
same traditional fields. In part, this was an understandable
response to the traditional domination of those traditional fields
in the study of disability. Special education and rehabilitation
sciences had been seen by many as "owning" the topic of
disability in a way that disability studies scholars wantedto
challenge. At the same time, many academics within the applied
sciences associated with disability would often see calls for
interdisciplinarity as meaning that general education experts
should interact with special education experts. History,
literature, philosophy, art, and other fields within the
humanities are seen as supplemental interests to the main goal
of learning how to teach and how to support individuals with
disabilities. The worry, then, by some within the humanities and
social sciences was that allowing the mantle of disability
studies to be assumed by these same professional schools would
coopt the truly reformative potential of this newly critical
approach. Those worries remain, and the disciplinary tensions
that accompany those concerns wiU also continue. At this point,
we believe that truly interdisciplinary (and not just
multidisciplinary) disability studies can only flourish if the
orientation and insights it makes possible are available to all
parts of the academy. Concept 4: The study of disability must
be participatory.This concept is one that is probably famuiar
and endorsed by virtually all members of TASH and other
13. progressive disability research and advocacy organizations.
Still, the call for increased participation and influence by
people with disabilities and their families with what is taught
and explored about disability is one that disability studies has
greatly emphasized, if not originated. The call for participation,
of course, is not just about what questions get asked, but about
who gets to ask the questions (Ferguson, Ferguson, & Taylor,
1992). The point is not just to have new types of research and
teaching about disability but that scholars with those disabilities
should be prominent among those doing that research and
teaching. However, this concept becomes somewhat more
contentious when taken beyond superficial rhetoric. What does
"participation" truly mean in terms of scholarship? More
specifically what might participation mean for people with
intellectual disabilities (Docherty et al.,2005)? Should disability
studies research always be action-oriented (as with Participatory
Action Research) or can it sometimes be primarily analytical or
historical in focus? Is "participation" enough, or does disability
studies research have an obligation to be "emancipatory" in
effect (Mercer, 2002; Seelman, 2001)? In part, this touches on
one of the central tensions in disability studies scholarship:
What is or should be the role of the non-disabled
researcher/teacher within the field of disability studies (Barton,
1996)? Just as it would be odd if women's studies programs
were led primarily by men or European Americans were the
most prominent faces in African American scholarship, so it
would be surprising only if those within disability studies took
no notice of the disability status of those whose voices were
most prominent. At the same time, the brief history of
disability studies is full of examples of scholars without
(visible) disabilities making significant contributions to the
field. The principle of participation raises as many questions as
it answers, but as long as people with disabilities remain
underrepresented in our colleges, universities, and research
institutions, then the issue must remain central to the field.
Concept 5: The study of disability must be values-based This
14. principle is also one that is familiar to the members of TASH.
One of the changes that has occurred within the various domains
of teaching and research is that the notion of values-based
research has become widely accepted, even within the hardest of
sciences. It is now standard practice to use and report social
validity measures within traditionally quantitative and
behavioralresearch (Wolf, 1978). Within disability studies,
there have come more dramatic claims for advocacy as
inseparable from progressive scholarship of any kind (Oliver,
1992, 1993). At either end of this spectrum Disability Studies:
What Is It? 75 of research practice, the legitimacy of some
consideration of ethical implications within all approaches to
knowledge about people with disabilities is accepted by most
scholars. As with the principle of participation, however, the
emphasis on values-based research quickly becomes
complicated. For many within disability studies, the overt
valuesbase takes the form of significant critical analysis of
traditional disability-oriented programs and professions. If
"special education" and "rehabilitation" are not exactly "four-
letter words," they are at least viewed skeptically by some as
signifiers of a formal service system that is known mainly for
its oppression and pathologization of children and adults with
disabilities (Heshusius, 2004; Ware, 2005). For those living
their professional Uves inthe midst of these systems, critical of
the failures whilestriving for reform, such a blanket dismissal of
the helping professions can seem dismissive of the real needs of
real ndividuals for the sake of ideological purity. At the same
time, the history of failed reforms and continued
disempowerment of people with disabilities and their families
by the health and education systems makes the prospects of
decades more of such incremental change somewhat
disheartening for many within disability studies. What
Difference Does It Make?Learning how and why to "imagine
disability otherwise"We use this phrase, borrowed from Ware
(2003), because it represents the possibility of what the range of
work in disabilities studies can offer us: a way to "imagine
15. disability otherwise." In her piece. Ware documents her
collaborative work with a group of high school teachers who
used writing from humanities-based disability studies to reflect
on and expand their knowledge about disability, and—perhaps
more importantiy—how to carry this knowledge into their own
teaching practice. Ware's use of the phrase intended to make the
point that the range of analyses and representations in disability
studies scholarship offers "ways of knowing" and theoretical
insights with which disability service providers can examine
individual and societal attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions. It is
this kind of critical reflection. Ware argues, that is required to
shift the dominant narrative of disability in society that is
reflected in person-fixing practices in the helping professions.
Historically, the difference associated with disability was seen
as something that could be "remediated away" or fixed.
Interventions in the applied fields have often responded to the
"problem" of disability and disability's interaction with
classroom environments, commutiity living, and work places.
However, work in disability studies approaches the construct
that is labeled "disability" as multifaceted and complex.
Interdisciplinary work in the field thus can allow us to develop
a deeper and much broader understanding of disabuity as a part
of our shared, human experience, as well as position disability
as a difference that is a potential source of interest and intrigue.
These new and re-conceptualizations frame disability as a social
construction and seek to address the social, cultural, historical,
and material aspects of disability while at the same time
acknowledging the physiological aspects of impaired function
(Baglieri, Valle, Connor,& Gallagher, 2010). The shift in
focus—to the limitations of attitudes, environments, contexts,
and practices (from that of individuals)—allows disability-
related professionals
to actually reposition and redefine the "problem" traditionally
associated with disability (see Biklen, 2007; Biklen & Burke,
2006; Nusbaum & Rodriguez, 2010) and support an
understanding of disability as a natural part of the htiman
16. experience. Creating a cultural context for inclusive education
and community support Changing how societies (and
ourselves!) think about and respond to disability can create the
cultural space in which inclusive approaches to education,
employment, living, and commutiity can flourish. Inclusive
contexts are not going to flourish if we do not actively strive to
support the individuals with and for whom we work to live the
best lives of their choosing (something the TASH community is
very familiar with), as well as do this within a framework that
views the label or demarcation of disabuity in very different
ways. Therefore, inclusion and community support catinot be
based solely on "what to do on Monday" and are not jtist a
program or set of practices. The project of societal inclusion
requires allinvolved to engage in (rather than avoid) difficult
questions about the nature of disability and the practices
surrounding the phenomenon of disability as well as to identify
and challenge the sites of exclusion for individuals with
disabilities within our schools, workplaces, and communities
(Allan, 2008; Brantlinger, 1997; Mintz, 2009; Slee, 2001; Slee
& Allan, 2001).
Scholars in disability studies, whose work is situated in
education, use the analytic tool of deconstruction to expose
exclusionary forces that exist within "inclusive"practices and
programs. Through deconstruction (e.g., Slee & Allan, 2001),
scholars argue that the dialogue necessary to ask critical
questions about the nature of "inclusive" practices is created. In
their 2001 article, Slee
and Allan ask if a "theory of activism" (p. 185) could facilitate
new types of research and knowledge production. Their question
opens a dialogue in which the roles of researchers without
disabilities, activists, and individuals with disabilities are
examined and the political nature of inclusion can be more fully
explored. This type of dialogue is directly relevant to the TASH
community, whose constituents cohere around a disability rights
agenda, which is inherently political. Furthermore, disability
studies scholars working in education (e.g., Allan, 2008;
17. Graham & Slee, 2008; Slee, 1997; Slee & Allan,
2001, among others) conclude that the creation of inclusive
contexts is dependent on, first, deconstruction 76 Ferguson and
Nusbaum and, then, reconstruction of inclusive practice so that
new ways of understanding disability can inform theoryand
research—and thus create the cultural contexts for inclusive and
community-based practice. An example of such work is Mintz's
(2009) unpublished
doctoral dissertation, which used methods consistentwith
critical ethnography to uncover how teachers atan inclusive
elementary school conceptualized "inclusive education." Mintz
found that participating teachers' conceptualizations of
inclusive education were largely linked to the technical
implementation of a set of practices. Furthermore, teachers'
ideas about inclusivity allowed them to situate the educational
segregation of some students
at their school within their ideas about what inclusive
education "was" (the site of data collection had been inclusive
for over 10 years, but was required by district
mandate to create a separate classroom to serve some
students with disabilities in the year of data collection).
Mintz concluded that inclusive education needs to be
taught as both an ideological commitment, as well as
understood in terms of the technical implementation
of research-based practices. Finally, a general educator
teaching in an inclusive classroom in the documentary
"Including Samuel" eloquently supports our point about
inclusive communities by stating: "Inclusion doesn't create
community. Not having inclusion takes away from community"
(Habib, 2008).
Infusing the curriculum with disability studies
Scholarship in disability studies provides a vehicle to
examine social attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions about
disability as well as understand disability as a social
and political category versus something to diagnose,
identify, and label in individuals. Importantly, as Connor
18. (2010, 2011) articulates, this scholarship interrogates
conceptions
of "normal" and in doing so "seeks to engage
everyone-teachers, practitioners, policymakers, scholars
and researchers.. .to rethink our perceptions of difference
and response to those differences" (p. 31). Thus, work in
the field not only broadens the knowledge base about disability
but also expands the epistemological boundaries
of how this knowledge is produced. Situating the study
of disability within and across a range of curricular areas
and including the lived-experience of disability allows
disability-related practitioners to engage with others in
ways that go beyond acceptance or tolerance and that
can foster critical reflection and understanding of the disability
experience and the social phenomena of disability.
In teacher education, disability is situated in programs
specifically designed to respond to disability (such as
communication disorders or special education credentiaiing
programs). General education teacher preparation
programs often address disability in a course using a
"disability-of-the-week" approach. This assumes that the
categorical markers and characteristics of various disability
labels are the most salient ways of knowing about
student disability in schools versus understanding structural,
institutional, pedagogical, and attitudinal constraints
that prohibit students from accessing social and
academic experiences in schools (Young & Mintz, 2008).
Brantlinger (2006) critiqued "the big glossies" (her term
for the mainstream textbooks used in the kinds of courses
previously described) and the reliance on a standard, categorical
approach in most of these texts. Both textbooks
and teacher education courses that focus on disability
categories, characteristics, and labels potentially reinforce
notions of disability as disorder or deficit and reinforce
traditional educational practices that respond to these
markers of difference by trying to fix them so that students
19. with disabilities may become more like their nondisabled
peers (Young & Mintz, 2008). They are founded
on the belief that these categories and characteristics
are the most salient features of the disability experience
and the most meaningful way to understand the position
of disability in schools. Brantlinger instead argues that
teacher education should adopt texts that address student
difference in multidimensional, interdisciplinary, personal,
and critical ways.
In contrast, Connor (2009) used narrative analysis represented
in political cartoons to convey the self-realizations
about academics, social, and personal demands of three
students labeled as leaming disabled in their transition
to coUege. Ferguson (2009) and Valle (2009) both situate
the perspectives and experiences of parents of children
with disabilities within a historical context to more
thoroughly understand the experience of families with
the special education system and professionals in the
field. Both authors discuss the power of professional and
institutional discourse in the identity shaping of students
with disabilities and the tensions and suspicions on
both sides of the professional/family relationship. In
her 2001 piece. Ware asks the question, "Dare we do
Disability Studies?" In this work she describes her efforts
using humanities-based scholarly work in disability studies
with high school teachers to support their dialogue
and critical reflection and begin to explore status quo
assumptions about disability that underpin the educational
system. Collins (2003) and Smith (2007) are examples
of critical investigations into institutional structures
and pedagogical techniques that can either support or
inhibit "ways of knowing" about student disability and
difference that sit in contrast to those found in mainstream
texts.
Employing a disability studies perspective also offers
tremendous richness in K-12 curriculum and creates multiple
20. avenues to trouble the normal-abnormal binary,
which is central to problematizing the status of disability
in many societal contexts. Addressing disability as curriculum
and infusing disability into existing curricular areas
is central to the task of "imagining disability otherwise"
(Ware, 2003). The Center on Human Policy at Syracuse
University (http://www.disabilitystudiesforteachers.org/) offers
a number of resotirces for teachers seeking disability
studies curriculum. Examples of how this might happen
Disability Studies: What Is It? 77
include (a) the disability rights movement as a part of
teaching in the social sciences about the civil rights movement;
(b) the role of American and German eugenics
in disability history, and (c) disability as a meaningful and
powerful analysis tool in literature and art courses. The
Center on Human Policy's Web site offers lesson plans
and curricular resources that connect disability to standards
in various academic content areas as well as include
lesson objectives, questions, resources, and other materials.
In their guide for teachers and teacher educators.
Valle and Connor (2011) address the quesfion "how do I
talk about disability in my classroom?" and encourage
educators to actively and specific challenge normalcy by
making disability and its representafion a specific topic of
conversafion in K-12 classrooms. The authors talk about
the power of silence around the topic of disability and
offer some challenging questions to prompt educators to
address disabuity, itself (rather than only the pedagogical
pracfices one should use to respond to it). VaUe and
Connor argue that by addressing "the elephant in the
room" (p. 190), conversafions about disability have the
potenfial to dispel discomfort and shift the perspective
about disability from deficit or disorder to part of natural,
human variafion and the foundation of a truly inclusive
school community. Situafing disability within and across
K-12 and higher education curriculum can further support
21. the contribufion of multidisciplinary work from disability
studies to the efforts of inclusion across social contexts—
specifically classrooms and educafion communifies where
students with and without disabilifies learn together.
Creating critical and reflective helping professionals
Baglieri et al. (2010) revisited a 2000 article in Remedial
and Special Education that idenfified five key differences
between tradifional special education scholars
and those who saw special education as needing "substantial
reconceptualizafion" (Andrews et al., 2000, p. 258).
The fifth of the key differences between these two groups
in the original arficle identified the need for more selfreflective
teachers who used ethical decision-making
in their work as being a key step in improving special
educafion. The kind of crifical and reflective pracfice
encouraged by those seeking to "reconceptualize" tradifional
special education and, by extension, other applied,
disability-related professions goes beyond considering
quesfions like "did the lesson I taught go well?" Rather,
becoming a critical and reflective pracfitioner requires
that we ask ourselves hard questions that attempt to get
to the social meaning and social consequences of our
work with individuals with disabilifies. Ware (2003)
characterizes
this kind of reflection as "belief in action," which
requires that first we understand/know our beliefs about
disability and thus can begin to explore how our individually
held ideas are carried out in unconscious ways in
our work with individuals with disabilities. This also requires
that we (those of us who idenfify as nondisabled)
willingly examine our nondisabled privilege and power
and acfively ufilize strategies to release the power given
to us because of our "expert" and/or nondisabled status
to undo the ableism that is pervasive in the applied,
disability-related fields. Finally, Ware (2001) offers three
questions for disability-related practifioners that can begin
22. the process of critical reflection:
What can I understand about the identity of others who
appear different from myself?
What can I learn about my own identity through understanding
the identities of others?
Can disability ever represent anything other than a negative
image? (p. 114)
Scholarly, interdisciplinary work in disabuity studies provides
many vehicles with which practifioners and scholars
can begin to develop new meanings about disability and
crifically examine issues of access, employment, education,
sexuality, and representation as well as to ufilize
strategies for disability empowerment and acfivism. By infusing
both professional and K-12 curriculum with these
new and re-conceptualizafions of disabuity represented
in disability studies, questions such as those posed by
Ware might begin to be answered.
Disability studies needs the TASH community
Thus far, much of our focus has been on the contribufions
that disability studies can make to efforts to reconceptualize
policy and pracfice within traditional fields
of special educafion and human services. We strongly believe
that progressive organizafions such as TASH need
to incorporate the new generation of scholarship that is
emerging from interdisciplinary research and conceptual
analysis in disability studies. TASH needs disabuity studies.
However, we also strongly believe that disability studies
needs TASH. Or, at least, the inquiry within disabuity
studies needs to be confronted with the issues and experiences
of an organizafion with a specific interest in people
with significant intellectual disabilities.
While the situation has improved over the last decade
or so, it is still true that certain types of disability identifies
are less commonly the focus of disability studies
research. Among those categories of impairment less well
represented within the disability studies literature is intellectual
23. disability generally, and significant intellectual disability
more specifically. The reasons for this imbalance
are multiple and debated. Simplisfic descripfions of social
construction both inside and outside disability studies
have made it seem somehow less applicable to people with
the most significant cognifive impairments. People with
physical or sensory impairments led the way in early demands
for recogniüon and inclusion in all branches of research
on the experience and meaning of their disabilifies
(Fine & Asch, 1988; Oliver, 1992, 1993). Crifics of social
construcfion (Anastasiou & Kauffman, 2011), on the other
hand, often use the seemingly overwhelming impairments
of significant inteüectual disability as the best example
78 Ferguson and Nusbaum
of an objective reality trumping whatever cultural contingencies
might contribute to the meaning of less pervasive
disabilities. Disability studies, ftom such perspectives, may
bave something to contribute to the exploration of other
disabilities, but not to those where the limitations are so
clearly individual rather than social.
Members of TASH know better. It is essential that
their familiarity with the experiences and contributions
of people with significant intellectual disabilities to our
deeper understanding of buman differences be brought
to a larger audience of disability studies scholars who
have little contact witb such individuals. The process
has already begun. Parent narratives by scbolars within
the humanities have started to illustrate how their life
experiences can make valuable contributions to the disability
studies literature (Berubé, 1996; Gabbard, 2011;
Kittay, 1999; Savarese, 2007). Beyond sucb accounts,
however, disabuity studies needs to learn more about
the possibilities of inclusive policies for those with even
the most significant disabilities. Notions of supported
employment, self-directed services, natural settings, and
informal supports need to be shared with an approach
24. to policy analysis that concentrates on concepts of independent
living and personal attendant care. TASH
needs to help disability studies as a field to expand and
invigorate its conceptual purview beyond its earliest
interests and concerns.
Teaching the Tensions
We would like to conclude tbis paper with a brief discussion
of tbe complications tbat are created wben a
disability studies perspective is introduced into disabilityrelated
applied fields, such as special education or rehabilitation.
We argue that this space—tbe place where the
complications and tensions lie—is the place where it
becomes possible for disability to acbieve truly full inclusion
into our society. For example, contrasting disability
studies with theory and practice in traditional
disability-related fields allows us to understand the tension
between giving students tbe services they need,
while not subscribing these students to a future of social
and economic dependence (Young & Mintz, 2008).
This place of tension between tbe goals of traditional,
disabuity-related fields allows us to ask questions:
Is it possible to minimize impairment by focusing on ability
and celebrating disability?
Can we acbieve both full inclusion in all aspects of life, and
at tbe same time foster a positive disability identity?
Disability studies and the enormous range of work in the
field—historical, literary, artistic, philosophical, sociological,
and beyond—attempts to make visible tbe aspects
and nuances of disability that remain largely invisible
within tbe applied professions, in their focus on reducing
evidence of disability within an individual student or
client. The tensions exposed by disability studies help
us shift the conversation ftom being "about" an individual's
impairment to an understanding of disability
through the range of lenses tbat exist in such a multidisciplinary
field.
25. Finally and importantly, scholars in disability studies
believe strongly that the voice of individuals with disabilities
is a necessity in the production of research and
scholarly work and is central to the epistemology of
disability. As a field, disability studies recognizes and
privileges the knowledge derived from the lived experiences
of people with disabilities. Whenever possible,
scholarly work in the field conducted by nondisabled
researcbers adberes to an emancipatory stance, meaning
that researchers work with participants as coresearchers
("participant-researchers" rather than "subjects"; Connor,
2009). Young and Mintz (2008) point to one of tbe tensions;
then, inherent in employing a disability studies
perspective on researcb about disability in the applied
fields by asking, is it possible to respect the knowledge
gained by expertise wbile at the same time critiquing
the way expert knowledge is used on a day-to-day basis
(p. 500)?
We end with an articulation of tbese tensions—
questions that are not easily answered and that perhaps
are best left open for revisiting tbrough our work. How
can the principles and perspectives of constructivism
and behaviorism interact with each otber in the support
of children and adults with significant intellectual disabilities
for sbared goals of social justice and inclusive
communities? Can pluralistic approaches to research
acknowledge and appreciate the different traditions of
inquiry while sharing goals of rigor and merit to evaluate
our varied claims to generate knowledge? Can an
intellectual home be found (or created) where abstractions
and theoretical analysis are juxtaposed with policy
and practice without either claiming priority of place
over the other?
It is our belief tbat TASH is uniquely positioned to
provide a constructive context witbin wbicb to explore
these questions. It can be a professional context witbin
26. wbicb different perspectives can rub elbows ratber tban
bang heads. That, to us, is the ultimate promise of disability
studies to people witb significant disabilities and
their families.