THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BIG 5 PERSONALITY TRAITS AND LIFE SATISFACTION OF AM...IAEME Publication
The study examines the relationship between the Big five personality traits of N CC female students and life satisfaction in Tiruchirappalli. This study consists of 208 female respondents, who had attended the Annual training camp in Tiruchirappalli. Finings revealed that the Big five personality traits explained about 30.1% of variance in life satisfaction. Among the Big Five traits, extra-version and neuroticism were found to be the strongest predictors of life satisfaction.
Traditional research in leadership has largely relegated followers to the role of passive recipients or, at best, moderators of leader influence and behaviors. However, recent work in the area of followership has begun shifting this focus and emphasizing the possibility that followers actively have an influence over leaders, in particular leader behavior. This paper revisits traditional areas of the leadership literature and builds on the emerging followership literature to reintroduce followers as part of the social context of leaders. In an attempt to build theoretical rationales for how followers influence leader behavior we draw on the social influence (e.g., Social Impact Theory, Latane, 1981) and the power literature to suggest individual (e.g., strength and immediacy of followers) and group level (e.g., number of followers and unity of the group) characteristics that influence leader behaviors as a function of a leader's informational and effect dependence on followers.
The video for this presentation is available on our Youtube channel:
https://youtube.com/allceuseducation A continuing education course for this presentation can be found at https://www.allceus.com/member/cart/index/index?c=
Unlimited Counseling CEUs for $59 https://www.allceus.com/
Specialty Certificate tracks (including criminal justice counseling professional) starting at $89 https://www.allceus.com/certificate-tracks/
Live Webinars $5/hour https://www.allceus.com/live-interactive-webinars/
Instagram: AllCEUs
Pinterest: drsnipes
Examines theories that attempt to explain the motivation for criminal behavior in order to help reduce recidivism and relapse among people with and without addictions in the criminal justice system
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BIG 5 PERSONALITY TRAITS AND LIFE SATISFACTION OF AM...IAEME Publication
The study examines the relationship between the Big five personality traits of N CC female students and life satisfaction in Tiruchirappalli. This study consists of 208 female respondents, who had attended the Annual training camp in Tiruchirappalli. Finings revealed that the Big five personality traits explained about 30.1% of variance in life satisfaction. Among the Big Five traits, extra-version and neuroticism were found to be the strongest predictors of life satisfaction.
Traditional research in leadership has largely relegated followers to the role of passive recipients or, at best, moderators of leader influence and behaviors. However, recent work in the area of followership has begun shifting this focus and emphasizing the possibility that followers actively have an influence over leaders, in particular leader behavior. This paper revisits traditional areas of the leadership literature and builds on the emerging followership literature to reintroduce followers as part of the social context of leaders. In an attempt to build theoretical rationales for how followers influence leader behavior we draw on the social influence (e.g., Social Impact Theory, Latane, 1981) and the power literature to suggest individual (e.g., strength and immediacy of followers) and group level (e.g., number of followers and unity of the group) characteristics that influence leader behaviors as a function of a leader's informational and effect dependence on followers.
The video for this presentation is available on our Youtube channel:
https://youtube.com/allceuseducation A continuing education course for this presentation can be found at https://www.allceus.com/member/cart/index/index?c=
Unlimited Counseling CEUs for $59 https://www.allceus.com/
Specialty Certificate tracks (including criminal justice counseling professional) starting at $89 https://www.allceus.com/certificate-tracks/
Live Webinars $5/hour https://www.allceus.com/live-interactive-webinars/
Instagram: AllCEUs
Pinterest: drsnipes
Examines theories that attempt to explain the motivation for criminal behavior in order to help reduce recidivism and relapse among people with and without addictions in the criminal justice system
AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR
Volume 30, pages 273–283 (2004)
The Influence of Perceived Prison Crowding on
Male Inmates’ Perception of Aggressive
Events
Claire Lawrencen and Kathryn Andrews
School of Psychology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, England
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
This study examines whether, in a male prison, the subjective experience of crowding increases the
likelihood that events are perceived as aggressive in nature, and whether the protagonists involved are
viewed as more hostile, malevolent, and aggressive. In addition, this paper also examines the possible
mediating effects of stress, arousal, and psychological well-being on two hypothesised relationships.
First, these mediating factors are examined for the link between individuals’ personal space preferences
and their perceived level of crowding. Second, these factors are examined for the link between perceived
crowding and interpretations of an aggressive event. Such associations may help to explain why
crowding and aggression are linked within a social interactionist perspective. The results confirmed
previous findings that crowding is linked to increases in arousal and stress, and a reduction in
psychological well-being. This study also found, however, that those inmates who experienced crowding
were also more likely to interpret behaviour as aggressive and violent. This relationship was not
mediated by arousal, stress, or psychological well-being. However, these factors were found to partially
operate in the relationship between personal space preferences and the experience of subjective
crowding. The implications of this study for social interactionist explanations of the link between
crowding and prison violence are offered. Aggr. Behav. 30:273–283, 2004. r 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Keywords: prison crowding; arousal; stress; personal space; perceived aggression
INTRODUCTION
Aggressive and violent behaviour in prisons is a significant problem for penal systems
around the world [Logan et al., 2001; Useem and Goldstone, 2002; Wood and Adler, 2001].
The current research examines whether in such crowded and problematic environments, the
subjective experience of crowding increases the likelihood that events will be perceived as
more aggressive in nature, and whether the protagonists involved will be viewed as more
hostile, malevolent, and aggressive. Such an association may help to explain why crowding
and aggression are linked within a social interactionist perspective. This paper also examines
the possible mediating effects of stress, arousal, and psychological well-being.
n
Correspondence to: Dr. Claire Lawrence, School of Psychology, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD.
E-mail: [email protected]
Received 25 February 2003; amended version accepted 15 May 2003
Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/ab.20024
r.
Splitting the affective atom: Divergence of valence and approach-avoidance mo...Maciej Behnke
Valence and approach-avoidance motivation are two distinct but closely related components of affect. However, little is known about how these two processes evolve and covary in a dynamic affective context.We formulated several hypotheses based on the Motivational Dimensional Model of Affect. We expected that anger would be a unique approach-related rather than avoidancerelated negative emotion. We also expected that high-approach positive emotions (e.g., desire) would differ from low-approach positive emotions (e.g., amusement) producing a stronger link between valence and approach-avoidance motivation. We also explored other dynamic properties of discrete emotions such as the difference between approach-avoidance motivation and valence as a marker of balance within affective components. We asked 69 participants to provide continuous ratings of valence and approach-avoidance motivation for eight standardized clips representing different discrete emotions. Using multilevel modeling, we established a significant relationship between valence and approach-avoidance motivation with high-approach emotions producing a stronger link between valence and approach-avoidance motivation compared to neutral states and lowapproach emotions. Contrary to expectations, we observed that individuals exhibited an avoidance response during anger elicitation. Finally, we found that awe was a distinct positive emotion where approach motivation dominated over valence. These findings are relevant to the theory and research on diverging processes within the core structure of affect.
Draft of Final ProjectPsychology of Criminal Behavior .docxjacksnathalie
Draft of Final Project
Psychology of Criminal Behavior | FP6015
October 28, 2015
Running head: DRAFT OF FINAL PROJECT
1
DRAFT OF FINAL PROJECT
9
Draft of Final Project
Description
Substance use is one of the major causes of violent criminal behaviors in United States. In as much as cases of violence stemming from drugs use are overlooked, violent behavior is linked to drugs and alcohol use in almost three-fourths of the incidences of violence. In as much as violence and substance abuse form components of a lifestyle that entails antisocial and delinquent traits, in many situations the violent behavior actually arises prior to the substance use. The drug use is just part of a risky and dangerous lifestyle. While the abuse of drugs does not broadly lead youths and adults to become engaged in violence, those violent individuals who utilize illegal drugs tend to take part in violent behavior more frequently and to go on with violence much longer than those violent people who do not utilize drugs. This suggests the existence of a strong correlation between substance and alcohol abuse and violent criminal behaviors (Mire & Roberson, 2011).
The alcohol-drug-abuse nexus packages itself in various distinctly different facets. This suggests that alcohol and other substances of abuse may act on the brain mechanisms that lead to a high-risk individual to participate in aggressive and violent behavior (Soyka, 2000). People with costly heroin or cocaine habits may commit violent criminal activities with the purpose of securing the resources for further drug purchases. Narcotic drug dealers, except the alcohol vendors, practice their trades within a violent manner. Alcohol, narcotics, hallucinogens, and psychomotor stimulants differ significantly from each other and in the manner that they are related to dissimilar kinds of violent and aggressive behavior. Generalizations concerning the relationships between drugs and alcohol use, and violence can be made to look complex by the many direct and indirect-levels of interactions. They range from drugs activating aggressions-specific brain mechanisms, to drugs acting as licensure for violent and aggressive behavior. In addition, they may take the form of drugs as the commodities within an illegal distribution system that depends upon violent enforcement strategies, as well as violent behaviors that represent one of the means through which a drug habit is maintained (Reiss, 1994).
The consistently overburdening alcohol-violence linkage, coupled with the rising outbreaks of ‘crack’ cocaine and ice methamphetamine epidemics in the country, offers dramatic cases of serious and complicated public health and legal problems that require redress within a careful and comprehensive way (Soyka, 2000). The systematic proofs for alcohol and other drugs of abuse that act on aggression-specific brain mechanisms, stem majorly from researches in animals, though a few neuroendocrine and other neurochemicsl and neuroph ...
An Existential Function of Enemyship Evidence That People Att.docxnettletondevon
An Existential Function of Enemyship: Evidence That People Attribute
Influence to Personal and Political Enemies to Compensate for
Threats to Control
Daniel Sullivan, Mark J. Landau, and Zachary K. Rothschild
University of Kansas
Perceiving oneself as having powerful enemies, although superficially disagreeable, may serve an
important psychological function. On the basis of E. Becker’s (1969) existential theorizing, the authors
argue that people attribute exaggerated influence to enemies as a means of compensating for perceptions
of reduced control over their environment. In Study 1, individuals dispositionally low in perceived
control responded to a reminder of external hazards by attributing more influence to a personal enemy.
In Study 2, a situational threat to control over external hazard strengthened participants’ belief in the
conspiratorial power of a political enemy. Examining moderators and outcomes of this process, Study 3
showed that participants were especially likely to attribute influence over life events to an enemy when
the broader social system appeared disordered, and Study 4 showed that perceiving an ambiguously
powerful enemy under conditions of control threat decreased perceptions of external risk and bolstered
feelings of personal control.
Keywords: enemyship, control, existential psychology, system belief, risk perception
Our psychological construction of enemyship is a triumph, that con-
sists in truly understanding the value of having enemies.
—Nietzsche (1889/1980)
The psychological functions of friendships and romantic re-
lationships have been extensively examined in the social psy-
chological literature (e.g., Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Thibaut
& Kelley, 1986). Very little attention, however, has focused on
another type of close relationship: enemyship. Some work has
examined the possibility that enemy figures and images are
instrumental at the group level for increasing ingroup cohesion
or justifying collective action (Allport, 1954/1979; Silverstein,
1992); however, this work has not directly examined the psy-
chological significance of enemyships, both political and per-
sonal, for the individual. More recently, researchers have begun
to examine personal enemyship, defined as a hostile relation-
ship in which one person actively seeks another’s downfall
(Adams, 2005; Wiseman & Duck, 1995). However, we are
aware of no prior research examining how and why people
perceive enemy relations, independent of whether those rela-
tions actually exist. To fill this gap, we examined enemyship
defined as the perception that another person or group is using
influence and power to undermine one’s own goals and well-
being.
Enemyship so defined is quite common (Holt, 1989), despite
being viewed as paranoid in some cultural contexts (Adams,
2005). In an effort to explain this observation, we propose that
perceptions of influential personal and political enemies, however
superficially disagreeable, serve an important psyc.
Models or categories of addictionThe moral modelThis is based .docxannandleola
Models or categories of addiction
The moral model
This is based on religious and legal perspective. It acts as guidance to the right and wrong ideology of individual conduct within the society. However, the people who use the ideology exercise their own choices on what to follow. Religion gives a guideline of how people would live together harmoniously, but the law is infinite, therefore, cannot be measured. If we subconsciously know the wrong and right without having a set of guideline does it mean that we are also wrong in God's law. We incur emotional feelings that are unmeasurable and seen through our actions and reactions, Newman et al. 2013. This is in consideration to the consequences that involved due to their action. In the case of alcohol abuse, the individual involved will have addiction to the substance due to personal choice.
Psychological model
This refers to the social and emotional attributes that leads to the substance use. According to Lewis et al. (2014), individualren experience psychological trauma as an aftermath of witnessing violent activities. The effect varies with the age and gender of the individualren involved. Factors consistent in the posttraumatic stress effect include anxiety attacks; heightened stress level; emotional instability; developmental issues; less cognitive and disrupted habitual patterns such as sleep, eating disorder and emotional or physical pain. Life complexities have resulted in acts that have emotional, mentality and ability to act within different individuals. The outcome encompasses merging the understanding of the inner person and the society. The attribution to the concept includes the behavioral, learning, psychodynamic and personality model.
Cognitive has the characteristics of a behavior motivated due to the experiences that occurred in the intake of the drug. For instance, the participant enjoyed the use of the substance would want to indulge in the activity once more. This encourages the repeat action of the individual. However NIAA argues that it results in depression, withdrawal and nervousness of the afflicted. The brain recognizes the substance thus develops withdrawal characteristics in the person.
Learning model use the alcohol to establish positive reinforcement to their attitude, personality or trait. The dependent use the substance so as to reduce attacks that causes nervousness, panic or anxiety, Capuzzi et al. 2012. The hindrance of effectiveness of learning program may be caused by the awareness disconnect of the brain. This caused by the level of trauma that affected the ability of the individual to separate the memory and emotions incapacitating them from learning experience. Rigidity in the behavioral pattern inhibits the learning experience due to the post trauma involvement that form emotional attachment thus incapacitated the adaptability to human assistance. This creates a communication barrier as the individual becomes slow in the learning process in addition inhi ...
Cognitive Psychology: Investigation of Interpersonal Relationships with Self-...JohnJulie1
Ιs there a correlation between feelings, thoughts, and public self-expression - such as appearance and behavior - with self-awareness, the ability to perceive another's perspective, and satisfaction with interpersonal relationships? The aim of the present study was to investigate these relationships, the "need to belong", as described by [1], as well as the relationship between self-awareness and positive relationships and a sense of belonging.
Cognitive Psychology: Investigation of Interpersonal Relationships with Self-...suppubs1pubs1
Ιs there a correlation between feelings, thoughts, and public self-expression - such as appearance and behavior - with self-awareness, the ability to perceive another's perspective, and satisfaction with interpersonal relationships? The aim of the present study was to investigate these relationships, the "need to belong", as described by [1], as well as the relationship between self-awareness and positive relationships and a sense of belonging.
Please read the description of the Religion ethnography carefully an.docxSusanaFurman449
Please read the description of the Religion ethnography carefully and then ask me in class to explain anything that isn't clear. You can also email me with questions.
At the end there is a short list of possible sites for the ethnography: Sikh, Islamic, Jewish, Catholic, Hindu, Buddhist. Shumei. There are other religions and many other sites. Bahai is an interesting religion but you have to be invited to attend by a member.
Mormon the same.
If you have access to a Santeria or similar ceremony, great!
To make the project worthwhile choose a site as different from your own background as you can.
If you have a Christian or Catholic background do not do your paper on any kind of Christian or Catholic service.
You are welcome to attend a non-English language service as long as you understand the language being used.
Be sure to okay your choice with me. Some places that don’t work for this project are Scientology, the Self Realization Fellowship, the Kabbalah Center, SGI Buddhist, Hare Krishna.
INSTRUCTIONS:
Attend a religious activity that you’re curious about and would like to explore.
You must attend a service, not simply visit a religious site.
Examples: a mosque, temple, synagogue, gurdwara.
You can probably find an interesting place of worship near where you live or work.
It’s always a good idea to phone or email the place of worship before you attend.
Research methods must include participant/observation and informal conversation. One slightly more formal interview is desirable.
Be absolutely sure to allow time to stay after the service for food, lunch, other refreshment, or informal gathering. This may well be the most important part of your experience and will enable you to answer the question, “What meaning does this place and this service have for the participants?
You must go some place you’ve never been to before. Do NOT choose your own tradition or somewhere you’re even a bit familiar with. Choose somewhere entirely new and different.
The important thing is to come to the service as an outsider, with the eyes and ears of an anthropologist and take note of everything. Use the skills you’ve learned in this class.
You can attend alone or with a co-researcher or two from the class. Best, you can be the guest(s) of a classmate or someone else you know and discuss the event with them. Invite a classmate or two to attend a service from your tradition.
Do not write about an event you attended in the past. But you can use past experiences for comparison and reflection.
It is almost never appropriate to jot down notes during a religious service. Better, write everything you remember immediately after the event. Get sufficient detail to write what anthropologist Clifford Geertz called “thick”, or rich description.
In writing your paper use terms we've discussed in class and think about connections to the reading we’ve done and films we’ve seen.
OUTLINE
: Include each of these sections.
Title Page,
or top of page: .
PLEASE read the question carefully. The creation of teen ido.docxSusanaFurman449
PLEASE read the question carefully.
The creation of “teen idols” is a tradition that stems back to Tin Pan Alley and the “old guard” way of making music. What were some of the factors that led to this point in the early 60’s? Is it still prevalent? If so, why? Name some examples.
.
More Related Content
Similar to Historically, in the wake of interpersonal violence, the re
AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR
Volume 30, pages 273–283 (2004)
The Influence of Perceived Prison Crowding on
Male Inmates’ Perception of Aggressive
Events
Claire Lawrencen and Kathryn Andrews
School of Psychology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, England
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
This study examines whether, in a male prison, the subjective experience of crowding increases the
likelihood that events are perceived as aggressive in nature, and whether the protagonists involved are
viewed as more hostile, malevolent, and aggressive. In addition, this paper also examines the possible
mediating effects of stress, arousal, and psychological well-being on two hypothesised relationships.
First, these mediating factors are examined for the link between individuals’ personal space preferences
and their perceived level of crowding. Second, these factors are examined for the link between perceived
crowding and interpretations of an aggressive event. Such associations may help to explain why
crowding and aggression are linked within a social interactionist perspective. The results confirmed
previous findings that crowding is linked to increases in arousal and stress, and a reduction in
psychological well-being. This study also found, however, that those inmates who experienced crowding
were also more likely to interpret behaviour as aggressive and violent. This relationship was not
mediated by arousal, stress, or psychological well-being. However, these factors were found to partially
operate in the relationship between personal space preferences and the experience of subjective
crowding. The implications of this study for social interactionist explanations of the link between
crowding and prison violence are offered. Aggr. Behav. 30:273–283, 2004. r 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Keywords: prison crowding; arousal; stress; personal space; perceived aggression
INTRODUCTION
Aggressive and violent behaviour in prisons is a significant problem for penal systems
around the world [Logan et al., 2001; Useem and Goldstone, 2002; Wood and Adler, 2001].
The current research examines whether in such crowded and problematic environments, the
subjective experience of crowding increases the likelihood that events will be perceived as
more aggressive in nature, and whether the protagonists involved will be viewed as more
hostile, malevolent, and aggressive. Such an association may help to explain why crowding
and aggression are linked within a social interactionist perspective. This paper also examines
the possible mediating effects of stress, arousal, and psychological well-being.
n
Correspondence to: Dr. Claire Lawrence, School of Psychology, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD.
E-mail: [email protected]
Received 25 February 2003; amended version accepted 15 May 2003
Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/ab.20024
r.
Splitting the affective atom: Divergence of valence and approach-avoidance mo...Maciej Behnke
Valence and approach-avoidance motivation are two distinct but closely related components of affect. However, little is known about how these two processes evolve and covary in a dynamic affective context.We formulated several hypotheses based on the Motivational Dimensional Model of Affect. We expected that anger would be a unique approach-related rather than avoidancerelated negative emotion. We also expected that high-approach positive emotions (e.g., desire) would differ from low-approach positive emotions (e.g., amusement) producing a stronger link between valence and approach-avoidance motivation. We also explored other dynamic properties of discrete emotions such as the difference between approach-avoidance motivation and valence as a marker of balance within affective components. We asked 69 participants to provide continuous ratings of valence and approach-avoidance motivation for eight standardized clips representing different discrete emotions. Using multilevel modeling, we established a significant relationship between valence and approach-avoidance motivation with high-approach emotions producing a stronger link between valence and approach-avoidance motivation compared to neutral states and lowapproach emotions. Contrary to expectations, we observed that individuals exhibited an avoidance response during anger elicitation. Finally, we found that awe was a distinct positive emotion where approach motivation dominated over valence. These findings are relevant to the theory and research on diverging processes within the core structure of affect.
Draft of Final ProjectPsychology of Criminal Behavior .docxjacksnathalie
Draft of Final Project
Psychology of Criminal Behavior | FP6015
October 28, 2015
Running head: DRAFT OF FINAL PROJECT
1
DRAFT OF FINAL PROJECT
9
Draft of Final Project
Description
Substance use is one of the major causes of violent criminal behaviors in United States. In as much as cases of violence stemming from drugs use are overlooked, violent behavior is linked to drugs and alcohol use in almost three-fourths of the incidences of violence. In as much as violence and substance abuse form components of a lifestyle that entails antisocial and delinquent traits, in many situations the violent behavior actually arises prior to the substance use. The drug use is just part of a risky and dangerous lifestyle. While the abuse of drugs does not broadly lead youths and adults to become engaged in violence, those violent individuals who utilize illegal drugs tend to take part in violent behavior more frequently and to go on with violence much longer than those violent people who do not utilize drugs. This suggests the existence of a strong correlation between substance and alcohol abuse and violent criminal behaviors (Mire & Roberson, 2011).
The alcohol-drug-abuse nexus packages itself in various distinctly different facets. This suggests that alcohol and other substances of abuse may act on the brain mechanisms that lead to a high-risk individual to participate in aggressive and violent behavior (Soyka, 2000). People with costly heroin or cocaine habits may commit violent criminal activities with the purpose of securing the resources for further drug purchases. Narcotic drug dealers, except the alcohol vendors, practice their trades within a violent manner. Alcohol, narcotics, hallucinogens, and psychomotor stimulants differ significantly from each other and in the manner that they are related to dissimilar kinds of violent and aggressive behavior. Generalizations concerning the relationships between drugs and alcohol use, and violence can be made to look complex by the many direct and indirect-levels of interactions. They range from drugs activating aggressions-specific brain mechanisms, to drugs acting as licensure for violent and aggressive behavior. In addition, they may take the form of drugs as the commodities within an illegal distribution system that depends upon violent enforcement strategies, as well as violent behaviors that represent one of the means through which a drug habit is maintained (Reiss, 1994).
The consistently overburdening alcohol-violence linkage, coupled with the rising outbreaks of ‘crack’ cocaine and ice methamphetamine epidemics in the country, offers dramatic cases of serious and complicated public health and legal problems that require redress within a careful and comprehensive way (Soyka, 2000). The systematic proofs for alcohol and other drugs of abuse that act on aggression-specific brain mechanisms, stem majorly from researches in animals, though a few neuroendocrine and other neurochemicsl and neuroph ...
An Existential Function of Enemyship Evidence That People Att.docxnettletondevon
An Existential Function of Enemyship: Evidence That People Attribute
Influence to Personal and Political Enemies to Compensate for
Threats to Control
Daniel Sullivan, Mark J. Landau, and Zachary K. Rothschild
University of Kansas
Perceiving oneself as having powerful enemies, although superficially disagreeable, may serve an
important psychological function. On the basis of E. Becker’s (1969) existential theorizing, the authors
argue that people attribute exaggerated influence to enemies as a means of compensating for perceptions
of reduced control over their environment. In Study 1, individuals dispositionally low in perceived
control responded to a reminder of external hazards by attributing more influence to a personal enemy.
In Study 2, a situational threat to control over external hazard strengthened participants’ belief in the
conspiratorial power of a political enemy. Examining moderators and outcomes of this process, Study 3
showed that participants were especially likely to attribute influence over life events to an enemy when
the broader social system appeared disordered, and Study 4 showed that perceiving an ambiguously
powerful enemy under conditions of control threat decreased perceptions of external risk and bolstered
feelings of personal control.
Keywords: enemyship, control, existential psychology, system belief, risk perception
Our psychological construction of enemyship is a triumph, that con-
sists in truly understanding the value of having enemies.
—Nietzsche (1889/1980)
The psychological functions of friendships and romantic re-
lationships have been extensively examined in the social psy-
chological literature (e.g., Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Thibaut
& Kelley, 1986). Very little attention, however, has focused on
another type of close relationship: enemyship. Some work has
examined the possibility that enemy figures and images are
instrumental at the group level for increasing ingroup cohesion
or justifying collective action (Allport, 1954/1979; Silverstein,
1992); however, this work has not directly examined the psy-
chological significance of enemyships, both political and per-
sonal, for the individual. More recently, researchers have begun
to examine personal enemyship, defined as a hostile relation-
ship in which one person actively seeks another’s downfall
(Adams, 2005; Wiseman & Duck, 1995). However, we are
aware of no prior research examining how and why people
perceive enemy relations, independent of whether those rela-
tions actually exist. To fill this gap, we examined enemyship
defined as the perception that another person or group is using
influence and power to undermine one’s own goals and well-
being.
Enemyship so defined is quite common (Holt, 1989), despite
being viewed as paranoid in some cultural contexts (Adams,
2005). In an effort to explain this observation, we propose that
perceptions of influential personal and political enemies, however
superficially disagreeable, serve an important psyc.
Models or categories of addictionThe moral modelThis is based .docxannandleola
Models or categories of addiction
The moral model
This is based on religious and legal perspective. It acts as guidance to the right and wrong ideology of individual conduct within the society. However, the people who use the ideology exercise their own choices on what to follow. Religion gives a guideline of how people would live together harmoniously, but the law is infinite, therefore, cannot be measured. If we subconsciously know the wrong and right without having a set of guideline does it mean that we are also wrong in God's law. We incur emotional feelings that are unmeasurable and seen through our actions and reactions, Newman et al. 2013. This is in consideration to the consequences that involved due to their action. In the case of alcohol abuse, the individual involved will have addiction to the substance due to personal choice.
Psychological model
This refers to the social and emotional attributes that leads to the substance use. According to Lewis et al. (2014), individualren experience psychological trauma as an aftermath of witnessing violent activities. The effect varies with the age and gender of the individualren involved. Factors consistent in the posttraumatic stress effect include anxiety attacks; heightened stress level; emotional instability; developmental issues; less cognitive and disrupted habitual patterns such as sleep, eating disorder and emotional or physical pain. Life complexities have resulted in acts that have emotional, mentality and ability to act within different individuals. The outcome encompasses merging the understanding of the inner person and the society. The attribution to the concept includes the behavioral, learning, psychodynamic and personality model.
Cognitive has the characteristics of a behavior motivated due to the experiences that occurred in the intake of the drug. For instance, the participant enjoyed the use of the substance would want to indulge in the activity once more. This encourages the repeat action of the individual. However NIAA argues that it results in depression, withdrawal and nervousness of the afflicted. The brain recognizes the substance thus develops withdrawal characteristics in the person.
Learning model use the alcohol to establish positive reinforcement to their attitude, personality or trait. The dependent use the substance so as to reduce attacks that causes nervousness, panic or anxiety, Capuzzi et al. 2012. The hindrance of effectiveness of learning program may be caused by the awareness disconnect of the brain. This caused by the level of trauma that affected the ability of the individual to separate the memory and emotions incapacitating them from learning experience. Rigidity in the behavioral pattern inhibits the learning experience due to the post trauma involvement that form emotional attachment thus incapacitated the adaptability to human assistance. This creates a communication barrier as the individual becomes slow in the learning process in addition inhi ...
Cognitive Psychology: Investigation of Interpersonal Relationships with Self-...JohnJulie1
Ιs there a correlation between feelings, thoughts, and public self-expression - such as appearance and behavior - with self-awareness, the ability to perceive another's perspective, and satisfaction with interpersonal relationships? The aim of the present study was to investigate these relationships, the "need to belong", as described by [1], as well as the relationship between self-awareness and positive relationships and a sense of belonging.
Cognitive Psychology: Investigation of Interpersonal Relationships with Self-...suppubs1pubs1
Ιs there a correlation between feelings, thoughts, and public self-expression - such as appearance and behavior - with self-awareness, the ability to perceive another's perspective, and satisfaction with interpersonal relationships? The aim of the present study was to investigate these relationships, the "need to belong", as described by [1], as well as the relationship between self-awareness and positive relationships and a sense of belonging.
Similar to Historically, in the wake of interpersonal violence, the re (20)
Please read the description of the Religion ethnography carefully an.docxSusanaFurman449
Please read the description of the Religion ethnography carefully and then ask me in class to explain anything that isn't clear. You can also email me with questions.
At the end there is a short list of possible sites for the ethnography: Sikh, Islamic, Jewish, Catholic, Hindu, Buddhist. Shumei. There are other religions and many other sites. Bahai is an interesting religion but you have to be invited to attend by a member.
Mormon the same.
If you have access to a Santeria or similar ceremony, great!
To make the project worthwhile choose a site as different from your own background as you can.
If you have a Christian or Catholic background do not do your paper on any kind of Christian or Catholic service.
You are welcome to attend a non-English language service as long as you understand the language being used.
Be sure to okay your choice with me. Some places that don’t work for this project are Scientology, the Self Realization Fellowship, the Kabbalah Center, SGI Buddhist, Hare Krishna.
INSTRUCTIONS:
Attend a religious activity that you’re curious about and would like to explore.
You must attend a service, not simply visit a religious site.
Examples: a mosque, temple, synagogue, gurdwara.
You can probably find an interesting place of worship near where you live or work.
It’s always a good idea to phone or email the place of worship before you attend.
Research methods must include participant/observation and informal conversation. One slightly more formal interview is desirable.
Be absolutely sure to allow time to stay after the service for food, lunch, other refreshment, or informal gathering. This may well be the most important part of your experience and will enable you to answer the question, “What meaning does this place and this service have for the participants?
You must go some place you’ve never been to before. Do NOT choose your own tradition or somewhere you’re even a bit familiar with. Choose somewhere entirely new and different.
The important thing is to come to the service as an outsider, with the eyes and ears of an anthropologist and take note of everything. Use the skills you’ve learned in this class.
You can attend alone or with a co-researcher or two from the class. Best, you can be the guest(s) of a classmate or someone else you know and discuss the event with them. Invite a classmate or two to attend a service from your tradition.
Do not write about an event you attended in the past. But you can use past experiences for comparison and reflection.
It is almost never appropriate to jot down notes during a religious service. Better, write everything you remember immediately after the event. Get sufficient detail to write what anthropologist Clifford Geertz called “thick”, or rich description.
In writing your paper use terms we've discussed in class and think about connections to the reading we’ve done and films we’ve seen.
OUTLINE
: Include each of these sections.
Title Page,
or top of page: .
PLEASE read the question carefully. The creation of teen ido.docxSusanaFurman449
PLEASE read the question carefully.
The creation of “teen idols” is a tradition that stems back to Tin Pan Alley and the “old guard” way of making music. What were some of the factors that led to this point in the early 60’s? Is it still prevalent? If so, why? Name some examples.
.
Please reflect on the relationship between faith, personal disciplin.docxSusanaFurman449
Please reflect on the relationship between faith, personal discipline, and political integrity. Explain how the Progressive movement and the New Deal Court transformed constitutional interpretation. Briefly give 2 illustrations of how government regulations and/or subsidies (legal plunder, perhaps?) channels behavior and/or distorts markets. 400 WORDS
.
Please read the following questions and answer the questions.docxSusanaFurman449
Please read the following questions and answer the questions
This unit's chapter discussed concerns about quality programming in the media. Different models for assessing culture were discussed:
1) Culture as a Skyscraper Model and 2) Culture as a Map.
Come up with several television shows that serve as examples of “quality” programs and “trashy” programs. What characteristics determine their quality (plots, subject matter, themes, characters…)?
Is there anything you can think of that is “universally trashy”? Or universally in good taste?
On the whole, are Americans seen as having good taste? Why or why not? Is there a country/culture that always seems tasteful in its cultural products?
Which model (Culture as Skyscraper or Culture as Map) makes more sense to you and why?
i need 400 words
.
PRAISE FOR CRUCIAL CONVERSATIONS Relationships ar.docxSusanaFurman449
PRAISE FOR CRUCIAL CONVERSATIONS
"Relationships are the priority of life, and conversations are the
crucial element in profound caring of relationships. This book
helps us to think about what we really want to say. If you want
to succeed in both talking and listening, read this book."
-Dr. Lloyd J. Ogilvie, chaplain, United States Senate
"Important, lucid, and practical, Crucial Conversations is a
book that will make a difference in your life. Learn how to flour
ish in every difficult situation."
-Robert E. Quinn, ME Tracy Collegiate Professor of
OBHRM, University of Michigan Business School
"I was personally and professionally inspired by this book-and
I'm not easily impressed. In the fast-paced world of IT, the success
of our systems, and our business, depends on crucial conversations
we have every day. Unfortunately, because our environment is so
technical, far too often we forget about the 'human systems' that
make or break us. These skills are the missing foundation piece."
-Maureen Burke, manager of training,
Coca-Cola Enterprises, Inc.
"The book is compelling. Yes, I found myself in too many of their
examples of what not to do when caught in these worst-of-all
worlds situations! GET THIS BOOK, WHIP OUT A PEN AND
GET READY TO SCRIBBLE MARGIN NOTES FURIOUSLY,
AND PRACTICE, PRACTICE, PRACTICE THE INVALUABLE
TOOLS THESE AUTHORS PRESENT. I know I did-and it
helped me salvage several difficult situations and repair my
damaged self-esteem in others. I will need another copy pretty
soon. as I'm wearing out the pages in this one!"
-James Belasco. best-selling author of Flight of the Buffalo,
l!l1trl!prl!l1eur. professor. und l!xl!cutive director of the Financial
Tilllrs Knowkdgc Diuloguc
"Crucial Conversations is the most useful self-help book I have
ever read. I'm awed by how insightful, readable, well organized,
and focused it is. I keep thinking: 'If only I had been exposed to
these dialogue skills 30 years ago ... '"
-John Hatch, founder, FINCA International
"One of the greatest tragedies is seeing someone with incredible
talent get derailed because he or she lacks some basic skills.
Crucial Conversations addresses the number one reason execu
tives derail, and it provides extremely helpful tools to operate in
a fast-paced, results-oriented environment."
-Karie A. Willyerd, chief talent officer, Solectron
"The book prescribes, with structure and wit, a way to improve on
the most fundamental element of organizational learning and
growth-honest, unencumbered dialogue between individuals.
There are one or two of the many leadership/management
'thought' books on my shelf that are frayed and dog-eared from
use. Crucial Conversations will no doubt end up in the same con
dition."
-John Gill, VP of Human Resources, Rolls Royce USA
Crucial
Conversations
Crucial
Conversations
Tools for Talking
When Stakes Are High
by
Kerry Patterson, .
Must Be a
hip-hop concert!!!!
attend a
hip-hop concert (in-person or virtual/recorded live concert on DVD or streaming platform) of your choice
THIS month.
After the concert, write an
objective review (1000 - 1500 words) of the concert detailing your experience.
Write A Review and include those questions!!!
The review should include:
1. The names of the performing groups/artists; the date and location of the performance.
2. Describe the setting. Is it a large hall or an intimate theater? What type of audience demographic is there? Young or old? How do they respond to the music?
3. The different styles/genres of songs the artist(s) perform.
4. Use your notes and experience to describe the different musical elements (i.e. melody, harmony, timbre, technology, form, volume, etc.) you recognize in most (if not all) the songs/pieces.
5. Be sure to arrive on time to hear the
entire concert.
6. Attach a photo of the flyer, ticket, or webpage (or social media event) when you submit this assignment.
7. Describe your personal reaction to the concert. List reasons why you think it was successful or not. However, do not make this the center of your paper. It should be
one or two paragraphs at the end. Further, use
data to support your arguments about why it was successful or not successful. (e.g., How did people respond verbally and non-verbally? Was this based on your perception or was there a general consensus? If it is a consensus, then what facts do you have to support this?)
8. Try to do some background research on the genre or artist before and after you attend the concert. This is not a research paper, but if you use any information from any source (including the artist's website), you
must cite it both in-text and on a works-cited page.
.
Mini-Paper #3 Johnson & Johnson and a Tale of Two Crises - An Eth.docxSusanaFurman449
Mini-Paper #3: Johnson & Johnson and a Tale of Two Crises - An Ethics Story Revised Submission
Read the following two PDF documents located at this link: click hereLinks to an external site.
·
Johnson & Johnson’s Tylenol Crisis
·
JNJ’s Baby Powder Crisis: Does Baby Powder Cause Cancer?
·
You are not expected to conduct any outside research
Based on your reading please write a short paper answering the following questions (do not answer with bullets, write a paper):
· JNJ’s response to the Tylenol Crisis is often cited as one of the best historical crisis management leadership examples. Given this perspective:
·
Compare JNJ’s response to the Tylenol Crisis to their response in the Baby Powder Crisis.
·
What actions by JNJ were highly effective in the Tylenol Crisis and why? Explain your examples and why you believe they are best practices
·
What could JNJ improve upon in the Tylenol Crisis?
· After reading JNJ's handling of the Baby Powder Class Action Lawsuit elaborate upon the following:
·
How did JNJs response differ from the Tylenol Crisis in the Baby Powder Lawsuit?
·
Given what you've learned from the Tylenol Crisis what are three potential recommendations/improvements JNJ could have made in the Baby Powder Lawsuit?
·
Ethics Analysis - consider your decision from the perspective of a senior advisor to senior leadership at JNJ (
there is NO right answer here, YOU MAY GIVE OPINION IN FIRST PERSON IN THIS SECTION ONLY (this is a special exception)):
·
· With what ethical actions do you agree or disagree regarding how JNJ handled the Tylenol Crisis?
· With what ethical actions do you agree or disagree regarding how JNJ handled the Baby Powder Crisis?
·
Be sure to reference at least 3 concepts from Chapters 9 and/or 12 in the textbook in answering this mini-paper. Please mark your references with "(textbook)" to make clear the references from the book.
Johnson & Johnson’s Tylenol Crisis
Background
“The killer’s motives remain unknown, but his — or her, or their — technical
savvy is as chilling today as it was 30 years ago.
On Sept. 29, 1982, three people died in the Chicago area after taking
cyanide-laced Tylenol at the outset of a poisoning spree that would claim seven
lives by Oct. 1. The case has never been solved, and so the lingering question —
why? — still haunts investigators.
Food and Drug Administration officials hypothesized that the killer bought
Extra-Strength Tylenol capsules over the counter, injected cyanide into the red
half of the capsules, resealed the bottles, and sneaked them back onto the shelves
of drug and grocery stores. The Illinois attorney general, on the other hand,
suspected a disgruntled employee on Tylenol’s factory line. In either case, it was a
sophisticated and ambitious undertaking with the seemingly pathological go.
Please write these 2 assignments in first person.docxSusanaFurman449
Please write these 2 assignments in
first person view. No need for citation. Please give me two files, the first one is a
Short Paper(600-700 words); the second one is
Long Discussion(450-500 words).
They are all about Art and Politics in Renaissance Florence Period
1. Short Paper
Street corners, guild halls, government offices, and confraternity centers contained works of art that made the city of Florence a visual jewel at precisely the time of its emergence as a European cultural leader. In shared religious and secular spaces, people from the city of Florence commissioned altarpieces, chapels, buildings, textiles, all manner of objects – at home, interior spaces were animated with smaller-scale works, such as family portraits, birth trays, decorated pieces of furniture, all of which relied on patrons, artists, and audiences working with the beauty and power of sensory experience. Like people all over Europe, viewers believed in the power of images, and they shared an understanding of the persuasiveness of art and architecture. Florentines accepted the utterly vital role that art could play as a propagator of civic, corporate, religious, political and individual identity.
Select one or two of the test case studies [that is, talk about Cosimo or Lorenzo the Magnificent or Savonarola's impact on Florence or the new Republic under Soderini] from this Module on Art and Politics in Renaissance Florence, and explore your understanding of people in Florence, who was so alive to the power and communication possibilities in works of art, objects, and spaces throughout the city and beyond.
Word count:
600-700 words
No need for citations.
2. Long Discussion
In this longer discussion forum, create an initial post of
450-500 words that explores these key concepts;
In this discussion post, talk about the political and social messages that you can see in the various works of art commissioned by the Medici, all the while being aware of the debate that was circulating about power and religion. If the content of the work of art is religious, how does the work convey political messages?
a video that may help
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UAqE21zjQH4
.
Personal Leadership Training plan AttributesColumbia South.docxSusanaFurman449
Personal Leadership Training plan : Attributes
Columbia Southern University
Dr. Mark Friske
Current Issues in Leadership
LDR 6302-22.01.00
10/14/2022
Introduction
Personal leadership style
personal leadership style attributes
Characteristics of a democratic leader
Charismatic leadership style
Charismatic leader
Transformational leadership style
Transformational leader
Charismatic vs. transformational
Impacts of transformational leadership
Reflection
Personal leadership style
Democratic leadership style
Embraces diversity and open dialogue as core values.
The leader's role is to provide direction and exercise authority.
Commands respect and admiration from those who follow you.
Moral principles and personal beliefs underpin all choices.
Seek out a wide range of perspectives (Cherry, 2020).
Behaviorist theory is the one that fits my style of leadership the best.
Being the change you wish to see in the world is crucial, in my opinion. According to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, "Behavior is the mirror in which everyone exhibits their picture." My main priorities are the well-being of the team members and developing effective solutions via cooperative effort.
personal leadership style attributes
Active participant
Each person is given a fair chance to speak their mind, and there is no pressure to conform to any one viewpoint.
Values other standpoints
I find it fascinating to hear the perspectives of others. To me, it's crucial that everyone in the team pitches in to find the most effective answer. To me, it's important to give everyone a voice on the team since they all have something unique to offer.
Characteristics of democratic leader
Attribute:
Talk About It
Subcontract Work
Get Other People's Opinions
Friendly
Approachable
Trustworthy
Participative
Motivate Originality
Regard for Others
Build Confidence
Life example
Working as a Management Analyst in the realm of government spending, I am frequently required to communicate with the Program Management Team of a third party firm. No collimated staff members prevent me from personally performing some of the work necessary to maintain an accurate external organization ledger. As a result, I need to be approachable, polite, and nice to my coworkers so that they would feel comfortable confiding in me and trusting me with their ideas. By consistently soliciting feedback from staff and management, I want to foster a culture of collaboration. This fosters innovation on the team and opens minds to new points of view.
Charismatic leadership style
They have excellent communication skills.
Passionate in furthering Their Cause.
Professionals have a lot of experience in their field.
Act with a level head (Siangchokyoo, et al. 2020).
Leadership traits and behavior are under scrutiny.
Win Over Huge Crowds.
Possible drawbacks
Frustratingly Diminished Clarity
Not Enough People to Make It Happen
Charismatic leader
Charismatic leader example:
pr.
Need help on researching why women join gangs1.How does anxi.docxSusanaFurman449
Need help on researching why women join gangs
1.How does anxiety increase the chance of girls joining groups or gangs.
2. sexual abuse on girls joining gangs
3. long-term consequences on girls joining gangs
4. depression and anxiety impact on girls joining gangs
5.death rates of girls joining gangs
6. health risks of girls joining gangs
.
Jung Typology AssessmentThe purpose of this assignment is to ass.docxSusanaFurman449
Jung Typology Assessment
The purpose of this assignment is to assess your personality and how that information might help guide your career choice. Understanding personalities can also help managers know how to motivate employees.
Find out about your personality by going to the Human Metrics website (www.humanmetrics.com - and TAKE the Jung Typology Test - Jung, Briggs, Meyers Types. It is a free test. (Disclaimer: The test, like all other personality tests, is only a rough and preliminary indicator of personality.)
·
Complete the typology assessment
·
Read the corresponding personality portrait and career portrait.
·
Think about your career interests, then answer the following:
How are your traits compatible for your potential career choice (Business Administration)? This should be around 250 words of writing.
R E S E A R CH
Co-administration of multiple intravenous medicines: Intensive
care nurses' views and perspectives
Mosopefoluwa S. Oduyale MPharm1 | Nilesh Patel PhD, BPharm (Hons)1 |
Mark Borthwick MSc, BPharm (Hons)2 | Sandrine Claus PhD, MRSB, MRSC3
1Reading School of Pharmacy, University of
Reading, Reading, UK
2Pharmacy Department, John Radcliffe
Hospital, Oxford University Hospitals NHS
Foundation Trust, Oxford, UK
3LNC Therapeutics, Bordeaux, France
Correspondence
Mosopefoluwa S. Oduyale, Reading School of
Pharmacy, University of Reading, Harry
Nursten Building, Room 1.05, Whiteknights
Campus, Reading RG6 6UR, UK.
Email: [email protected]
Funding information
University of Reading
Abstract
Background: Co-administration of multiple intravenous (IV) medicines down the
same lumen of an IV catheter is often necessary in the intensive care unit (ICU) while
ensuring medicine compatibility.
Aims and objectives: This study explores ICU nurses' views on the everyday practice
surrounding co-administration of multiple IV medicines down the same lumen.
Design: Qualitative study using focus group interviews.
Methods: Three focus groups were conducted with 20 ICU nurses across two hospi-
tals in the Thames Valley Critical Care Network, England. Participants' experience of
co-administration down the same lumen and means of assessing compatibility were
explored. All focus groups were recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analysed using
thematic analysis. Functional Resonance Analysis Method was used to provide a
visual representation of the co-administration process.
Results: Two key themes were identified as essential during the process of co-admin-
istration, namely, venous access and resources. Most nurses described insufficient
venous access and lack of compatibility data for commonly used medicines (eg, anal-
gesics and antibiotics) as particular challenges. Strategies such as obtaining additional
venous access, prioritizing infusions, and swapping line of infusion were used to man-
age IV administration pro.
Journal of Organizational Behavior J. Organiz. Behav. 31, .docxSusanaFurman449
Journal of Organizational Behavior
J. Organiz. Behav. 31, 24–44 (2010)
Published online 22 May 2009 in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/job.621
Towards a multi-foci approach to
workplace aggression: A meta-analytic
review of outcomes from different
yperpetrators
M. SANDY HERSHCOVIS1* AND JULIAN BARLING2
1I. H. Asper School of Business, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
2Queen’s School of Business, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
Summary Using meta-analysis, we compare three attitudinal outcomes (i.e., job satisfaction, affective
commitment, and turnover intent), three behavioral outcomes (i.e., interpersonal deviance,
organizational deviance, and work performance), and four health-related outcomes (i.e.,
general health, depression, emotional exhaustion, and physical well being) of workplace
aggression from three different sources: Supervisors, co-workers, and outsiders. Results from
66 samples show that supervisor aggression has the strongest adverse effects across the
attitudinal and behavioral outcomes. Co-worker aggression had stronger effects than outsider
aggression on the attitudinal and behavioral outcomes, whereas there was no significant
difference between supervisor, co-worker, and outsider aggression for the majority of the
health-related outcomes. These results have implications for how workplace aggression is
conceptualized and measured, and we propose new research questions that emphasize a multi-
foci approach. Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
I admit that, before I was bullied, I couldn’t understand why employees would shy-away from doing
anything about it. When it happened to me, I felt trapped. I felt like either no one believed me or no
one cared. This bully was my direct boss and went out of his way to make me look and feel
incompetent. . . I dreaded going to work and cried myself to sleep every night. I was afraid of
losing my job because I started to question my abilities and didn’t think I’d find work elsewhere.
(HR professional as posted on a New York Times blog, 2008).
Introduction
Growing awareness of psychological forms of workplace aggression has stimulated research interest in
the consequences of these negative behaviors. Workplace aggression is defined as negative acts that are
* Correspondence to: M. Sandy Hershcovis, I. H. Asper School of Business, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba,
Canada. E-mail: [email protected]
yAn earlier version of this study was presented at the 65th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Honolulu, HI.
Received 28 April 2008
Revised 17 March 2009
Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Accepted 4 April 2009
mailto:[email protected]
www.interscience.wiley.com
25 AGGRESSION META-ANALYSIS
perpetrated against an organization or its members and that victims are motivated to avoid (Neuman &
Baron, 2005; Raver & Barling, 2007). Much of this research (e.g., .
LDR535 v4Organizational Change ChartLDR535 v4Page 2 of 2.docxSusanaFurman449
LDR/535 v4
Organizational Change Chart
LDR/535 v4
Page 2 of 2
Organizational Change Chart
Organizational Information
Select an organization that needed a change to its culture as you complete the organizational change information chart.
For each type of information listed in the first column, include details about the organization in the second column.
Indicate your suggested actions for improvement in the third column.
Type
Details
Suggested Actions for Improvement
Vision
Insert the organization’s vision.
Mission
Insert the organization’s mission.
Purpose
Insert the organization’s purpose.
Values
Insert a list of the organization’s values.
Diversity and Equity
Insert the types of the diversity and equity observed in the organization.
Inclusion
Insert examples of overall involvement of diverse groups inclusion in decision-making and process change.
Goal
Identify the goal set for organizational change.
Strategy
Identify the implementation strategies followed to implement the organizational change.
Communication
Identify the communication methods used to communicate organizational change and the change progress.
Organizational Perceptions
Considering the same organizational culture and change goal, rate your agreement from 1 to 5 in the second column with the statement in the first column. Use the following scale:
1. Strongly disagree
2. Somewhat disagree
3. Neither agree nor disagree
4. Somewhat agree
5. Strongly agree
Statement
Rating (1 – 5)
Employees know the organization’s vision.
Employees know the organization’s mission.
Employees know the organization’s purpose.
Employees know the organization’s values.
Overall, the organization is diverse and equitable.
Diverse groups are included in decision making and processes for change.
The change goal was successfully met.
The implementation strategies were effective.
The organization’s communication about the change was effective.
Kotter's 8-Steps to Change
Consider the goal for organizational change that you identified and the existing organizational culture.
For each of Kotter's 8-Steps to Change listed in the first column, rate whether you observed that step during the implementation process in the second column. Use the following scale to rate your observation:
1. Never observed
2. Rarely observed
3. Sometimes observed
4. Often observed
Identify actions you suggest for improvement in the third column.
Step Name
Rating (1 – 4)
Suggested Actions for Improvement
Step 1: Create Urgency.
Step 2: Form a Powerful Coalition.
Step 3: Create a Vision for Change.
Step 4: Communicate the Vision.
Step 5: Remove Obstacles.
Step 6: Create Short-Term Wins.
Step 7: Build on the Change.
Step 8: Anchor the Changes in Corporate Culture.
Copyright 2022 by University of Phoenix. All rights reserved.
Copyright 2022 by University of Phoenix. All rights reserved.
image1.png
.
In this paper, you will select an ethics issue from among the topics.docxSusanaFurman449
In this paper, you will select an ethics issue from among the topics below and provide a 3-4 page paper on the issue.
In the paper, you will address the following:
1. Explain the topic (20%)
2. Why the topic or issue is controversial (25%)
3. Is the controversy justified? Why or why not? (20%)
4. Summarize current research about the issue and at least two credible sources. At least one reference source should discuss the issue from a pro and the other should discuss from a con perspective. (20%)
5. Cite references in APA format (15%)
Topics may include:
Research on animals
Medical Research on prisoners or ethnic minorities
Patient rights and HIPAA
Torture of military prisoners
Off-shore oil drilling and the potential threat to biodiversity
Development in emerging nations and its impact on biodiversity
Stem cell research
Healthcare Accessibility: Right or privilege
Genetically modified organisms
Genetic testing and data sharing
Reproductive rights
Pesticides and Agriculture
Organ transplants and accessibility
Assisted Suicide
Medicinal use of controlled substances/illicit drugs
.
In the past few weeks, you practiced observation skills by watchin.docxSusanaFurman449
In the past few weeks, you practiced observation skills by watching
Invictus, a movie that tells “the inspiring true story of how Nelson Mandela joined forces with the captain of South Africa's rugby team to help unite their country.”
[1]. While watching the film, you were instructed to pay special attention to the factors relating to group dynamics for teams, which include but are not limited to
1. Team beginnings
2. Leader’s behaviors,
3. Communication Patterns,
4. Conflict resolution style,
5. Power styles,
6. Decision making style,
7. Creativity,
8. Diversity.
You were also instructed to identify leadership decisions and leadership styles developed by Nelson Mandela and Francois Pinnear (captain of the rugby team).
Write a paper (1000 words) to the following three questions:
1. Which leadership decision/style has impressed you the most? Why do you feel this way?
2. How does the leader contribute to the development of their leadership ability?
3. What specific decisions made this leader make them such an effective leader? Provide insight on how those under this leadership are affected by decisions made.
.
Overview After analyzing your public health issue in Milestone On.docxSusanaFurman449
Overview: After analyzing your public health issue in Milestone One and studying socioeconomic factors affecting healthcare in this module, you will write a short paper to identify and analyze socioeconomic barriers and supports involved in addressing the public health issue. Your paper must include an introduction to your public health issue, a discussion of socioeconomic barriers to change, a discussion of supports for change, and a conclusion with a call to action for your readers. Assume your readers will include healthcare administrators and managers, as well as healthcare policy makers and legislators.
Prompt: Write a short paper including the following sections:
I. Introduction
A. Introduce your public health issue and briefly explain what needs to change to address the issue.
II. Barriers
A. Identify two potential socioeconomic barriers to change and describe each with specific details.
B. Consider patient demographics (e.g., age, ethnicity, and education), geographic factors (e.g., urban/rural location), and psychographic factors (e.g., eating habits and employment status).
C. Justify your points by referencing your textbook or other scholarly resources.
III. Supports
A. Identify two possible socioeconomic supports for change and describe each with specific details.
B. B. Consider patient demographics (e.g., age, ethnicity, and education), geographic factors (e.g., urban/rural location), and psychographic factors (e.g., eating habits and employment status).
C. C. Justify your points by referencing your textbook or other scholarly resources.
IV. Conclusion
A. Conclude with a clear call to action: What can your readers do to assist in the implementation of the necessary changes?
Rubric Guidelines for Submission: Your short paper must be submitted as a 2-page Microsoft Word document with double spacing, 12-point Times New Roman font, one-inch margins, and at least three sources cited in APA format.
.
Judicial OpinionsOverview After the simulation, justices writ.docxSusanaFurman449
Judicial Opinions
Overview: After the simulation, justices write judicial opinions in reaction to the oral argument, merits briefs, conference, and draft opinions as well as the facts of the case, Constitution, and case law. Justices circulate drafts so they know how their colleagues plan to rule and why, and so they can respond to one another in their final judicial opinion draft.
Instructions: You are a Supreme Court justice preparing an opinion for announcement. Read the case materials: case hypothetical, merits briefs, and judicial opinion drafts of your colleagues, and review your notes from oral argument and conference. Write a majority opinion resolving the major legal question in light of the facts of the case, Constitution, and case law, as well as all case materials: merits briefs, oral argument, and the views of your colleagues (in conference and draft opinions). Opinions must support an argument, refute counterarguments, and respond to attorneys (oral argument and/or merits briefs), and fellow justices (conference and/or draft opinions).
Opinions should contain the following five elements, in the following order:
1. an introductory statement of the nature, procedural posture, and prior result of the case;
2. a statement of the issues to be decided;
3. a statement of the material facts;
4. a discussion of the governing legal principles and resolution of the issues; and
5. the disposition and necessary instructions.
Each of these is developed further below.
Assessment: Complete opinions must support an argument, refute counterarguments, and respond to attorneys (oral argument and/or merits briefs), and fellow justices (conference and/or draft opinions). Strong opinions will be well organized, logically argued, and well supported through reference to and explanation of Supreme Court decisions and legal principles. Assessment rests on how well you make use of, identify, and explain relevant course material. It also rests on staying in character and not diverging from your justice’s political ideology and/or judicial philosophy.
Introduction
The purpose of the Introduction is to orient the reader to the case. It should state briefly what the case is about, the legal subject matter, and the result. It may also cover some or all of the following:
1. The parties: The parties should be identified, if not in the Introduction, then early in the opinion, preferably by name, and names should be used consistently throughout. (The use of legal descriptions, such as “appellant” and “appellee,” tends to be confusing, especially in multi-party cases.)
2. The procedural and jurisdictional status: relevant prior proceedings, and how the case got before the court should be outlined.
Statement of issues
The statement of issues is the cornerstone of the opinion; how the issues are formulated determines which facts are material and what legal principles govern. Judges should not be bound by the attorneys’.
IntroductionReview the Vila Health scenario and complete the int.docxSusanaFurman449
Introduction
Review the Vila Health scenario and complete the interviews with staff at Vila Health Skilled Nursing Facility (SNF). After completing the scenario, you will update the patient safety plan for the SNF and present it to the executive team. The safety plan will include meeting accrediting body requirements as well as regulatory obligations. The plan must be based on evidenced-based best practices and include tools, approaches, and mechanisms for reporting, tracking, and reducing patient safety incidents.
Instructions
After reviewing the Vila Health scenario, present your findings to the executive team at Vila Health by creating a 15-20 slide PowerPoint presentation. To be successful in this assignment, ensure you complete the following steps:
Research the health care organization's (Vila Health SNF) safety plan and propose recommendations to ensure the successes of their best practices.
Assess and propose how to link health care safety goals to those of the organizational strategic plan in order to create and sustain an organization-wide safety culture.
Analyze evidence-based practices within the organization's health care safety program, including falls prevention, medication errors, or others.
Establish protocols to identify and monitor patients who qualify for being at risk for falls, readmission, suicide, or others.
Develop mechanisms to coordinate and integrate risk management approaches into the organization's health care safety strategy.
Create mechanisms and tools as monitors for patients identified for being at risk.
Create ongoing evaluation procedures that provide continuous safe, quality patient care, and sustained compliance with evidence-based practices, professional standards, and regulations.
Submission Requirements
Your presentation should meet the following requirements:
Length:
15–20 slide PowerPoint presentation, excluding the cover slide and references list. Include slide numbers, headings, and running headers.
References:
3–5 current peer-reviewed references.
Format:
Use current APA style and formatting, for citations and references.
Font and font size:
Fonts and styles used should be consistent throughout the presentation, including headings.
.
In studying Social Problems, sociologists (and historians) identify .docxSusanaFurman449
In studying Social Problems, sociologists (and historians) identify "the defining moment" or a specific trigger event that brought about the need for social change (or the need to resist the status quo).
Give a brief history/background story of the social issue, and why and/or how it became a Social Problem. Provide supporting evidence.
What was the "defining moment" that catapulted the social issue into the political arena?
What was public policy was framed to address the problem?
.
I need help correcting an integrative review.This was the profes.docxSusanaFurman449
I need help correcting an integrative review.
This was the professor's feedback: Great job on your first draft :) Few things Past tense throughout the integrative review. Some of the sections are light on detail - need to check the requirements (Integrative review guidelines). This is an integrative review - not a study or project refer to it as an integrative review all the time.
.
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Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
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Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
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June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...
Historically, in the wake of interpersonal violence, the re
1. Historically, in the wake of interpersonal violence,
the restriction of individual freedoms has often
followed. This pattern can be observed at various
levels of analysis. A recent example at the level of
national policy includes the passage of the contro-
versial USA PATRIOT Act by the US Government
in October, 2001, following the September 11th,
2001 terrorist attacks. Since that time, the Act has
been widely criticized for weakening government
protection of civil liberties. Prior research has
demonstrated that surveillance by an authority
figure(s) in itself tends to be experienced as con-
trolling (Lepper & Greene, 1975). Towns and cities
routinely institute curfews, along with various
other restrictions of freedom, following violent
riots. At the person-level, parents, teachers, and
various other authority figures very typically
respond to violent behavior by exercising more
control and taking away the rights of others to
choose. Certainly, these measures of increased
control and restricted freedom are effective toward
achieving some desired ends, at least temporarily,
Interpersonal control, dehumanization,
and violence: A self-determination
theory perspective
Arlen C. Moller1,2 and Edward L. Deci3
Abstract
Interpersonally controlling approaches are often used to keep
2. individuals in line, ostensibly in order to
create a safer, more civilized society. Ironically, emerging
research findings indicate that when people feel
controlled, they often respond by behaving in a less civilized,
more antisocial manner (Gagné, 2003; Knee,
Neighbors, & Vietor, 2001; Mask, Blanchard, Amiot, &
Deshaies, 2005; McHoskey, 1999). The present
research investigation explored whether a process of
mechanistic dehumanization might help to explain
the observed relation between interpersonal control and
antisocial behavior, specifically with regard to
tendencies toward violence. The results indicated that a
significant relation between interpersonal control and
tendencies toward interpersonal violence was partially mediated
by perceived mechanistic dehumanization.
Keywords
aggression, autonomy, dehumanization, hostility, interpersonal
control, mechanistic, self-determination
theory, violence
Paper received 27 December 2008; revised version accepted 31
August 2009.
1Northwestern University
2Gettysburg College
3University of Rochester
Corresponding author:
Arlen C. Moller, Department of Preventive Medicine, 680 N
Lake Shore Dr., Suite 1220, Chicago, IL, USA
[email: [email protected]]
Article
Group Processes & Intergroup Relations
4. extant evidence for this model, including previous
research indicating that dehumanization is also
predictive of antisocial behavior (Chalk &
Jonassohn, 1990; Goff, Eberhardt, Williams, &
Jackson, 2008; Haslam, 2006; Kelman, 1976;
McAlister, Bandura, & Owen, 2005). We also pres-
ent new data linking the experience of being con-
trolled with mechanistic dehumanization; that is,
feeling less human, and viewing humans as more
machine-like.
Defining autonomy versus
interpersonal control
Self-determination theory (SDT) posits that all
human beings share a basic and universal psycho-
logical need for autonomy (Deci & Ryan, 1985a,
2000, 2002, 2008). In this framework, autonomy
is defined as a subjective experience, character-
ized by feeling free and by endorsing one’s
actions. In particular, the experience of auton-
omy is characterized by feeling free of interper-
sonal coercion. In accord with SDT, when people
feel more autonomous, they experience greater
psychological and physical well-being, they are
happier and healthier. However, to the degree
that satisfaction of the need for autonomy is
thwarted, research findings indicate that people
suffer both psychological and physically.
The psychological need for autonomy is
thwarted, namely, by forces related to interpersonal
control—the attempts by other people to pres-
sure, manipulate, or otherwise influence one’s
will. These forces not only include overt tactics,
such as the use of tangible rewards and punish-
5. ments used to control people, but also more
subtle forms of control, such as the use of con-
tingent regard. People are contingently regard-
ing in so far as their love and affection are given
or withdrawn contingently on another person’s
behavior. Controlling language can also be used
to subtly pressure people, and includes words
such as, should, must, and have to (i.e., telling
someone, “you should really work harder”).
Finally, yet another form of control identified
by self-determination theory involves pressure
that comes from within a person. That is, when
people pressure themselves in such a way that
they do not feel as though they are freely or
entirely endorsing their actions. From a self-
determination theory perspective, these internal
forms of pressure result from a process of
incompletely internalizing (or introjecting) con-
trolling forces that originate outside a person,
and thus can ultimately be traced back to inter-
personal control.
Interpersonal control, antisocial
behavior, and violence
Research linking the experience of interpersonal
control to antisocial behavior and violence has
begun to accumulate in a variety of forms. We
begin by reviewing this evidence.
An early study, conducted by Kernis (1982),
investigated the influence of three motivational
orientations (autonomy, control, and impersonal)
on the type of anger expression and degree of
subsequent aggressiveness following a self-
esteem threat. The autonomy orientation is char-
acterized by seeing one’s behavior as freely
6. chosen, whereas the control orientation is charac-
terized by seeing one’s actions as controlled by
external contingencies, such as rewards and pun-
ishments. The impersonal orientation is the
extent to which a person believes that attaining
desired outcomes is beyond his or her control
Moller and Deci 43
and that achievement is largely a matter of luck or
fate. The results indicated that those who scored
higher in autonomy orientation (felt more free)
behaved less aggressively in the lab, while higher
scores on both the control and impersonal orien-
tation scales were related to more self-derogation
(i.e., self-directed aggression). A later study by
Knee and colleagues (2001) demonstrated that
control motivation orientation also predicted
feeling more driving anger as a result of other
drivers’ actions, and was associated with more
aggressive driving and more traffic citations. A
follow-up study by Neighbors, Vietor, and Knee
(2002) monitored 111 participants’ experiences
driving throughout a 10-day period. Again, con-
trol orientation was related to more anger and
aggression while driving.
In a related line of research on prosocial ver-
sus antisocial behaviors, Gagné (2003) found that
an autonomy orientation strongly predicted pro-
social activities both in general, across different
contexts (Study 1), and, specifically, at work
(Study 2). Also, autonomy support from parents
and managers were each marginally significant
7. predictors of prosocial behavior. Gagné ran sev-
eral meditational models demonstrating that sat-
isfaction of the psychological need for autonomy
partially mediated the relation between autonomy
orientation and prosocial behavior, and fully
mediated the relation between autonomy support
and prosocial behavior, in both studies. Mask and
colleagues (2005) also investigated the relation
between trait-level autonomy and prosocial
behaviors. A measure of trait-level autonomy, or
self-determination, predicted more prosocial
behavior (e.g., helping others) and less moral dis-
engagement, less interpersonal harm (e.g., being
verbally aggressive), and less aggressive driving-
related behaviors (e.g., driving drunk).
The experience of being controlled can also
be operationalized by assessing the nature of
one’s goals or aspirations, as extrinsic goals (e.g.,
financial success) are understood to be more con-
trolled, while intrinsic goals (e.g., building com-
munity) are understood to be more autonomous.
In line with this, McHoskey (1999) found that a
control ori entation and extrinsic (controlled)
goals were significantly related to having greater
Machiavellianism, defined as one’s willingness to
manipulate others, while autonomy orientation
and intrinsic (autonomous) goals were signifi-
cantly related to Machiavellianism in the inverse
direction. Further, McHoskey found that auton-
omy orientation was negatively related to nihil-
ism, while control orientation was positively
related to self-estrangement and antisocial behav-
iors (such as cheating in an exam, plagiarism,
stealing, vandalism, getting drunk several nights a
8. week, promiscuity, and being arrested for driving
while intoxicated). Recently, Duriez and col-
leagues (2007) followed up on this work, examin-
ing the relation between extrinsic (controlled) and
intrinsic (autonomous) goals, right-wing authori-
tarianism, social dominance, and racial prejudice.
The authors found that an emphasis on extrinsic
goals was positively related to prejudice across
two studies, and that social dominance partially
mediated the relation. The partial mediation
found in these studies, however, leaves open
the potential for future research to identify
other important process variables, such as
dehumanization.
Dehumanization, antisocial behavior,
and violence
Dehumanization is a psychological construct
which has been very broadly defined as the denial
of humanness to others, the negative conse-
quences of which have been well documented
empirically. These consequences include various
forms of antisocial behavior, especially violence
directed toward those dehumanized. Although an
exhaustive review of this literature is beyond the
scope of the present article (for a recent, more
comprehensive review, see Haslam, 2006), we
highlight here some of the most robust and com-
pelling findings.
Goff and colleagues (2008) found evidence
that White participants implicitly associated
Blacks and apes (i.e., animalistic dehumaniza-
tion), and this association in turn was related to
increased endorsement of violence against Black
suspects in a criminal justice context. In a
9. 44 Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 13(1)
follow-up, archival study the authors found that
news articles written about Blacks convicted of
capital crimes were more likely to contain ape-
relevant language than news articles written about
White convicts. Further, in the archival data,
those who were portrayed as more apelike in
these articles were more likely to be executed by
the state than those who were not. These findings
reported by Goff and colleagues, taken together
with Duriez and colleagues’ (2007) findings that
having more controlled goals was related to
greater racial prejudice, are consistent with the
assertion that dehumanization may play a role in
linking interpersonal control with racial prejudice
and endorsed violence against Blacks.
Following the September 11th, 2001 terrorist
attacks on the United States, McAlister et al.,
(2005) interviewed 1,499 participants in order to
explore the tendency for people to support the
use of violent military force in retaliation.
Endorsement of military force increased signifi-
cantly following the terrorist attacks, and the
results suggest that one important mediator of
endorsing military force involved dehumanizing
the enemy (e.g., “terrorists do not deserve to be
treated like human beings”, and “enemy rulers
and their followers are no better than animals”),
as dehumanization increased significantly from
pre- to post-September 11th.
10. Yet another example of dehumanization being
related to violence concerns the use of dehuman-
ization in connection with genocidal conflicts
(Chalk & Jonassohn, 1990; Haslam, 2006;
Kelman, 1976). Historical accounts reveal that
the perpetrators of genocidal violence have often
espoused ideologies that likened the victims to
vermin and various other “lower” life forms. This
form of dehumanization was documented in
cases that include the Jews during the Holocaust,
Bosnians during the Balkan wars, and Tutsis dur-
ing the genocide in Rwanda. A number of authors
have argued that the process of dehumanization
may make it possible for humans to inflict greater
harm on others by virtue of allowing them to
exclude a group or individual from moral consid-
eration, also known as moral disengagement
(Bandura, 2002; Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara,
& Pastorelli, 1996; Bandura, Underwood, &
Fromson, 1975; Kelman, 1976; Opotow, 1990).
Castano and Giner-Sorolla (2006) explored this
relation across three experiments; specifically, the
tendency for people to infrahumanize (an implicit
form of dehumanization) an out-group in response
to interpersonal violence. That is, when participants
were told that their in-group (humans, British,
White Americans) had perpetuated mass killing of
an out-group (aliens, Australian Aborigines, and
Native Americans), they responded by infrahuman-
izing the out-group more, but only if they also per-
ceived a collective responsibility for their in-group’s
actions. The authors theorized that the process of
infrahumanization, in this case, was a strategy for
people to escape collective guilt and reestablish psy-
11. chological equanimity.
Interpersonal control and
dehumanization
Haslam (2006) recently reviewed the broad litera-
ture on dehumanization, and developed a new
model, differentiating between two forms of
dehumanization: animalistic and mechanistic.
Animalistic dehumanization involves denying
uniquely human attributes to others, representing
them as animal-like, whereas mechanistic dehu-
manization involves denying human nature to
others, representing them as objects or automata.
The present investigation focused on mechanistic
dehumanization, specifically with regard to what
Montague and Matson (1983) referred to as
“technological dehumanization” or “the reduc-
tion of humans to machines” (p. 8). Montague
and Matson posited that this form of dehuman-
ization is a cultural consequence of postmodern
society’s pursuit of industrialization, robotic effi-
ciency, and regularity, and a number of theorists
have since expressed concern over the potential
consequences of technological dehumanization,
per se (Beckers & Schmidt, 2001; Nissenbaum &
Walker, 1998). In designing the present investiga-
tion, we hypothesized that the experience of
being controlled may lead people to feel less
human themselves, and as a consequence see
both themselves and other human beings as
Moller and Deci 45
objects or machines, as opposed to autonomous,
12. living organisms. To the extent that animals are
understood to be autonomous, we specifically
hypothesized that interpersonal control may
lead to mechanistic, as opposed to animalistic,
dehumanization.
Although, to the best of our knowledge, this
hypothesis had not been previously tested, sev-
eral lines of research and theory offer converging
indirect support. deCharms (1968), for example,
wrote of experiencing oneself as an origin or pawn
in the context of personal causation, and posited
that when one feels controlled, coerced, or
manipulated by another person, they come to feel
more pawn-like, and effectively less human. The
concept of autonomy as understood in self-
determination theory is derived to a large mea-
sure from deCharms’ work on personal causation,
and the pawn metaphor has been used to charac-
terize feeling controlled since (Ryan & Grolnick,
1986). Kelman (1976) posited that dehumaniza-
tion involves denying a person “identity” —the
perception of the person “as an individual, inde-
pendent and distinguishable from others, capable
of making choices” (p. 301, italics added), thus
recognizing a possible conceptual connection
between autonomy and dehumanization.
Empirical research has already linked the
experience of self-determination to the human
capacity for empathy, which is one aspect used to
define humanness. Mask and colleagues (2005)
found that greater self-determination was related
to more empathy. Further, in this study, empathy
mediated the relation between self-determination
and helpfulness, interpersonal harm, and aggres-
13. sive driving-related behaviors. A second form of
indirect support linking interpersonal control to
dehumanization concerns the experience of vital-
ity, or life force. Subjective vitality is defined as
the state of feeling alive and alert, and is consid-
ered an aspect of eudaimonic well-being (Ryan
& Deci, 2001). The experience of being con-
trolled has been negatively related to vitality at
both the state level and trait level in numerous
studies (Moller, Deci, & Ryan, 2006; Nix, Ryan,
Manly, & Deci, 1999; Ryan & Deci, 2008; Ryan &
Frederick, 1997).
In the present investigation, we principally
sought to directly test the hypothesis that
interpersonal control is positively related to
dehumanization, specifically mechanistic dehu-
manization. We also sought to replicate and
extend previous research findings linking inter-
personal control and dehumanization to a ten-
dency toward violence, and extend that research
by including a range and variety of previously
underexplored indicators to operationalize this
tendency.
Method
Participants
Some 235 (194 female) adults completed the web
questionnaire. Data was collected on-line during a
five-month period using a web survey method
(February 2005 through June 2005). Participants
were recruited from several sites which host links
to social psychology web research, including:
http://www.socialpsychology.org, http://www.
yahoo.com, http://genpsylab-wexlist.unizh.ch,
http://psych.hanover.edu/research/exponnet.
14. html. All participation was voluntary and no form
of extrinsic compensation was provided. The
mean age for participants was 25.08 years (range:
18–62). The ethnic make-up was as follows:
76.2% White, 4.3% Asian or Pacific Islander, 3%
Black, 10.6% Hispanic, 5.1% Other. The highest
level of education attained by participants in the
sample ranged from some high school education
to the highest levels of graduate education: 1.7%
some high school, 7.2% high school diploma,
44.3% some college, 11.5% associates degree,
14.0% bachelors degree, 6.4% some graduate
school, 7.2% master’s degree, 7.7% held a PhD,
MD, or JD.
Procedure
Each measure was presented on a separate web-
page in the order described below. The order with
regard to scale presentation was not counterbal-
anced. Instructions specific to each scale were
presented at the top of each page.
46 Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 13(1)
Measures
General Causality Orientation Scale (GCOS)
This is an individual difference measure of peo-
ple’s relatively enduring motivational orientations
and was developed for use with individuals who
are at least 17 years of age. Subjects answered three
questions for each of 17 vignettes regarding how
likely they were to interpret events in certain ways
(Deci & Ryan, 1985b). The three questions corre-
15. sponded to autonomy, control, and impersonal
causality orientations. A 5-point scale was used for
each question (1 = very unlikely, 5 = very likely).
The autonomy orientation assesses the extent to
which a person is oriented toward aspects of the
environment that stimulate autonomous motiva-
tion, are optimally challenging, and provide infor-
mational feedback. The control orientation
assesses the extent to which a person is oriented
toward being controlled by rewards, deadlines,
structures, ego-involvements, and the directives of
others. The impersonal orientation assesses the
extent to which a person believes that attaining
desired outcomes is beyond his or her control and
that achievement is largely a matter of luck or fate.
An example of a vignette from the GCOS is: “You
are a plant supervisor and have been charged with
the task of allotting coffee breaks to three workers
who cannot all break at once.” Participants were
asked to rate how likely they would be to respond
in each of the following ways: (a) “Telling the three
workers the situation and having them work with
you on the schedule”; (b) “Find out from someone
in authority what to do or do what was done in the
past”; or (c) “Simply assigning times that each can
break to avoid any problems.” Likelihood ratings
to each hypothetical response correspond to dif-
ferent motivational orientations (in this case, auto-
nomy orientation, control orientation, and
impersonal orientation, respectively). The internal
reliability of each subscale was acceptably high:
Cronbach’s alpha levels of .86 (autonomy orienta-
tion), .77 (control orientation), and .84 (impersonal
orientation).
Self-Determination Scale (SDS) The SDS was
16. designed to assess individual differences in the
extent to which people tend to function in a self-
determined way (Sheldon, 1995; Sheldon, Ryan, &
Reis, 1996). It is thus considered a relatively endur-
ing aspect of people’s personalities which reflects:
(1) being more aware of their feelings and their
sense of self; and (2) feeling a sense of choice with
respect to their behavior. The SDS is a 10-item scale,
with two 5-item subscales. The first subscale is
awareness of oneself, and the second is perceived
choice in one’s actions. Each items consists of two
statements, and participants are asked to rate the
degree to which one statement is more true of them
on a 7-point scale (1 = only statement A is true of
me; 7 = only statement B is true of me). For exam-
ple, “A. I always feel like I choose the things I do; B.
I sometimes feel that it’s not really me choosing the
things I do” (Perceived Choice); and “A. My emo-
tions sometimes seem alien to me; B. My emotions
always seem to belong to me” (Awareness). The
internal reliability of each subscale was acceptably
high; Cronbach’s alpha levels were .73 (Awareness)
and .77 (Perceived Choice).
Autonomy psychological need satisfaction
The autonomy subscale from the Basic
Psychological Need Satisfaction (BPNS) scale was
used to assess the degree to which participants
experienced satisfaction of the basic psychological
need for autonomy in their lives (Baard, Deci, &
Ryan, 2004; La Guardia, Ryan, Couchman, & Deci,
2000). The self-report measure consists of seven
items (e.g., “I feel free to be who I am”) rated on a
7-point scale (1 = not at all; 7 = very much). The
internal reliability was acceptably high; Cronbach’s
17. alpha was .73.
Composite interpersonal control A compos-
ite measure of interpersonal control was created
by standardizing the five subscales related to
this core concept (GCOS–Autonomy Orien-
tation; GCOS–Control Orientation; SDS–
Awareness; SDS–Perceived Choice; BPNS–
Autonomy), reverse scoring when appropriate,
and summing the resulting scores. This compos-
ite measure broadly represents the extent to
which one feels they have been controlled by
other people in their life.
Moller and Deci 47
Mechanistic dehumanization Aron and col-
leagues (Aron, Aron, & Smollan, 1992; Aron,
Melinat, Aron, Vallone, & Bator, 1997) developed
the Inclusion of Other in Self (IOS) measure to
assess closeness between two individuals by asking
about the degree to which individuals feel that
another person, initially a romantic partner, is a
part of their conceptualization of self. The mea-
sure has since been widely adapted to measure
individuals’ experiences of closeness with peers,
parents, family members, organizations, and
groups (e.g., Deci, La Guardia, Moller, Scheiner, &
Ryan, 2006). The IOS consists of seven pairs
of circles labeled Self and Other, that overlap to
various degrees, creating a 7-point, interval scale.
Participants select the pair that best describes their
relationship. For our purpose of measuring dehu-
manization, participants selected circles represent-
18. ing the degree of overlap between “human beings”
and “machines” (collective mechanistic dehuman-
ization; 1 item) and between “me” and “machines”
(individual mechanistic dehumanization; 1 item).
The correlation between responses on these two
items was r = .41, p < .001, a moderate size correla-
tion indicating that although collective and indi-
vidual forms of mechanistic dehumanization share
significant overlap, they are nonetheless conceptu-
ally distinguishable as well. Given that no hypoth-
eses were postulated with regard to distinguishing
these two forms of mechanistic dehumanization,
the two items were also z-scored and combined to
create a composite indicator of overall mechanistic
dehumanization.
Aggression Trait-level aggression was assessed
using Buss and Perry’s (1992) 29-item Aggression
Measure. The measure includes subscales assess-
ing: Physical Aggression (9 items), Verbal
Aggression (5 items), Anger (7 items), and Hostility
(8 items) subscales. Statements (e.g., “Once in a
while I can’t control the urge to strike another per-
son”) are rated on a 7-point scale (1 = extremely
uncharacteristic of me; 7 = extremely characteris-
tic of me). The internal reliability of each subscale
was acceptably high; Cronbach’s alpha levels were
.82 (Physical Aggression), .72 (Verbal Aggression),
.85 (Anger), and .85 (Hostility).
Acceptance of violence Trait-level acceptance
of violence was assessed using the 14-item
Maudsley Violence Questionnaire (MVQ; Walker,
2005). Statements (e.g., “I am totally against vio-
lence”) are rated as either true or false. The internal
reliability of this scale was acceptably high;
19. Cronbach’s alpha was .79.
Composite violence A composite measure of
aggression was created by standardizing the five
subscales related to this core concept (AM–
Physical Aggression; AM–Verbal Aggression;
AM–Anger; AM–Hostility; and Acceptance of
Violence), reverse scoring when appropriate, and
summing the resulting scores. This composite
measure broadly represents one’s tendency toward
the expression of interpersonal violence.
Results
A linear regression approach was used to
analyze these data. The models run were organized
by testing for evidence of the following relations:
(1) interpersonal control predicting tendencies
toward interpersonal violence; (2) interpersonal
control predicting dehumanization; (3) dehu-
manization predicting tendencies toward interper-
sonal violence; (4) mediation; and (5) moderation.
Interpersonal control ↔ interpersonal violence
Interpersonal control was operationalized in five
different ways (GCOS–Autonomy Orientation;
GCOS–Control Orientation; SDS–Awareness;
SDS–Perceived Choice; BPNS–autonomy), as
well as with a composite measure of all five.
Tendencies toward interpersonal violence were
also operationalized in five different ways (AM–
Physical Aggression; AM–Verbal Aggression;
AM–Anger; AM–Hostility; and Acceptance of
Violence), as well as a composite measure. The
correlations between the measures of inter-
personal control and tendencies toward inter-
personal violence are summarized in Table 1.
20. Consistently, trait-level measures of experienced
control were positively correlated with tendencies
toward interpersonal violence, while measures of
48 Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 13(1)
experienced autonomy were negatively correlated
with tendencies toward interpersonal violence.
This pattern of correlations remained significant
when controlling for gender.
Interpersonal control ↔ mechanistic
dehumanization
The correlations between measures of interper-
sonal control and dehumanization are summa-
rized in Table 2. Consistently, trait-level measures
of experienced control were positively corre-
lated with the experience of dehumanization,
while measures of experienced autonomy were
negative correlated with the experience of dehu-
manization. This pattern of correlations remained
significant when controlling for gender.
Mechanistic dehumanization ↔ interpersonal
violence
The correlations between measures of mechanis-
tic dehumanization and tendencies toward inter-
personal violence are summarized in Table 3. A
consistent pattern of significant positive correla-
tions was found between dehumanization and
indicators of a tendency toward interpersonal vio-
lence (physical aggression, anger, and hostility),
with the notable exception of verbal aggression.
21. This pattern of correlations remained significant
when controlling for gender.
Mediation: Interpersonal control →
mechanistic dehumanization →
interpersonal violence
Next, we tested whether mechanistic dehumaniza-
tion would mediate the relation between interper-
sonal control and tendencies toward interpersonal
violence. Baron and Kenny (1986) presented four
steps for establishing mediation. Step 1 involves
showing that the independent variable (i.e., inter-
personal control) is related to the outcome (i.e., a
tendency toward interpersonal violence). This
requirement was met; composite interpersonal
control was significantly related to composite
interpersonal violence, β = .49, p < .001. Step 2
involves showing that the independent variable is
related to the mediator (i.e., mechanistic dehu-
manization). This requirement was met, compos-
ite interpersonal control was significantly related
to composite mechanistic dehumanization, β =
.25, p < .001. Step 3 requires that the mediator
affect the outcome variable, controlling for the
independent variable. This requirement was met;
composite mechanistic dehumanization was
Table 1. Interpersonal control ↔ tendencies toward
interpersonal violence
Physical
aggress.
Verbal
aggress.
22. Anger
Hostility
Accept
violence
Composite
aggress.
GCOS
Autonomous orientation -.23** -.01 -.17* -.26** -.26 -.25**
Controlled orientation .34** .33** .21** .34** .30** .41**
Impersonal orientation .18** .05 .23** .48** .10 .28**
SDS
Perceived choice -.19** -.13 -.28** -.44** -.08 -.36**
Awareness -.28** -.14* -.27** -.54** -.10 -.31**
BPNS
Autonomy satisfaction -.25** -.14* .29** -.55** -.15* -.37**
Composite control .41** .24** .33** .53** .30** .49**
Note: Aggress. = Aggression; * p < .05; ** p < .01.
Moller and Deci 49
significantly related to composite interpersonal
violence, controlling for composite interper-
sonal control, β = .17, p < .05. The fourth and
23. final step for establishing mediation looks at the
relation between the initial predictor variable
and the outcome, controlling for the mediator.
If this effect drops to zero, there is full media-
tion, if it drops significantly (Sobel, 1982), there
is partial mediation. The requirements for par-
tial mediation were met. When composite mech-
anistic dehumanization was controlled for,
the relation between composite interpersonal
control and composite interpersonal violence
dropped (from β = .49 to β = .45); a Sobel test
confirmed that this drop was significant, Sobel’s
z = 2.43, p = .01. Each of the models required
for establishing mediation remained significant
when controlling for gender.
Moderation
Several regression models were run exploring the
potential for direct relations discussed above to
be moderated. In each case, the interaction and
main effects were treated as continuous variables.
First, composite interpersonal control, composite
dehumanization, and the two-way interaction of
these variables were regressed onto composite
interpersonal violence as an outcome; the interac-
tion was nonsignificant, β = -.01, t(229) = -0.16,
p = .87. Next, regression models were run testing
whether age or sex moderated the relations
between either composite interpersonal control
and composite interpersonal violence, or com-
posite dehumanization and composite interper-
sonal violence; none of these interactions
approached significance, all ts < 1.21.
Table 2. Interpersonal control ↔ mechanistic dehumanization
25. violence
Composite
Aggress.
Human–machine .21** .03 .17* .29** .06 .20**
Me–machine .22** .12 .13* .27** .16* .24**
Composite dehumanization .25** .09 .18* .33** .13* .26**
Note: Aggress. = Aggression; * p < .05; ** p < .01.
50 Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 13(1)
General discussion
The results of the present investigation replicated
and extended the evidence for two important
conceptual patterns: (1) the relation between the
experience of interpersonal control and a ten-
dency toward interpersonal violence; and (2) the
relation between experiencing interpersonal con-
trol and the experience of dehumanization.
Further, it introduced evidence for an important
new conceptual connection relating the experi-
ence of interpersonal control to the experience
of dehumanization. The data suggest that trait-
level experiences of interpersonal control were
positively related to both interpersonal violence,
and to the experience of mechanistic dehuman-
ization, whereas feeling more autonomous was
negatively related to these variables. Especially
important were the findings linking the experi-
ence of interpersonal control to greater mecha-
nistic dehumanization (and greater autonomy to
26. feeling more human, and less machine), the first
data of their kind. Further, the relation between
interpersonal control and interpersonal violence
was shown to be partially explained (or mediated)
by mechanistic dehumanization, although the
amount of variance accounted for was very small.
Limitations and future directions
The correlational nature of the data from this
study represents an important limitation, specifi-
cally with regard to establishing causality. Future
studies will need to investigate the relations
explored here using experimental designs; specifi-
cally, manipulating the experience of control (or
the provision of choice) in order to test whether
being more controlled indeed causes people to feel
less human, and in turn behave more violently.
Another limitation of the present investigation
was a reliance on self-report measures of the cen-
tral concepts. Violent behavioral tendencies can
also be assessed more directly in the lab; for
example, by using the allocation of hot sauce
(Lieberman, Solomon, Greenberg, & McGregor,
1999) or volume of noise-blast administered
(Taylor, 1967). Additionally, given that mechanistic
dehumanization was found to partially (as opposed
to fully) mediate the relation between interpersonal
control and tendencies toward interpersonal vio-
lence, and that only a small degree of variance was
accounted for, this implies that the relation
between interpersonal control and interpersonal
violence is complex and that multiple psycholo-
gical constructs, in addition to mechanistic dehu-
manization, may be required to offer a more
complete account.
27. The process through which interpersonal con-
trol may lead to dehumanization and interper-
sonal violence could be a developmental process,
not easily observed in a lab setting. For this rea-
son, future studies should employ a longitudinal
design to help establish the direction of the rela-
tions explored here. For example, by investigating
how controlling parenting styles, such as contin-
gent regard toward children, may lead to dehu-
manization and violence among adults. Such
studies could also include indicators of overt vio-
lence, such as convictions for violent crimes
among at-risk populations.
Yet another future direction for this line of
research concerns relating the feeling of being
more controlled by others to different forms of
violence. Specifically, self-determination theory
differentiates between controlled motivation that
is entirely a function of external contingencies
(e.g., tangible rewards or punishments), also
referred to as external regulation, and controlled
motivation that is derived from internal contin-
gencies (e.g., pride or shame), also referred to as
introjected regulation (Ryan & Connell, 1989). As
people can feel pressured or controlled by forces
internal or external to the self, the target of one’s
aggression may also vary. That is, aggression and
violence may be focused inwardly against the self
(e.g., suicide, and various forms of self-mutila-
tion), and violence can, of course, be focused
outwardly against others (e.g., murder, and vari-
ous forms of assault). As such, we offer a specu-
lative hypothesis that introjected forms of
controlled motivation may be more strongly
28. related to inwardly focused violence, whereas
external forms of controlled motivation may be
more strongly related to outwardly focused
Moller and Deci 51
violence. Future research is needed to test this
hypothesis, as well as the possibility that distinct
forms of dehumanization (e.g., me-machine vs.
humans-machines) may play an important medi-
tational role in understanding this predicted
relation.
Finally, although this research study focused
on mechanistic forms of dehumanization, future
research is needed to investigate whether inter-
personal control may also be related to more
animalistic forms of dehumanization. Haslam
(2006) posits that these two categories of dehu-
manization (animalistic and mechanistic) can be
considered conceptually distinct; however, this
does not rule out the possibility that they might
share common antecedents. Interpersonal con-
trol may also be related to animalistic dehuman-
ization. In particular, the concept of animalistic
dehumanization may be more closely related to
the experience of controlling others, as opposed
to being controlled oneself, as animalistic dehu-
manization is understood to include an implicit
vertical comparison and the belittling or degrada-
tion of the other(s). This follow-up hypothesis is
yet another to be explored in the future.
Conclusion
29. In sum, the present investigation offers a very
early indication of the potential role that dehu-
manization may play in terms of understanding
the complex relation between the psychological
experience of interpersonal control and the ten-
dency toward violence. The preliminary evidence,
however, indicates that authority figures at vari-
ous levels (e.g., policy makers, managers, teachers,
and parents) would do well to temper their ten-
dency to respond to violence with measures that
thwart people’s psychological need for autonomy,
as the ultimate consequence of these strategies
may ironically be to induce even greater violence,
as a function of dehumanization. We anticipate
that further unraveling the complex dynamics
between interpersonal control, dehumanization,
and violence, at various levels of analysis, and in
a wide range of contexts, will be an important
and generative area for future research.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Gabriela Llenín for
her help creating the web survey used for this research.
Additionally, we thank Guy Roth for his insightful
feedback and creative suggestions for follow-up
research. Finally, a special debt of gratitude is owed to
Rachel Naylor for her humanizing influence during the
composition of this manuscript.
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Biographical notes
arlen c. moller is a research assistant professor in
the Department of Preventive Medicine at North-
western University. He received his BA in Psy-
chology from Cornell University, and his Ph.D.
in Social and Personality Psychology from
the University of Rochester. His research focuses
on issues related to human motivation and
well-being.
edward l. deci is a professor of psychology and
the Gowen Professor in the Social Sciences in
the Department of Clinical and Social Psy-
chology at the University of Rochester. He
received his Ph.D. in Psychology from Carnegie
Mellon University. His research examines a vari-
ety of issues in human motivation, isolating
basic processes and testing their application to
education, health care, parenting, mental health,
and work organizations in the US and across
37. cultures. Using both laboratory and field
methods, his work focuses primarily on the
nature and development of self-determination.
For more detail, please see: http://www.psych.
rochester.edu/SDT/
Parental Desensitization to Violence and Sex in Movies
WHAT’S KNOWN ON THIS SUBJECT: Movie ratings designed
to
warn parents about violence and sexual content have permitted
increasing amounts of each in popular films. One potential
explanation for this “ratings creep” is parental desensitization
to
this content as it becomes more prevalent in movies.
WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS: This study adds experimental
evidence
that parents become desensitized to movie violence and sex and
are more willing to allow children to view such content.
abstract
OBJECTIVES: To assess desensitization in parents’ repeated
exposure
to violence and sex in movies.
METHODS: A national US sample of 1000 parents living with
at least 1
target child in 1 of 3 age groups (6 to 17 years old) viewed a
random
sequence of 3 pairs of short scenes with either violent or sexual
content
38. from popular movies that were unrestricted to youth audiences
(rated
PG-13 or unrated) or restricted to those underage 17 years
without adult
supervision (rated R). Parents indicated the minimum age they
would
consider appropriate to view each film. Predictors included
order of
presentation, parent and child characteristics, and parent movie
viewing history.
RESULTS: As exposure to successive clips progressed, parents
sup-
ported younger ages of appropriate exposure, starting at age
16.9
years (95% confidence interval [CI], 16.8 to 17.0) for violence
and
age 17.2 years (95% CI, 17.0 to 17.4) for sex, and declining to
age
13.9 years (95% CI, 13.7 to 14.1) for violence and 14.0 years
(95%
CI, 13.7 to 14.3) for sex. Parents also reported increasing
willingness
to allow their target child to view the movies as exposures
progressed.
Desensitization was observed across parent and child
characteristics,
violence toward both human and non-human victims, and movie
rating.
Those who frequently watched movies were more readily
desensitized
to violence.
CONCLUSIONS: Parents become desensitized to both violence
and sex
in movies, which may contribute to the increasing acceptance of
39. both
types of content by both parents and the raters employed by the
film
industry. Pediatrics 2014;134:877–884
AUTHORS: Daniel Romer, PhD,a Patrick E. Jamieson, PhD,a
Brad J. Bushman, PhD,b,c Amy Bleakley, PhD, MPH,a Anli
Wang, PhD,a Daniel Langleben, MD,a,d and Kathleen Hall
Jamieson, PhDa
aAnnenberg Public Policy Center, and dDepartment of
Psychiatry,
Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; bSchool of Communication and
Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University,
Columbus,
Ohio; and cDepartment of Communication Science, VU
University
Amsterdam, The Netherlands
KEY WORDS
movie violence, movie sex, movie ratings, desensitization,
parents, adolescents
ABBREVIATIONS
CARA—Classification and Rating Administration
CI—confidence interval
MPAA—Motion Picture Association of America
Dr Romer conceptualized and designed the study, conducted the
statistical analyses, and drafted the initial manuscript; Dr
Jamieson conceptualized and designed the study and reviewed
and revised the manuscript; Drs Bushman and Bleakley
contributed to the design of the study and reviewed and revised
the manuscript; Drs Wang and Langleben contributed to the
41. PEDIATRICS Volume 134, Number 5, November 2014 877
ARTICLE
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mailto:[email protected]
http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/doi/10.1542/peds.2014-2803
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In recognition that parents might not
want their children exposed toviolent or
sexuallyexplicitfilms,theMotionPicture
AssociationofAmerica(MPAA),themovie
industry’s trade association, assigns
ratings that warn parents of that con-
tent.1 In recent years, however, the
MPAA’s rating board, the Classification
and Rating Administration (CARA), has
allowed more violent content into the
films it rates as acceptable for adoles-
centsunder theageof 17years(itsPG-13
category for viewers ages 13 years and
older).2–5 For example, the amount of
gun violence in top-grossing PG-13 films
has more than tripled since the PG-13
rating was introduced in 1985.2 Indeed,
in 2012, popular PG-13 films contained
significantly more gun violence than R-
rated films (restricted tochildren under
age 17 years unless accompanied by an
adult), which are more likely to contain
explicit sex.2,4 Although sexual content
has been classified more consistently in
42. the R category,4 there is also evidence
that sex has become more prevalent in
that category.5,6
CARA acknowledges that its standards
have changed over time and attributes
this to the changing standards of par-
ents.1 An alternative and not necessarily
incompatible explanation for this “rat-
ings creep” is that parents on CARA’s
rating board and in the general pop-
ulation have become desensitized by
repeatedexposuretoincreasingamounts
of violence and sex in films.5 Desensi-
tization occurs when repeated expo-
sure to a disturbing stimulus reduces
the emotional response to that con-
tent,7 a phenomenon that has been
observed in response to violent8-13 and
sexual media.14 Consistent with this
interpretation, a Kaiser Family Foun-
dation survey of over 1000 parents
found that parents were less con-
cerned about their children’s exposure
to sex (51% vs 67%) and violence (46%
vs 62%) in 2006 than in 1998.15
Totestthedesensitizationhypothesis,we
asked an online panel of parents to view
a succession of brief movie scenes
containing either violent or sexual con-
tent.Aftereachclip,parentsratedtheage
at which they considered it appropriate
forachildtoviewthefilmfromwhichthe
scene was taken. If desensitization af-
43. fects the reactions of parents, exposure
to successive scenes should reduce the
age at which they would consider it ap-
propriateforachildtoviewsuchcontent.
In addition, desensitization should be
more apparent among parents who con-
sume more movies.
To test the limits of desensitization, we
also examined the effect of increasing
exposure to violence in films not only
directed toward humans but also to-
wardhuman-likecharacters.Inaddition,
we examined whether desensitization
can transfer between violence and sex.
The desensitization hypothesis predicts
that repeated exposure to either dis-
turbing stimulus (graphic violence or
overtsex)candesensitize parents tothe
other type of content.
METHODS
Participants
Participants were 1000 parents who
were members of the online research
panel sponsored by Research Now.15
The panel is representative of online
households, and the firm uses quality
controls that restrict excessive partic-
ipation in surveys. Participants for this
study were adult parents or guardians
of a child residing in the home in 1 of
the following 3 target age groups: 6 to
44. 9 years(n=301),10to12years(n=301),
and 13 to 17 years (n = 398). By MPAA
standards, all of the movies we tested
would be inappropriate for the 2
younger groups. A parent with a child
in more than 1 age group was ran-
domly assigned to 1 group.
Movie Content
We identified brief scenes of violence in
6movies,5ofwhichwereratedaseither
PG-13 or R (see Table 1). An additional
clip was taken from a PG-13 film that
was unrated when released on DVD.
In each case, a character was shown
harming another character, most often
by using a firearm. Two of the clips from
the Terminator series involved victims
of violence that were robots in human
form that attacked humans but were
repulsed with violent action. We also
identified 2 films with brief scenes in-
volving sexual behavior, 1 of which was
rated PG-13 and the other R. The R-rated
clip showed a young male character
TABLE 1 Characteristics of Films Shown in Pairs According to
Content: 1 Set With Sex, Two Sets With Only Human Violence
(A, B), and 1 Set With
Nonhuman Victims of Violence, Resulting in 6 Different Orders
of Film Content
Film Paired Clips Content Length(s) Rating Year of Release
Percent Previously Seen
45. 8 Mile 1 Sex 30 R 2002 45
Casino Royale 1 Sex 42 PG-13 2006 48
Collateral 2A Violence 30 R 2004 45
Taken 2 2A Violence 18 PG-13 2012 42
Die Hard 2B Violence 15 R 1998 50
Live Free or Die Harder 2B Violence 18 Unrated 2007 46
Terminator 3 Nonhuman victim 59 R 1984 49
Terminator Salvation 3 Nonhuman victim 37 PG-13 2009 46
878 ROMER et al
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initiating sex with a female, whereas the
PG-13 film showed a female character
initiating less explicit sex with a male.
All of the films were among the top-25
grossing movies in the year of their
release (see http://www.annenbergpu-
blicpolicycenter.org/test-videos-for-parent-
study/), and between 42% and 50% of the
parents in the sample reported previous
exposure to the films.
Experimental Procedure
Parents were shown 3 pairs of clips in
a random order. The order within each
pair was also random, containing a clip
either from a film rated PG-13 or
R/Unrated.Halfoftheparentssaw1pair
of the 4 human violence clips, and the
other half saw the otherpair. All parents
saw the 2 sex and the 2 violent clips with
46. non-human victims. This design enabled
us to determine order effects for both
sex and violence, with more power to
study effects of violence than of sex.
Wetoldparents,“Wewillshowyoushort
scenes from movies and ask you to tell
us how you feel about children and
adolescents viewing those films.” After
viewing each clip, they were asked
a series of questions about the film
from which the clip was taken. Here we
focus on the question: At what age do
you think it would be ok for a child to
see the movie from which this clip was
taken? Choices ranged from age 6 to 19
years. A second question regarding the
likelihood that parents would allow
their target child to view the film in the
future was also asked. Parents also
reported whether they had previously
seen the movie from which the clip was
taken. After rating all the clips, parents
reported how many movies they watched
on television or a computer in the past
week, including broadcast, cable, and
video streaming. They also completed
a 3-item parental monitoring scale
(Cronbach a = 0.85) that queried their
practices regarding the target child’s
whereabouts and behavior outside the
home.16 Thesurveytookabout20minutes
and was deemed exempt from review
by the University of Pennsylvania In-
stitutional Review Board.
47. Analysis
Mixed-effects regression using Stata 13
(Stata Corp, College Station, TX) was
used to analyze trends in age appro-
priateness across the 6 movie-clip
presentations, with parent and child
characteristics as predictors. This anal-
ysis allowed us to test the effects of
consecutive presentations of either vi-
olent or sexual content as well as dif-
ferences in parent and target child
characteristics.
RESULTS
Demographic characteristics of the
sample (Table 2) indicate that most of
the participants were married biologi-
cal parents and 56% were mothers.
Violence
Table 3 contains the mean ages reported
by parents after viewing violent movies
by presentation order, and various child
and parent characteristics. Preliminary
analyses revealed that the violence clips
were rated equivalently for age appro-
priateness, including the ones involving
non-human characters. Hence, we col-
lapsed the ratings for the 6 violent films
at each presentation order.
48. Preliminary analyses on the sample’s
mean age ratings by presentation order
indicated that a quadratic function
provided extremely good fits (R2 values
$0.97), the results of which we show in
the Figure 1. Analyses shown in Table 4
revealed that presentation order (linear
TABLE 2 Percentages of Sample According to Parental and
Child Characteristics by Age of the
Target Child
Parent Characteristic Age of Target Child, y Total
6 to 9 10 to 12 13 to 17
Marital status
Married 70.8 75.1 71.6 72.4
Single 12.6 8.3 8.8 9.8
Living with partner 9.3 4.7 7.8 7.3
Divorced/other 7.3 11.9 11.9 10.5
Relation to child
Mother 61.1 53.8 54.5 56.3
Father 28.9 34.6 33.2 32.2
Grandparent 4.7 4.3 3.8 4.2
Other 5.3 7.3 8.5 7.3
Age, y
18 to 34 43.5 20.3 12.3 24.1
35 to 44 37.2 46.2 31.7 37.7
45+ 19.3 33.6 56.0 38.2
Child gender
Male 49.1 51.9 54.0 51.9
Female 50.9 48.1 46.0 48.1
49. Education
,High school 1.6 1.6 2.5 2.0
High school 15.6 16.3 18.8 17.1
Some college 35.9 38.2 43.0 39.4
Bachelor degree 33.6 29.9 20.6 27.3
Post-graduate degree 13.3 14.0 15.1 14.2
Race/ethnicitya
White 83.7 87.0 87.4 86.2
Black 9.0 7.6 6.8 7.7
Hispanic 11.0 13.0 10.3 11.3
Asian 4.0 2.7 5.3 4.1
Other 3.3 4.3 1.3 2.8
a Racial/ethnic categories can overlap.
ARTICLE
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http://www.annenbergpublicpolicycenter.org/test-videos-for-
parent-study/
http://www.annenbergpublicpolicycenter.org/test-videos-for-
parent-study/
http://www.annenbergpublicpolicycenter.org/test-videos-for-
parent-study/
and quadratic terms), parental monitor-
ing, and previous exposure to the films
wererelatedtoageappropriateness.Age
judgments declined as a function of
50. presentation order with the quadratic
term reducing the effect of successive
exposures (Fig 1). Parents who had pre-
viously seen more of the clips were less
restrictive overall. They were also more
likelytohavewatchedmoremoviesinthe
pastweek(r=0.28).Theconstanttermin
the model when adjusted for other pre-
dictors represents the age that parents
assigned to the first clip (16.9 years; 95%
CI, 16.8 to 17.0). With each succeeding
clip, however, parents reduced their age
judgment by a little over 1 year, until the
quadratic term became large enough to
reduce the order effect.
Theinteractionbetweenorderandparent
age indicated that older parents were
less subject to desensitization (Fig 1A). In
addition, the more movies parents had
watched in the past week, the less re-
strictivetheywereastheysawadditional
clips (Fig 1B). In particular, those viewing
11 or more movies rated the first clip at
age 16.6 years (95% CI, 15.6 to 17.6) but
the last 1 at age 12.0 years (95% CI, 11.0
to 13.0). For parents who viewed fewer
movies, the effect of order was weaker.
Parents who viewed no movies rated the
last clip at age 14.8 years (95% CI, 14.2 to
15.4), whereas those who viewed be-
tween 3 and 4 movies rated the final clip
at age 13.9 years (95% CI, 13.5 to 14.3).
Target child’s gender did not influence
parents’ age judgments, nor did parent
51. education and income. Analysis of the
random effects (not shown) indicated
that parents who assigned older ages
to the first clip displayed greater de-
sensitization as they watched sub-
sequent clips.
Sex
Table 3 contains the mean ages repor-
ted by parents for the average of the
2 movies containing sex. Like violence,
order of presentation (linear and qua-
dratic terms) was related to judgments
ofageappropriateness(Table4).Parents
rated the first sexual clip at age 17.2
years (95% CI, 17.0 to 17.4) and the last
at age 14.0 years (95% CI, 13.7 to 14.3).
Previous exposure to the films was also
inversely related to age judgments. Un-
like violence, the target child’s gender
and age mattered for sex. Parents were
more restrictive if their target child was
older (Fig 1C) or female (Fig 1D). Parents
who monitored their children more
closely were also more restrictive.
However, age of child or gender did not
interact with order of presentation.
Like violence, parent age interacted with
presentationordersuchthatolderparents
were less subject to desensitization.
Unlike violence, movie-watching experi-
ence did not interact with order of pre-
sentation. Nevertheless, it is clear that
desensitizationtosexoccurrednotonly
52. when the 2 sex clips were shown in the
first 2 positions, but also when they
followed clips with violent content.
Desensitizationtoviolenceoccurredeven
when sexual clips preceded violent ones.
Agejudgmentsinresponsetoviolencein
thethirdandfourthpositionswererated
equivalently regardless of whether the
first 2 clips contained sex or violence
(data not shown).
Unliketherandomcomponentresultsfor
violence, initial age judgments were
positivelyrelatedtoorder,indicatingthat
parentswhostartedoutmorerestrictive
exhibited less desensitization for sexual
content as they watched more clips.
TABLE 3 Mean Ages Assigned to Movies With Either Violence
or Sex by Age of Child, Order of
Presentation, Parental Monitoring, Number of Movies Seen
Before, Child Gender,
Number of Movies Watched Past Week, and Parent Age
Predictor Age of Child, y
Total6 to 9 10 to 12 13 to 17
Violence Sex Violence Sex Violence Sex Violence Sex
Order
1 16.7 17.0 16.8 17.2 17.1 17.4 16.9 17.2
2 15.5 15.8 16.0 15.9 16.0 16.5 15.8 16.1
3 14.6 14.3 14.9 15.0 15.3 15.3 15.0 14.9
4 14.5 14.2 14.5 14.7 14.9 15.1 14.7 14.6
53. 5 13.7 13.3 13.6 13.8 14.3 14.7 13.9 14.0
6 13.4 13.5 13.7 13.6 14.4 14.5 13.9 14.0
Total by age 14.7 14.8 14.9 15.1 15.3 15.6 15.0 15.2
Parental monitoringa
Low 14.7 14.3 14.4 14.6 15.3 15.7 14.9 15.1
Medium 14.7 14.9 15.1 15.3 15.3 15.4 15.1 15.3
High 14.8 14.9 15.0 15.1 15.5 15.7 15.0 15.2
Movies seen before
None 16.1 16.0 16.8 16.0 16.6 16.6 16.5 16.2
1 to 2 15.1 15.2 15.0 15.3 15.5 15.9 15.3 15.5
3 to 5 14.4 14.4 14.7 14.9 15.0 15.2 14.7 14.9
6 13.7 13.8 12.9 13.9 14.5 15.0 13.7 14.2
Child gender
Male 14.6 14.4 14.9 14.9 15.2 15.4 15.0 15.0
Female 14.8 15.1 14.9 15.2 15.5 15.8 15.1 15.4
Recent movies watched
None 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.9 15.8 15.9 15.7 15.8
1 to 2 14.7 14.9 15.1 15.6 15.4 15.8 15.1 15.4
3 to 4 15.1 14.9 14.7 14.7 15.2 15.5 15.0 15.1
5 to 10 14.2 14.0 14.8 14.8 15.1 15.1 14.7 14.7
11+ 14.3 14.8 13.4 13.2 15.1 15.3 14.1 14.2
Parent age, y
18 to 34 14.2 14.5 14.1 14.2 15.1 15.4 14.4 14.6
35 to 44 15.1 14.8 15.1 15.2 14.9 14.9 15.0 15.0
45+ 15.1 15.3 14.9 15.4 15.6 16.0 15.4 15.7
a Trichotomized into approximately equal proportions of the
sample.
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Target Child Viewing
Likelihoodofallowingthetargetchildto
view the films was inversely correlated
with age judgments (r’s = 20.45 and
20.47 for violence and sex, respectively).
In addition, linear and quadratic order
effects were evident with greater le-
niency as exposures progressed (see
Tables 5 and 6). A major difference was
that the age of the child played a
stronger role than the age of the par-
ent for both violence and sex, with
parents being less restrictive for older
children.
DISCUSSION
When parents viewed film clips con-
tainingeitherviolenceorsexthatmight
FIGURE 1
Best fitting curves (R2 $ 0.97) for age appropriateness by order
of presentation for violence according to A, parents of different
ages and B, parents with
different amounts of movie watching, and for sex according to
C, children of different ages and D, gender.
TABLE 4 Fixed Effects in Regression Analysis of Age
55. Appropriateness for Violent and Sexual Movies
Predictor Violence Sex
Coefficient 95% CI Probability Coefficient 95% CI Probability
Linear order 21.29 21.48 to 21.11 ,0.001 21.80 22.10 to 21.50
,0.001
Quadratic order 0.09 0.07 to 0.11 ,0.001 0.15 0.12 to 0.18
,0.001
Child age 0.16 20.00 to 0.32 0.055 0.35 0.18 to 0.53 ,0.001
Child gendera 0.00 20.24 to 0.25 0.985 0.37 0.10 to 0.63 0.006
Parental monitoring 0.16 0.00 to 0.31 0.051 0.21 0.04 to 0.38
0.015
Movies seen before 20.57 20.72 to 20.41 ,0.001 20.55 20.72 to
20.37 ,0.001
Parent age 0.15 20.06 to 0.35 0.162 0.00 20.31 to 0.32 0.976
Recent movies 20.03 20.17 to 0.12 0.737 20.12 20.34 to 0.10
0.294
Watched 0.06 0.01 to 0.11 0.024 0.08 0.00 to 0.17 0.041
Order 3 parent age
Order 3 movies watched 20.04 20.08 to 20.01 0.020 20.02 20.08
to 0.05 0.624
Constant 18.25 17.5 to 19.0 ,0.001 18.69 17.7 to 19.7 ,0.001
a Coded as male = 1 and female = 2.
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be inappropriate for children, desensi-
56. tization was clearly evident even within
the short duration of this study. As suc-
cessive clips were seen, movies regarded
as only appropriate for older adoles-
cents soon became more acceptable for
younger ages. The order effect occurred
regardless of whether the violence was
directed at a human or a human-like
character and regardless of the film’s
rating. Desensitization also occurred for
sexual content, not only when the 2
sexual clips were shown first, but also
later in the viewing sequence, indicating
transferfromviolence tosex. Inaddition,
there was no difference in response to
violent clips whether they were pre-
ceded by sexual content or not. These
patterns suggest that desensitization is
possible not only within but also across
violent and sexual content.
The results support the operation of
a very basic reduction in emotional
response produced by repeated expo-
sures to sex and violence. Desensiti-
zation has also been found to transfer
from fictional media to real-life vio-
lence.8,11 Although the arousal pro-
duced by both sexual and violent
content probably played a role, it is
likely that the disturbing nature of the
content contributed to the transfer
between violence and sex. One study
that compared repeated exposure to
57. arousing comedic versus violent film
clips found a much weaker and differ-
ent pattern of desensitization in re-
sponse to comedic clips, suggesting
that arousal is not sufficient to produce
desensitization.13 Other research reached
the same conclusion.18
TABLE 5 Mean Ratings of Likelihood of Allowing Target Child
to View Movies With Either Violence
or Sex by Age of Child, Order of Presentation, Parental
Monitoring, Number of Movies
Seen Before, Child Gender, Number of Movies Watched Past
Week, and Parent Age
Predictor Age of Child, y
6 to 9 10 to 12 13 to 17 Total
Violence Sex Violence Sex Violence Sex Violence Sex
Order
1 1.96 1.65 2.08 1.81 3.20 2.73 2.49 2.10
2 2.37 2.16 2.77 2.56 4.18 3.87 3.22 2.92
3 2.72 2.63 3.20 3.13 4.51 4.23 3.57 3.41
4 2.92 2.68 3.46 3.39 4.82 4.50 3.84 3.61
5 3.18 3.16 3.98 3.90 5.13 5.16 4.17 4.22
6 3.11 3.02 3.85 3.97 4.93 5.12 4.02 4.18
Total by age 2.72 2.52 3.23 3.12 4.45 4.30 3.56 3.40
Parental monitoring
Low 3.25 2.92 3.60 3.41 4.46 4.38 3.93 3.77
Medium 2.78 2.39 3.11 2.94 4.49 4.33 3.69 3.48
High 2.48 2.41 3.10 3.09 4.35 4.13 3.15 3.06
Movies seen before
58. None 1.89 1.76 2.00 2.38 3.40 3.22 2.57 2.57
1 to 2 2.20 2.11 3.07 2.77 3.99 3.98 3.18 3.06
3 to 5 2.96 2.74 3.46 3.42 4.92 4.68 3.88 3.71
6 4.25 3.67 4.17 3.70 5.42 5.31 4.63 4.24
Child gender
Male 2.94 2.67 3.27 3.31 4.63 4.56 3.74 3.64
Female 2.54 2.39 3.21 2.94 4.21 3.98 3.38 3.16
Recent movies watched
None 1.97 2.26 2.81 2.32 3.85 3.90 3.11 3.08
1 to 2 2.72 2.35 3.01 2.75 4.31 4.15 3.39 3.13
3 to 4 2.66 2.48 3.42 3.38 4.49 4.16 3.66 3.46
5 to 10 3.00 2.89 3.23 3.45 4.99 5.04 3.81 3.87
11+ 3.58 2.77 4.21 4.03 4.98 4.15 4.20 3.67
Parent age, y
18 to 34 3.00 2.62 3.61 3.71 4.42 4.38 3.44 3.26
35 to 44 2.56 2.51 3.13 3.08 4.72 4.62 3.49 3.42
45+ 2.42 2.29 3.12 2.82 4.30 4.11 3.70 3.49
Parents were asked, “How likely is it that you would allow
(target child) to see this movie in the future?” Response options
ranged from extremely unlikely (1) to neither unlikely or likely
(4) to extremely likely (7).
TABLE 6 Fixed Effects in Regression Analysis of Likelihood of
Allowing Child to View Either Violent or Sexual Movies in the
Future
Predictor Violence Sex
Coefficient 95% CI Probability Coefficient 95% CI Probability
Linear order 0.80 0.68 to 0.93 ,0.001 1.05 0.88 to 1.24 ,0.001
Quadratic order 20.08 20.09 to 20.06 ,0.001 20.10 20.12 to
59. 20.08 ,0.001
Child age 0.73 0.56 to 0.90 ,0.001 0.49 0.26 to 0.73 ,0.001
Child gendera 20.17 20.35 to 0.01 0.069 20.32 20.52 to 20.11
0.002
Parental monitoring 20.19 20.31 to 20.08 0.001 20.21 20.33 to
20.08 0.002
Movies seen before 0.61 0.48 to 0.73 ,0.001 0.54 0.41 to 0.68
,0.001
Parent age
Recent movies 20.10 20.22 to, 0.30 0.133 20.11 20.25 to 0.03
0.141
Watched 0.04 20.08 to 0.17 0.488 0.11 20.07 to 0.28 0.238
Order 3 child age 0.05 0.01 to 0.09 0.007 0.11 0.05 to 0.17
,0.001
Order 3 movies watched 20.04 0.01 to 0.06 0.021 0.01 20.04 to
0.06 0.724
Constant 1.49 0.92 to 2.07 ,0.001 1.20 0.53 to 1.88 ,0.001
a Coded as male = 1 and female = 2.
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We also found that the more movies
parents had watched in the past week,
the less restrictive they became as
exposure to violent clips progressed. In
addition, previous exposure to the
movies shown, which was related to
frequency of movie viewing, was a pre-
dictor of greater leniency for both vio-
lence and sex. These findings support
the view that not only does desensi-
60. tization occur in the study’s short time
frame, but that it can also accrue over
time, so that parents become less dis-
turbed by violent and sexual content in
movies the more they view it.
The finding that desensitization to vio-
lence can also extend to sex suggests
thattherecentriseinviolentfilmsinthe
PG-13 category2 may also have influ-
enced the way parents evaluate films
with sex. This conclusion is consistent
with declining reported parental con-
cern about both violence and sex in
films.15 In short, recent increases in
film violence may have made parents
more tolerant of both violence and sex
in movies.
The wide variation in response to these
films underscores the challenges that
any global rating system faces in pro-
vidingparentsusefulinformationabout
film content.19 Older parents were less
sensitive to presentation order for
both violence and sex, perhaps be-
cause they have stronger emotional
reactions to the explicit content in
these films. In addition, parents of all
ages were more likely to consider their
own child’s age and gender in response
to sex, recommending greater restric-
tion when they had older or female
children. Nevertheless, when it came to
deciding what their own children
should watch in the future, parents of
61. older children appeared to recognize
that their children would soon be ma-
ture enough to view the films.
The finding that violence directed
against human-like characters elicited
the same response asviolence directed
toward humans suggests that it is the
violent act itself that parents found
disturbing. Indeed, responses to the
films did not differ despite different
ratings for either sex or violence. These
broad results suggest that desensi-
tization may have far-reaching effects.
As parents become inured to violence
and sex in films, they will be less likely
to shield their children from such
content. Children may then also be-
come desensitized to violence, which
could reduce their empathy for the
suffering of others11,12,20 and encourage
aggressive responses to conflict.21,22
Exposure to sex may also lead to early
sexual initiation23 as well as increased
risk for teen pregnancy.24
Althoughour findingsmay notextendto
CARA’s behavior, CARA board members
are also parents selected to represent
families across the country.1 Given that
they preview and rate hundreds of
films a year,25 they could also be
desensitized to disturbing content in
films and thus more likely to be lenient
62. when it comes to evaluating the appro-
priateness of such content for chil-
dren.5 This could help to explain the
ratings creep that has occurred in
films containing violence over the past
20 years. As the industry has pushed
for the PG-13 rating, especially for vio-
lent films that draw large audiences in
the United States and abroad, parents
as well as CARA may have become more
accepting of violent content. As a re-
sult, our entire culture may be un-
dergoing desensitization to violent
movies with consequences that remain
unknown. One possible outcome of this
desensitization is the greater accep-
tance of the use of guns, which are
heavily featured in violent PG-13 mov-
ies.2 Indeed, use of guns in violent acts
has increased in US youth over the past
decade.26 Considering that movies may
enhance associations between guns
and violence,2,27 the effects on chil-
dren’s exposure to violent use of weap-
ons in movies remains surprisingly
unstudied.28 The present findings sug-
gest that this should be a high priority
for future research.
An alternative explanation for our
findings is that viewing any series of
movie clips would result in more tol-
erance of the portrayed behavior.
However, this seems unlikely, because
neutral clips would presumably be ac-
63. ceptableforchildrenatamuchyounger
age than 17 years, the approximate age
suggested for all of the studied clips
when they were first viewed. Thus, even
if there were some effects on age
judgmentsowingtorepeatedviewing,it
is unlikely that they would produce the
steepagedeclineobservedinthisstudy.
Despite the clear findings, we also
recognize some limitations that invite
further research. Because of concerns
regarding respondent burden, we did
not measure participants’ emotional
reactions to each film clip. Thus, we do
not have direct evidence that emotional
reactions declined over successive
viewings. However, earlier research
has established that emotional reac-
tions are less intense with repeated
viewings of violence.8,18,29 With the ex-
ception of pornography,14 less is known
about repeated viewings of sex and its
effects on subsequent viewing of vio-
lence. In addition, we did not expose
parents to as many clips containing sex
as violence. Thus, we have less confi-
dence in the generality of the findings
regarding sexual content.
Our sample was drawn from a national
panel that is not necessarily repre-
sentative of parents in the United
States. However, characteristics such
as education and income were not
related to desensitization. Furthermore,
64. ourstudywasnotdesignedtodetermine
national rates of tolerance to movie vi-
olence and sex, but rather to determine
whether parents across a wide range
of characteristics would exhibit a sys-
tematic pattern of desensitization to
ARTICLE
PEDIATRICS Volume 134, Number 5, November 2014 883
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violent and sexual content over repeated
viewings.
CONCLUSIONS
Thefindingssuggestthatdesensitization
to films with violent or sexual content
poses major challenges for the assign-
ment of film ratings. CARA raters who
presumably see many films in a week
may be subject to desensitization that
affects their ratings. At the same time,
parents may also be more accepting of
lenient ratings as they are repeatedly
exposed to films with violent or sexual
content. and may be more willing to al-
low their children to view it.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
65. WethanktheteamatResearchNowand
Jeremy Quattlebaum of APPC for pro-
gramming the online study materials.
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77. speculation as to whether the Internet may also be harmful to
one's
social and psychological well-being. The argument has been
pre-
sented the Internet could cause users to become socially inept
and
isolated, whereas others believe the increased interaction could
improve social relationships (Kraut et al., 1998). Unfortunately,
the
use of the Internet to perpetrate cyberbullying may present a
stronger argument for the detrimental effects of the technology.
Bullying is a major problem in today's society and occurs at
many different ages and in many different forms. With the
increase
in the use of technology, a disturbing trend worldwide is cyber -
bullying, where individuals can harass others online through
emails, text messaging, and social media websites 24 h a day,
seven
days a week. The anonymity cyberbullying provides gives
bullies a
sense of power and control that otherwise might not be present
if
they were face-to-face with their victims. Also, the prevalence
of
this topic in current news and media can be empowering to an
individual because of gained publicity, even if he or she is the
only
one aware he or she is the bully in question.
The purpose of this literature review was to enhance awareness
of the prevalence of cyberbullying in higher education among
higher education students, administrators, and faculty. While
several studies regarding cyberbullying in higher education
exist,
further investigation is needed to examine characteristics of