https://userupload.net/gznap6xirndk
The oral mucosa is the mucous membrane lining the inside of the mouth and consists of stratified squamous epithelium termed oral epithelium and an underlying connective tissue termed lamina propria.[1] The oral cavity has sometimes been described as a mirror that reflects the health of the individual.[2] Changes indicative of disease are seen as alterations in the oral mucosa lining the mouth, which can reveal systemic conditions, such as diabetes or vitamin deficiency, or the local effects of chronic tobacco or alcohol use.[3] The oral mucosa tends to heal faster and with less scar formation compared to the skin.[4] The underlying mechanism remains unknown but research suggest that extracellular vesicles might be involved
Bleeding Disorders: Causes, Types, and Diagnosis Dr Medical
1) Bleeding disorders can involve vascular, platelet, or coagulation disorders and cause symptoms like bruising, bleeding, and prolonged bleeding from minor cuts.
2) Important bleeding disorders discussed include hemophilia A (factor VIII deficiency), hemophilia B (factor IX deficiency), von Willebrand disease (a disorder of the von Willebrand clotting factor), and fibrinogen deficiency.
3) These disorders are diagnosed through tests of bleeding time and clotting factor levels and activity. Treatment involves replacing the missing clotting factor through products like cryoprecipitate, desmopressin, or clotting factor concentrates.
This document summarizes the epidemiology of periodontal diseases globally and in India based on numerous studies. Key findings include:
- Gingivitis and mild to moderate periodontitis are highly prevalent worldwide, especially in developing countries and among older age groups.
- In India, studies show gingivitis is nearly universal among schoolchildren and adults. The prevalence and severity of periodontitis increases with age.
- The National Oral Health Survey of India found over 50% of 12-year-olds had periodontal disease, increasing to nearly 90% among 35-44 year olds. Loss of attachment also increased significantly with age.
https://userupload.net/l2enk8kbflj8
Incidence, mortality, and survival are the primary measures for assessing the impact of cancer in population groups. Incidence is the frequency of new cancer cases during a defined period of time, generally expressed as the rate per 100,000 persons per year; the mortality rate is the frequency of cancer deaths per 100,000 persons per year. The observed survival rate is the proportion of persons with cancer who survive for a specified period of time after diagnosis, usually 5 years. This statistic is often presented as a relative survival rate, in which survival from cancer is corrected for the likelihood of dying from other causes.
Dentist patient relationship and quality careDr Medical
https://userupload.net/mo2f5z40rv8v
Although quality is a genuine concern for dentistry, nowadays more emphasis is placed on quality issues. As dentist-patient interaction is involved in many aspects of care and it is more crucial for dentistry when compared to many other professions, a good dentist-patient relationship is an integral element of quality care. This series of 'practice articles' examines various important dimensions of this interaction. The first and second papers examine the value of trust and communication, the third paper focuses on informed consent and the fourth paper evaluates the relatively broadened role of dentists in behavioural modification.
https://userupload.net/06gt5zcwvh90
Genetic counseling is the process of advising individuals and families affected by or at risk of genetic disorders to help them understand and adapt to the medical, psychological and familial implications of genetic contributions to disease.[1] The process integrates:
Interpretation of family and medical histories to assess the chance of disease occurrence or recurrence
Education about inheritance, testing, management, prevention, resources
Counseling to promote informed choices and adaptation to the risk or condition.
https://userupload.net/yk8shpcpwk19
Dentistry can do so much these days to improve a person’s health, appearance and self-confidence. From barely noticeable braces that straighten crooked smiles to dental implants that replace missing teeth, there is a state-of-the-art solution to virtually any dental problem. Of course, like anything that involves the time and resources of skilled professionals, highly technical and sophisticated dental treatment doesn’t come inexpensively; indeed, the phrase “you get what you pay for” probably applies doubly to dentistry. Also, the types of treatment mentioned above, as well as many others, are often considered elective and therefore may not be covered (or only partially covered) by dental insurance. This can be the case even when a given procedure offers proven health benefits.
https://userupload.net/8mky0eijld91
An understanding of the physiology of body fluids is essential when considering appropriate fluid resuscitation and fluid replacement therapy in critically-ill patients. In healthy humans, the body is composed of approximately 60% water, distributed between intracellular and an extracellular compartments. The extracellular compartment is divided into intravascular, interstitial and transcellular compartments. The movement of fluids between the intravascular and interstitial compartments, is classically described as being governed by Starling forces, leading to a small net efflux of fluid from the intravascular to the interstitial compartment. More recent evidence suggests that a model incorporating the effect of the endothelial glycoclayx layer, a web of glycoproteins and proteoglycans that are bound on the luminal side of the vascular endothelium, better explains the observed distribution of fluids. The movement of fluid to and from the intracellular compartment and the interstitial fluid compartment, is governed by the relative osmolarities of the two compartments. Body fluid status is governed by the difference between fluid inputs and outputs; fluid input is regulated by the thirst mechanism, with fluid outputs consisting of gastrointestinal, renal, and insensible losses. The regulation of intracellular fluid status is largely governed by the regulation of the interstitial fluid osmolarity, which is regulated by the secretion of antidiuretic hormone from the posterior pituitary gland. The regulation of extracellular volume status is regulated by a complex neuro-endocrine mechanism, designed to regulate sodium in the extracellular fluid.
The document discusses pain pathways, including the history, definitions, classifications, theories, neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, transduction, transmission, modulation, perception, and management of pain. It covers the components of the nervous system involved in pain pathways from receptors to higher brain centers. Key concepts include the gate control theory of pain, central sensitization, referred pain, modulation by psychological factors, and the biopsychosocial model of pain.
Bleeding Disorders: Causes, Types, and Diagnosis Dr Medical
1) Bleeding disorders can involve vascular, platelet, or coagulation disorders and cause symptoms like bruising, bleeding, and prolonged bleeding from minor cuts.
2) Important bleeding disorders discussed include hemophilia A (factor VIII deficiency), hemophilia B (factor IX deficiency), von Willebrand disease (a disorder of the von Willebrand clotting factor), and fibrinogen deficiency.
3) These disorders are diagnosed through tests of bleeding time and clotting factor levels and activity. Treatment involves replacing the missing clotting factor through products like cryoprecipitate, desmopressin, or clotting factor concentrates.
This document summarizes the epidemiology of periodontal diseases globally and in India based on numerous studies. Key findings include:
- Gingivitis and mild to moderate periodontitis are highly prevalent worldwide, especially in developing countries and among older age groups.
- In India, studies show gingivitis is nearly universal among schoolchildren and adults. The prevalence and severity of periodontitis increases with age.
- The National Oral Health Survey of India found over 50% of 12-year-olds had periodontal disease, increasing to nearly 90% among 35-44 year olds. Loss of attachment also increased significantly with age.
https://userupload.net/l2enk8kbflj8
Incidence, mortality, and survival are the primary measures for assessing the impact of cancer in population groups. Incidence is the frequency of new cancer cases during a defined period of time, generally expressed as the rate per 100,000 persons per year; the mortality rate is the frequency of cancer deaths per 100,000 persons per year. The observed survival rate is the proportion of persons with cancer who survive for a specified period of time after diagnosis, usually 5 years. This statistic is often presented as a relative survival rate, in which survival from cancer is corrected for the likelihood of dying from other causes.
Dentist patient relationship and quality careDr Medical
https://userupload.net/mo2f5z40rv8v
Although quality is a genuine concern for dentistry, nowadays more emphasis is placed on quality issues. As dentist-patient interaction is involved in many aspects of care and it is more crucial for dentistry when compared to many other professions, a good dentist-patient relationship is an integral element of quality care. This series of 'practice articles' examines various important dimensions of this interaction. The first and second papers examine the value of trust and communication, the third paper focuses on informed consent and the fourth paper evaluates the relatively broadened role of dentists in behavioural modification.
https://userupload.net/06gt5zcwvh90
Genetic counseling is the process of advising individuals and families affected by or at risk of genetic disorders to help them understand and adapt to the medical, psychological and familial implications of genetic contributions to disease.[1] The process integrates:
Interpretation of family and medical histories to assess the chance of disease occurrence or recurrence
Education about inheritance, testing, management, prevention, resources
Counseling to promote informed choices and adaptation to the risk or condition.
https://userupload.net/yk8shpcpwk19
Dentistry can do so much these days to improve a person’s health, appearance and self-confidence. From barely noticeable braces that straighten crooked smiles to dental implants that replace missing teeth, there is a state-of-the-art solution to virtually any dental problem. Of course, like anything that involves the time and resources of skilled professionals, highly technical and sophisticated dental treatment doesn’t come inexpensively; indeed, the phrase “you get what you pay for” probably applies doubly to dentistry. Also, the types of treatment mentioned above, as well as many others, are often considered elective and therefore may not be covered (or only partially covered) by dental insurance. This can be the case even when a given procedure offers proven health benefits.
https://userupload.net/8mky0eijld91
An understanding of the physiology of body fluids is essential when considering appropriate fluid resuscitation and fluid replacement therapy in critically-ill patients. In healthy humans, the body is composed of approximately 60% water, distributed between intracellular and an extracellular compartments. The extracellular compartment is divided into intravascular, interstitial and transcellular compartments. The movement of fluids between the intravascular and interstitial compartments, is classically described as being governed by Starling forces, leading to a small net efflux of fluid from the intravascular to the interstitial compartment. More recent evidence suggests that a model incorporating the effect of the endothelial glycoclayx layer, a web of glycoproteins and proteoglycans that are bound on the luminal side of the vascular endothelium, better explains the observed distribution of fluids. The movement of fluid to and from the intracellular compartment and the interstitial fluid compartment, is governed by the relative osmolarities of the two compartments. Body fluid status is governed by the difference between fluid inputs and outputs; fluid input is regulated by the thirst mechanism, with fluid outputs consisting of gastrointestinal, renal, and insensible losses. The regulation of intracellular fluid status is largely governed by the regulation of the interstitial fluid osmolarity, which is regulated by the secretion of antidiuretic hormone from the posterior pituitary gland. The regulation of extracellular volume status is regulated by a complex neuro-endocrine mechanism, designed to regulate sodium in the extracellular fluid.
The document discusses pain pathways, including the history, definitions, classifications, theories, neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, transduction, transmission, modulation, perception, and management of pain. It covers the components of the nervous system involved in pain pathways from receptors to higher brain centers. Key concepts include the gate control theory of pain, central sensitization, referred pain, modulation by psychological factors, and the biopsychosocial model of pain.
https://userupload.net/3ppacneii1wj
Toxicologic Pathology (Second Edition), 2010
INTRODUCTION
The oral mucosa is, in many ways, similar to the skin in its architecture, function, and reaction patterns. This section only emphasizes those characteristics of the oral mucosa that influence or result in a distinct group of pathologic entities.
Because of its location at the entrance of the digestive and respiratory tracts and its proximity to the teeth, the oral mucosa is subjected to numerous natural and man-made xenobiotics. The peculiar architecture and absorption characteristics of the oral mucosa, especially in areas of extreme thinness, coupled with the rich microorganism flora of the mouth, makes the oral mucosa a peculiar site deserving separate discussion.
https://userupload.net/6jbhjqr3gczd
Behavioural sciences explore the cognitive processes within organisms and the behavioural interactions between organisms in the natural world. It involves the systematic analysis and investigation of human and animal behavior through the study of the past, controlled and naturalistic observation of the present, and disciplined scientific experimentation and modeling. It attempts to accomplish legitimate, objective conclusions through rigorous formulations and observation.[1] Examples of behavioral sciences include psychology, psychobiology, anthropology, and cognitive science. Generally, behavior science deals primarily with human action and often seeks to generalize about human behavior as it relates to society
Antifluoridation lobby - Water fluoridation controversyDr Medical
https://userupload.net/u5vppli3jy1y
The water fluoridation controversy arises from political, moral, ethical, economic, and health considerations regarding the fluoridation of public water supplies.
Public health authorities throughout the world find a medical consensus that fluoride therapy at appropriate levels is a safe and effective means to prevent dental caries,[1] whether by fluoridation of the public water supply or topical application strategies.[2][3] Proponents of water fluoridation see it as a question of public health policy and equate the issue to vaccination and food fortification, claiming significant benefits to dental health and minimal risks
Breastfeeding provides numerous benefits to both mother and child, while bottle-feeding and pacifier use can pose certain risks. The document discusses how breastfeeding promotes proper dental, facial, and airway development in infants. It also reduces risks of various health issues. In contrast, bottle-feeding is linked to issues like dental decay, ear infections, and abnormal facial growth. The document advocates exclusive breastfeeding for six months in accordance with major health organizations' guidelines.
1. Several classifications of child behavior in dental settings are discussed, including Wilson's, Wright's, and Lampshire's classifications.
2. Factors like age, temperament, home environment, and past dental experiences can influence a child's behavior. Children's behaviors range from cooperative to disruptive.
3. Rating scales like Frankl's and the Houpt scale can be used to assess a child's level of anxiety or cooperation during dental treatment. Understanding a child's behavioral patterns is important for effective behavior guidance.
Anemia Causes, Types, Symptoms, Diet, and Treatment Dr Medical
https://userupload.net/0gv9ijneu7hf
Anemia is a condition that develops when your blood lacks enough healthy red blood cells or hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a main part of red blood cells and binds oxygen. If you have too few or abnormal red blood cells, or your hemoglobin is abnormal or low, the cells in your body will not get enough oxygen.
https://userupload.net/69zxggv1yww1
The mouth and teeth play an important role in social interactions around the world. The way people deal with their teeth and mouth, however, is determined culturally. When oral healthcare projects are being carried out in developing countries, differing cultural worldviews can cause misunderstandings between oral healthcare providers and their patients. The oral healthcare volunteer often has to try to understand the local assumptions about teeth and oral hygiene first, before he or she can bring about a change of behaviour, increase therapy compliance and make the oral healthcare project sustainable. Anthropology can be helpful in this respect. In 2014, in a pilot project commissioned by the Dutch Dental Care Foundation, in which oral healthcare was provided in combination with anthropological research, an oral healthcare project in Kwale (Kenia) was evaluated. The study identified 6 primary themes that indicate the most important factors influencing the oral health of school children in Kwale. Research into the local culture by oral healthcare providers would appear to be an important prerequisite to meaningful work in developing countries.
https://userupload.net/ucq2c1km5pb7
Preventive dentistry aims to stop the progression of dental caries by promoting daily habits and clinical therapies that either promote the remineralization of the tooth surface or prevent the formation of the oral biofilm responsible for lowering the oral pH levels in an attempt to prevent cavity formation.
Here is an overall glance on some recent concepts/advances in preventive dentistry with a detail note on pit and fissure sealants
Anomalies of the first and second branchial archesDr Medical
https://userupload.net/8n9v7tg9jkl1
Anomalies of the branchial arches are the second most common congenital lesions of the head and neck in children [1]. They may present as cysts, sinus tracts, fistulae or cartilaginous remnants and present with typical clinical and radiological patterns dependent on which arch is involved. The course of a particular branchial anomaly is caudal to the structures derived from the corresponding arch and dorsal to the structures that develop from the following arch. Branchial anomalies are further typed into cysts, sinuses, and fistulas.
Ankyloglossia a congenital oral anomaly Dr Medical
https://userupload.net/h9ig9byum706
Ankyloglossia, also known as tongue-tie, is a congenital oral anomaly that may decrease mobility of the tongue tip and is caused by an unusually short, thick lingual frenulum, a membrane connecting the underside of the tongue to the floor of the mouth. Ankyloglossia or tongue-tie is the result of a short, tight, lingual frenulum causing difficulty in speech articulation due to limitation in tongue movement. Ankyloglossia is a congenital condition in which a neonate is born with an abnormally short, thickened, or tight lingual frenulum that restricts mobility of the tongue. Ankyloglossia may be associated with other craniofacial abnormalities, but is also often an isolated anomaly.
Bleeding disorders Causes, Types, and DiagnosisDr Medical
https://userupload.net/v3l4i8jsk7wq
Factor II, V, VII, X, or XII deficiencies are bleeding disorders related to blood clotting problems or abnormal bleeding problems. Von Willebrand's disease isthe most common inherited bleeding disorder. It develops when the blood lacks von Willebrand factor, which helps the blood to clot.
Our backs are like superheroes, holding us up and helping us move around. But sometimes, even superheroes can get hurt. That’s where slip discs come in.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a simplified look into the mechanisms involved in the regulation of respiration:
Learning objectives:
1. Describe the organisation of respiratory center
2. Describe the nervous control of inspiration and respiratory rhythm
3. Describe the functions of the dorsal and respiratory groups of neurons
4. Describe the influences of the Pneumotaxic and Apneustic centers
5. Explain the role of Hering-Breur inflation reflex in regulation of inspiration
6. Explain the role of central chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
7. Explain the role of peripheral chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
8. Explain the regulation of respiration during exercise
9. Integrate the respiratory regulatory mechanisms
10. Describe the Cheyne-Stokes breathing
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 42, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 36, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 13, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/Pt1nA32sdHQ
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/uFdc9F0rlP0
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Integrating Ayurveda into Parkinson’s Management: A Holistic ApproachAyurveda ForAll
Explore the benefits of combining Ayurveda with conventional Parkinson's treatments. Learn how a holistic approach can manage symptoms, enhance well-being, and balance body energies. Discover the steps to safely integrate Ayurvedic practices into your Parkinson’s care plan, including expert guidance on diet, herbal remedies, and lifestyle modifications.
https://userupload.net/3ppacneii1wj
Toxicologic Pathology (Second Edition), 2010
INTRODUCTION
The oral mucosa is, in many ways, similar to the skin in its architecture, function, and reaction patterns. This section only emphasizes those characteristics of the oral mucosa that influence or result in a distinct group of pathologic entities.
Because of its location at the entrance of the digestive and respiratory tracts and its proximity to the teeth, the oral mucosa is subjected to numerous natural and man-made xenobiotics. The peculiar architecture and absorption characteristics of the oral mucosa, especially in areas of extreme thinness, coupled with the rich microorganism flora of the mouth, makes the oral mucosa a peculiar site deserving separate discussion.
https://userupload.net/6jbhjqr3gczd
Behavioural sciences explore the cognitive processes within organisms and the behavioural interactions between organisms in the natural world. It involves the systematic analysis and investigation of human and animal behavior through the study of the past, controlled and naturalistic observation of the present, and disciplined scientific experimentation and modeling. It attempts to accomplish legitimate, objective conclusions through rigorous formulations and observation.[1] Examples of behavioral sciences include psychology, psychobiology, anthropology, and cognitive science. Generally, behavior science deals primarily with human action and often seeks to generalize about human behavior as it relates to society
Antifluoridation lobby - Water fluoridation controversyDr Medical
https://userupload.net/u5vppli3jy1y
The water fluoridation controversy arises from political, moral, ethical, economic, and health considerations regarding the fluoridation of public water supplies.
Public health authorities throughout the world find a medical consensus that fluoride therapy at appropriate levels is a safe and effective means to prevent dental caries,[1] whether by fluoridation of the public water supply or topical application strategies.[2][3] Proponents of water fluoridation see it as a question of public health policy and equate the issue to vaccination and food fortification, claiming significant benefits to dental health and minimal risks
Breastfeeding provides numerous benefits to both mother and child, while bottle-feeding and pacifier use can pose certain risks. The document discusses how breastfeeding promotes proper dental, facial, and airway development in infants. It also reduces risks of various health issues. In contrast, bottle-feeding is linked to issues like dental decay, ear infections, and abnormal facial growth. The document advocates exclusive breastfeeding for six months in accordance with major health organizations' guidelines.
1. Several classifications of child behavior in dental settings are discussed, including Wilson's, Wright's, and Lampshire's classifications.
2. Factors like age, temperament, home environment, and past dental experiences can influence a child's behavior. Children's behaviors range from cooperative to disruptive.
3. Rating scales like Frankl's and the Houpt scale can be used to assess a child's level of anxiety or cooperation during dental treatment. Understanding a child's behavioral patterns is important for effective behavior guidance.
Anemia Causes, Types, Symptoms, Diet, and Treatment Dr Medical
https://userupload.net/0gv9ijneu7hf
Anemia is a condition that develops when your blood lacks enough healthy red blood cells or hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a main part of red blood cells and binds oxygen. If you have too few or abnormal red blood cells, or your hemoglobin is abnormal or low, the cells in your body will not get enough oxygen.
https://userupload.net/69zxggv1yww1
The mouth and teeth play an important role in social interactions around the world. The way people deal with their teeth and mouth, however, is determined culturally. When oral healthcare projects are being carried out in developing countries, differing cultural worldviews can cause misunderstandings between oral healthcare providers and their patients. The oral healthcare volunteer often has to try to understand the local assumptions about teeth and oral hygiene first, before he or she can bring about a change of behaviour, increase therapy compliance and make the oral healthcare project sustainable. Anthropology can be helpful in this respect. In 2014, in a pilot project commissioned by the Dutch Dental Care Foundation, in which oral healthcare was provided in combination with anthropological research, an oral healthcare project in Kwale (Kenia) was evaluated. The study identified 6 primary themes that indicate the most important factors influencing the oral health of school children in Kwale. Research into the local culture by oral healthcare providers would appear to be an important prerequisite to meaningful work in developing countries.
https://userupload.net/ucq2c1km5pb7
Preventive dentistry aims to stop the progression of dental caries by promoting daily habits and clinical therapies that either promote the remineralization of the tooth surface or prevent the formation of the oral biofilm responsible for lowering the oral pH levels in an attempt to prevent cavity formation.
Here is an overall glance on some recent concepts/advances in preventive dentistry with a detail note on pit and fissure sealants
Anomalies of the first and second branchial archesDr Medical
https://userupload.net/8n9v7tg9jkl1
Anomalies of the branchial arches are the second most common congenital lesions of the head and neck in children [1]. They may present as cysts, sinus tracts, fistulae or cartilaginous remnants and present with typical clinical and radiological patterns dependent on which arch is involved. The course of a particular branchial anomaly is caudal to the structures derived from the corresponding arch and dorsal to the structures that develop from the following arch. Branchial anomalies are further typed into cysts, sinuses, and fistulas.
Ankyloglossia a congenital oral anomaly Dr Medical
https://userupload.net/h9ig9byum706
Ankyloglossia, also known as tongue-tie, is a congenital oral anomaly that may decrease mobility of the tongue tip and is caused by an unusually short, thick lingual frenulum, a membrane connecting the underside of the tongue to the floor of the mouth. Ankyloglossia or tongue-tie is the result of a short, tight, lingual frenulum causing difficulty in speech articulation due to limitation in tongue movement. Ankyloglossia is a congenital condition in which a neonate is born with an abnormally short, thickened, or tight lingual frenulum that restricts mobility of the tongue. Ankyloglossia may be associated with other craniofacial abnormalities, but is also often an isolated anomaly.
Bleeding disorders Causes, Types, and DiagnosisDr Medical
https://userupload.net/v3l4i8jsk7wq
Factor II, V, VII, X, or XII deficiencies are bleeding disorders related to blood clotting problems or abnormal bleeding problems. Von Willebrand's disease isthe most common inherited bleeding disorder. It develops when the blood lacks von Willebrand factor, which helps the blood to clot.
Our backs are like superheroes, holding us up and helping us move around. But sometimes, even superheroes can get hurt. That’s where slip discs come in.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a simplified look into the mechanisms involved in the regulation of respiration:
Learning objectives:
1. Describe the organisation of respiratory center
2. Describe the nervous control of inspiration and respiratory rhythm
3. Describe the functions of the dorsal and respiratory groups of neurons
4. Describe the influences of the Pneumotaxic and Apneustic centers
5. Explain the role of Hering-Breur inflation reflex in regulation of inspiration
6. Explain the role of central chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
7. Explain the role of peripheral chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
8. Explain the regulation of respiration during exercise
9. Integrate the respiratory regulatory mechanisms
10. Describe the Cheyne-Stokes breathing
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 42, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 36, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 13, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/Pt1nA32sdHQ
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/uFdc9F0rlP0
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Integrating Ayurveda into Parkinson’s Management: A Holistic ApproachAyurveda ForAll
Explore the benefits of combining Ayurveda with conventional Parkinson's treatments. Learn how a holistic approach can manage symptoms, enhance well-being, and balance body energies. Discover the steps to safely integrate Ayurvedic practices into your Parkinson’s care plan, including expert guidance on diet, herbal remedies, and lifestyle modifications.
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
Histololgy of Female Reproductive System.pptxAyeshaZaid1
Dive into an in-depth exploration of the histological structure of female reproductive system with this comprehensive lecture. Presented by Dr. Ayesha Irfan, Assistant Professor of Anatomy, this presentation covers the Gross anatomy and functional histology of the female reproductive organs. Ideal for students, educators, and anyone interested in medical science, this lecture provides clear explanations, detailed diagrams, and valuable insights into female reproductive system. Enhance your knowledge and understanding of this essential aspect of human biology.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Cell Therapy Expansion and Challenges in Autoimmune DiseaseHealth Advances
There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
Despite these headwinds, industry leaders and investors remain confident that cell therapies are poised to address significant unmet need in patients suffering from autoimmune disorders. However, the extent of this impact on the treatment landscape remains to be seen, as the industry rapidly approaches an inflection point.
Does Over-Masturbation Contribute to Chronic Prostatitis.pptxwalterHu5
In some case, your chronic prostatitis may be related to over-masturbation. Generally, natural medicine Diuretic and Anti-inflammatory Pill can help mee get a cure.
1. Oral Mucous Membrane
Gingiva
Alveolar mucosa
Vestibular
fornix
Labial mucosa
Check
mucosa
Hard
palate
Dorsal
surface of
the tongue
Ventral surface
of the tongue
Floor of
mouth
Check out ppt download link in description
Or
Download link : https://userupload.net/gznap6xirndk
2. Functions of the oral mucosa
Protection
Sensation
Secretion
Thermal regulation?
5. CLICK HERE TO DOWNLOAD
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6. Histological Structure
Lamina propria
Divided into 2 layers:-
Superficial zone of loose C.T adjacent to epithelium
& surrounding epithelial ridges- papillary layer &
A deeper zone of denser C.T called reticular layer
because of the net like appearance of its fiber bundles
Differences between the 2 layers are not clear cut & it is
the relative concentration & arrangement of fibers
7. Histological Structure
Lamina propria
Lamina Propria may be:-
Directly attached to periosteum of alveolar
bone or
Overlay the Submucosa
Submucosa is formed of C.T; the nature of this
C.T. determines whether mucous membrane is
loosely or firmly attached to underlying structure.
Submucosa contains glands, B.Vs, nerves &
adipose tissue.
10. Oral Mucous Membrane
Classification
I- Masticatory mucosa (Keratinized mucosa)
a. Gingiva
b. Mucous membrane covering hard palate
II-Lining mucosa (Non-keratinized mucosa)
Present in areas not subjected to high levels of friction but is mobile &
distensible
1. Firmly attached to underlying muscles
a. Lip
b. Cheek.
c. Inferior surface of the tongue.
d. Soft palate
2. Loosely attached to underlying structures as bone, fascia or muscle
a. Alveolar mucosa.
b. Vestibular fornix.
c. Floor of the mouth.
• III- Specialized mucosa
Covering dorsal surface of tongue
22. The Keratinized oral epithelium comprises the
following undernoted layers except one.
Which one is the exception?
A.The basal cell layer
B.The spinous cell layer (prickle cell layer)
C.The granular cell layer
D.The intermediate layer
E.The cornified layer
23. Keratinized Epithelium
Cells are arranged in 4 layers:-
Basal (stratum basal), Spinous (stratum spinosum), Granular
(stratum granulosum) & Cornified (stratum cornium).
Basal cell layer
Cells are cuboidal or columnar & are arranged in a row on a B.M. Cells are attached
to each other by a cellular junction & also to B.M
Spinous cell layer
Several rows of polyhedral cells of different shape & size & larger than basal cells.
Basal cells & spinous cells constitute more than 1/2 thickness of epithelium.
Cells of spinous layer are joined together by intercellular bridges giving the cells
a prickly appearance
Granular cell layer
Lies above prickle cell layer & is made up of several rows of flattened epithelial
cells. The cells contain large no. of small granules called keratohyaline granules.
Cornified layer
In K.E is the final stage in maturation. Cells are termed epithelial squames; these
are cells that shed, necessitating the constant turnover of epithelial cells
24.
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26. • The prickle cell layer (spinous) in
keratinized oral epithelium is located
between the:-
A.Basal layer & granular layer
B.Granular layer & keratinized layer
C.Superficial layer & intermediate layer
D.Keratinized layer & intermediate layer
E.Keratinized layer & superficial layer
28. Keratinocytes
Constitute the major part of epithelial cells
The cells are arranged in different layers
During maturation they either change to
keratin or share in keratin formation
These cells have the following criteria:-
Always present in sheets & attached to each
other by one or more type of cellular junctions
Cytoplasm of these cells is stained with H & E
Cytoplasm contains the tonofilaments
29. Non-keratinocytes
Present in both keratinized & non-keratinized
epithelium & have the following criteria:-
1- Appear as clear cells by ordinary H&E stain, they
need special stains
2- Present as scattered cells & not in sheets
3- A clear hallows around their nuclei
4- Their cytoplasm is free from tonofilaments
5- No cellular junctions
6- Do not play any role in synthesis of keratohyaline
granules or keratin
30. 1-Pigment cell
(Melanocyte, blast)
2- Langerhan’s cell 3- Merkel’s cell
Shape
Small body with long
slender & branched
process
Contain melanin
granules
(melanosomes(
Similar in shape
Contain granules
(Langerhan’s granules(
Do not
have long
processes
Contain small
membrane bounded
granules
Location Basal & parabasal
layers
High level cell and
may be found at lower
levels.
Basally in
epithelium
H&E
Stain
Not stained so-
called
(Clear dentritic cell(
Not stained so-called
(Clear dentritic cell(
Not stained so-
called
(Clear but not
dentritic cell(
Special
stain
DOPA reaction (for
tyrosinase enzyme(
Gold chloride
31. Origin Neural crest cells Bone marrow Neural crest cells
Cell
junction
No
tonofilaments
No
desmosomes
No tonofilaments
No desmosomes
Little tonofilaments
Little desmosomes
Nerve cell seen to be
associated with the cell
with synapse-like cleft
Function Pigmentation
If melanosomes
engulfed by
epithelial cell
called
(Melanophore( or
by C.T. cell
(Melanophage(
Neural element.
Degenerated
melanocyte
Intra epithelial
Macrophage
Regulatory cells
(control epith. Cell
division &
differentiation(
Uptake &
processing of
antigen in contact
allergic reaction
Responding to touch
4-Inflammatory cells They are transiant cells
42. Macro-Anatomy of palate
Incisive papilla
Palatine gingiva
Antero-lateral
area (fatty
zone(
Postero-
lateral area
(glandular
zone(
Rugae area
Median
palatine
raphe
Soft palate
Uvula
44. Histology of Hard Palate
Submucosa
Fatty zone
Glandular zone
Epithelial rete pegs
are tall & numerous
Mucosa
45. Non-Keratinized Mucosa
Lining Mucosa
Present in areas not subjected to high levels of friction
but is mobile & distensible
Firmly attached to underlying muscles
Soft Palate
Lip
Cheek
Ventral Surface of tongue
Loosely attached to underlying structures as bone,
fascia or muscle
Floor of mouth
Vestibule
Alveolar Mucosa
70. Stages of Passive Eruption
Anatomical Crown
Clinical Crown
Coronal end (E)
Apical end CEJ
1 year before shedding in 1ry teeth & in
permanent- Till 20-30 yrs
First stage
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Editor's Notes
The oral mucous membrane is structurally & functionally a transitional zone between the skin & mucosa of the G.I.T & exhibits features of both.
It resembles intestinal mucosa in that it is bathed in fluid & its epithelial cells have a high rate of turnover. It is similar to skin in that it possesses a stratified epithelium which is keratinized in many places & prevents diffusion across it in both directions.
Organization of the oral mucosa
The oral cavity consists of 2 parts; an outer vestibule bounded by lips & cheeks & the oral cavity proper separated from the vestibule by the alveolus bearing the teeth & gingiva. The superior zone of oral cavity proper is formed by hard & soft palate. The floor of mouth & base of tongue form the inferior border. Posteriorly, the oral cavity is bounded by pillar of fauces & tonsils.
Functions of the oral mucosa
1-Protection
The oral mucosa separates & protects deeper tissues & organs in oral region from the environment of oral cavity. The oral mucosa shows a number of adaptations of epithelium & C.T to withstand the mechanical forces (compression, stretching, shearing & surface abrasion) applied on it during mastication. It also provides a barrier to microorganisms, toxins & various antigens.
2-Sensation
The sensory function of oral mucosa is important because it provides information about events within the oral cavity, whereas, the lips & tongue perceive stimuli outside the mouth. In the mouth, receptors respond to temperature, touch & pain; the tongue also has taste buds. Certain receptors in the oral mucosa respond to the taste of water & signal the satisfaction of thirst. Reflexes such as swallowing, gagging, retching & salivation also are initiated by receptors in oral mucosa.
3- Secretion
The major secretion associated with the oral mucosa is saliva, produced by major & minor salivary glands. The saliva maintains a moist & lubricant surface of oral mucosa. Also it provides a buffering action as well as secreting some antibodies. Sebaceous glands frequently are present in oral mucosa but, their secretions are insignificant.
4- Thermal regulation
In some animals, such as dog, considerable body heat is dissipated through the oral mucosa by panting; for these animals the mucosa plays a major role in the regulation of body temperature. However, the human oral mucosa plays practically no role in regulating body temperature.
Histological structure
Histologically, the human oral mucosa consists of 2 major components:-
The oral epithelium
Lamina propria, a C.T. supporting layer.
Both of these 2 layers are separated by a well-defined B.M. & attached either directly to underlying structures or through a submucous layer.
1- The oral epithelium
Is ectodermal in origin & formed of St. Sq. Epith. The epithelium is keratinized in certain areas & non-keratinized in others:-
Keratinized oral epithelium.
Non-keratinized oral epithelium.
II- Lamina propria
The lamina propria is divided into 2 layers, superficial zone of loose C.T. adjacent to epithelium & surrounding epithelial ridges, the papillary layer & a deeper zone of denser C.T. called reticular layer because of the net like appearance of its fiber bundles. The differences between these 2 layers are not clear cut & it is the relative concentration & arrangement of fibers rather than any absolute difference that enables these regions to be distinguished.
The papillary layer contains fine collagen fibers arranged as a loose open network. In region of B.M, these fibers are associated with reticular fibers; while at the junction with subjacent reticular layer they merge into thicker collagen bundles.
In reticular layer the collagen fibers are coarser & closely packed; they are arranged in laminae. The reticular zone is always present, while the papillary zone may be absent in some areas where the papillae are either very short or lacking alveolar mucosa.
Cellular elements found in Lamina Propria of oral mucosa are
Synthetic cells: fibroblasts secreting fibers & ground substance & fat cells concerned with the synthesis & storage of fat.
Defensive cells: are macrophages, mast cells & variable numbers of inflammatory cells derived from circulating leucocytes.
Undifferentiated Mesenchymal cells
The constituent cells of vascular & lymphatic channels & of neural elements.
The lamina propria may be directly attached to the periosteum of alveolar bone or it may overlay the submucosa. The submucosa is formed of C.T; the nature of this C.T. determines whether mucous membrane is loosely or firmly attached to underlying structure. It contains glands, B.Vs, nerves & adipose tissue.
The larger arteries are divided into smaller branches, which enter the lamina propria where they divide again to form a subepithelial capillary network in the papillary layer beneath epithelium. The veins originating from the capillary network course back along the path taken by arteries, a rich network of lymph vessels accompanies B.Vs.
The sensory nerves tend to be more concentrated toward anterior part of mouth. The nerve fibers are myelinated as they traverse the submucosa but lose their myelin sheath before splitting into their end. Sensory nerve endings of various types are found in papillae some of the fibers enter the epithelium, where they terminate between the epithelial cells as free nerve endings.
Junction of Epithelium & Connective Tissue
A complex arrangement links epithelial & C.T. components of oral mucosa. In the light microscope, a layer 1-2 µm thick is seen on the lamina propria side of the junction. This is termed the B.M. In the E. microscope, the layer appears much thinner & is then termed the basal lamina. This thicker appearance in the light microscope is due to the inclusion of some sub-epithelial collagen fibers which in this region have staining properties similar to those of the basal lamina.
Classification of the oral mucosa
Considerable structural variations are shown by oral mucosa in different regions. The 3 main types of mucosa could be identified according to their primary function, Masticatory mucosa, Lining mucosa & Specialized mucosa.
I-Masticatory mucosa (Keratinized mucosa)
During mastication, parts of oral mucosa are subjected to forces & pressure, these are a) Gingiva b) Mucous membrane covering the hard palate.
II-Lining mucosa (Non-keratinized mucosa)
Present in areas not subjected to high levels of friction but is mobile & distensible. It serves a protective lining & subdivided into:
Firmly attached to the underlying muscles
Lip.
Cheek.
Inferior surface of the tongue.
Soft palate
Loosely attached to the underlying structures as bone, fascia or muscle
Alveolar mucosa.
Vestibular fornix.
Floor of the mouth.
III-Specialized mucosa
This is represented by the mucous membrane covering dorsal surface of tongue. It is a highly specialized structure, because of the presence of different types of papillae, taste buds & lingual tonsils.
The cells of the stratum intermedium contain Odland bodies with their size; shape and location are different from those found in keratinized epithelium.
Simple Squamous Epithelium
Is composed of flattened, irregularly-shaped cells forming a continuous surface which is often referred to as pavemented epithelium. Like all epithelia, this delicate lining is supported by an underlying basement membrane.
Simple Squamous Epithelium
This micrograph of a small B.V. illustrates the typical appearance of simple squamous epithelium in section; the epithelial lining cells E (known as endothelium in the circulatory system) are so flattened that they can only be recognized by their nuclei which bulge into the vessel lumen.
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Consists of a variable number of cell layers. Stratfied epithelia are defined as epithelia consisting of 2 or more layers of cells. In contrast to simple epithelia, stratified epithelia have a protective function & the degree & nature of the stratification is related to the kinds of physical stresses to which the surface is exposed.
This specialized form of stratified squamous epithelium constitutes the epithelial surface of the skin & is adapted to withstand the constant abrasion & desiccation to which the body surface is exposed. During maturation, the epithelial cells undergo a process called keratinization resulting in the formation of a tough, non-cellular layer consisting of the protein, keratin K, & the remnants of degenerate epithelial cells.
PAS stained section
An important property of epithelium is its ability to function as a barrier that depends to a great extent on the close contact or cohesiveness of epithelial cells. Cohesion between cells is provided by viscous intercellular material consisting of protein-carbohydrate complexes produced by epithelial cells themselves. In addition, there are specialized modifications of the adjacent membranes of epithelial cells, the most common of which is Desmosome.
Adhesion between epithelium & C.T. is provided by the hemidesmosomes present on the basal membranes of the cells of the basal layer. These also possess intracellular attachment plaques into which tonofilaments are inserted.
Two other types of junction are seen between the cells of oral epithelium. The gap junction is a region where the membranes of adjacent cells run closely together, separated by only a small gap.
The cells are closely attached to each other by one or more type of cellular junction (tight, gap & desmosomal junction) & also to the B.M. by hemi-desmosomes. The hemi-desmosome consists of a single attachment plaque, in which tonofilaments are attached, plasma membrane & an extracellular structure attached to the B.M.
The desmosomes are specialized structure of the cell surface consisting of adjacent cell membranes, a pair of intracellular attachment plaque with tonofilaments & an intervening extracellular structure.
KERATINIZED EPITHELIUM
Found in areas of oral mucosa as gingiva & mucosa of hard palate, which are subjected directly to mechanical irritating effect of food during mastication. The epithelial cells that ultimately keratinize are called keratinocytes or keratocytes.
Keratinocytes constitute the major part of epithelial cells population. The cells are arranged in different layers of several rows & during maturation they either change to keratin or share in keratin formation. These cells have the following criteria:-
Always present in sheets & attached to each other by one or more type of cellular junctions.
The cytoplasm of these cells is stained with ordinary stain as H & E.
Their cytoplasm contains the characteristic tonofilaments.
These cells are arranged in 4 layers, basal (stratum basal), spinous (stratum spinosum), granular (stratum granulosum) & cornified (stratum cornium).
These layers bear their names from their morphological appearance. Each layer consists of several rows of cells except the basal layer, which is formed of one row of cuboidal or columnar cells. The basal cells & the following few rows of spinous layer cells undergo mitosis producing new cells that match those lost at the surface by desquamation. These cells may remain in their place & divide again or migrate upward & become spinous, granular cells & finally they change to keratin.
During their migration, the cells become more specialized & undergo biochemical & morphological changes. These cells of basal & deeper 2-3 layers of spinous layers are named stratum germinativum.
The basal cell layer represents the least differentiated cells of epithelium; the cells are either cuboidal or columnar & are arranged in one row on a well-defined B.M. The cell posses not only the usual cell organelles seen in other cell but also a characteristic tonofilaments. The later are fine intracellular protein strands, arranged in bundles that form the tonofibrils. The cells are closely attached to each other by one or more type of cellular junction (tight, gap & desmosomal junction) & also to the B.M & an extracellular structure attached to the B.M
Desmosomes are specialized structure of the cell surface consisting of adjacent cell membranes, a pair of intracellular attachment plaque with tonofilaments & an intervening extracellular. These cells show the first stage of maturation.
The spinous cell layer consists of several rows of polyhedral cells of different shape & size & larger than basal cells. The basal cells & the spinous cells constitute more than 1/2 the thickness of epithelium. The cells of spinous layer are joined together by intercellular bridges giving the cells a prickly appearance. The inter-cellular spaces are wide compared with that in the non-keratinized epithelium.
The granular cell layer lies above prickle cell layer & is made up of several rows of flattened epithelial cells. The cells show a further increase in maturation compared with those of strata basal & spinosum. The cells contain large numbers of small granules called keratohyaline granules. This is associated with the development of a barrier in epithelium that limits the movement of substances between cells.
The cornified layer in keratinized epithelium is the final stage in the maturation. Cells of stratum corneum may be termed epithelial squames; these are cells that shed, necessitating the constant turnover of epithelial cells. Desmosomes weaken & disappear to allow for this desquamation. Stratum corneum provides mechanical & chemical protective function to the mucosa.
Non-keratinized oral epithelium
In regions of oral mucosa that are covered by this type of epithelium, the latter shows absence of both keratin & granular cell layers. The epithelium is thicker & the superficial 1/2 of epithelium shows changes which distinguishes them from basal & prickle cells. These include increase in size, accumulation of glycogen & occasionally the presence of keratohyaline granules surrounded by ribosomes, which appear more regular & not associated with tonofilaments.
Function of keratohyaline granules appear to be associated with thickening of cell membrane. This specialization permits classification of prickle cell layer into 2 regions, the superficial layers, stratum superficial & deeper layer, stratum intermedium.
The cells of both strata are larger & tightly Packed together, the intercellular spaces are nearly absent & hence, absence of prickly appearance.
Non-Keratinocytes in Oral Epithelium
These cells are present in both keratinized & non-keratinized epithelium & constitute about 10% of the epithelial cell population. These cells have the following criteria:
1- Appear as clear cells by ordinary H&E stain, they need special stains.
2- Present as scattered cells & not in sheets.
3- A clear hallows around their nuclei.
4- Their cytoplasm is free from tonofilaments.
5- No cellular junctions.
6- They do not play any role in synthesis of keratohyaline granules or keratin.
Non-keratinocytes are four types of cells
A- Pigment cells
B- Langerhan's cells
C- Merkel cells
D- Inflammatory cells
A- Pigmentation & pigment cells
There is a direct relationship between the degree of melanin pigmentation seen in skin & oral mucosa, where the most commonly
pigmented regions are lips, gingiva & buccal mucosa. Pigmentation of gingiva occurs mostly in attached gingiva beneath interdental papilla.
This pigmentation is produced by specialized cells called melanocytes or melanoblasts;
they are derived from neural crest cells. They are chiefly found in basal or parabasal layers. The cytoplasm of these cells
appears clear after staining with H&E., so these cells may also be termed dendritic or clear cells.
The melanocytes synthesize melanin pigments in the presence of tyrosinase enzyme. The melanin pigment is found in the form of fine granules ranging in color from light brown to almost black.
The melanin granules appear as groups of small granules called melanosomes. These granules pass into adjacent
keratinocytes where they are stored, these cells are called melanophores. Also other cells containing melanin may be seen in
the C.T. beneath normal pigmented epithelial cells. They represent macrophages containing melanin & called melanophages.
B- The Langerhan's cells
Is another dendritic clear cell present in upper layers of epidermis & oral epithelium & termed high level cell but they can also be found in the deeper layers of epithelium.
Like the melanocyte, langerhan's cells lack tonofilaments & desmosomes but they do not synthesize melanin. They contain a characteristic rod-shaped body called the langerhan's granule. These cells may be demonstrated histologically by gold chloride.
They have been variously described as neural elements, as degenerated melanocytes, as intra epithelial macrophages & as regulatory cells controlling epithelial cell division & differentiation.
C- The Markel cells
Markel cells appear histologically as clear cells situated basally in oral epithelium. They do not have the dendritic shape characteristic of melenocyte & langerhan's cells. They migrate from neural crest cells.
D- Inflammatory cells
Lymphocytes & P.N.L. are also found at various levels of the epithelium. These cells are & can pass through the epithelium to the surface lamina propria of gingiva.
Racial pigmentation
Linear increase in melanin pigmentation of basal keratinocytes
Melanocytes
Silver staining shows the pigmented basal keratinocytes & dentritic processes of melanocytes. Fontana stain
KERATINIZED EPITHELIUM
This type is found in the areas of oral mucosa as gingiva & mucosa of hard palate, which are subjected directly to mechanical irritating effect of food during mastication. The epithelial cells that ultimately keratinize are called keratinocytes or keratocytes.
Keratinocytes constitute the major part of epithelial cells population. The cells are arranged in different layers of several rows & during maturation they either change to keratin or share in keratin formation.
These cells have the following criteria:-
Always present in sheets & attached to each other by one or more type of cellular junctions
The cytoplasm of these cells is stained with ordinary stain as H & E
Their cytoplasm contains the characteristic tonofilaments
1- Masticatory mucosa
Gingiva: Topography & Macro-Anatomy
Gingiva is that part of m.m. which surrounds teeth & covers part of alveolar bone from vestibular & lingual surfaces of both jaws. Gingiva is sharply limited from alveolar mucosa by scalloped line, the mucogingival junction; it is called also the healthy line. A similar line of demarcation is found on lingual aspect of mandible, while on the palate the gingiva merges with palatal mucosa & no distinct mucogingival junction is present. Gingiva is pale pink in color; in colored races the gingiva is pigmented. The degree of pigmentation is proportional to that of skin.
Morphologically, gingiva is divided into free gingiva, attached gingiva & interdental papilla
Free gingiva: is represented by that portion which extends along the cervical level of tooth at labial, buccal & lingual surfaces. It is freely movable & extends to bottom of gingival sulcus or slightly below its level, the free gingiva tapers to a knife-edge; the gingival margin. Free gingiva is marked off from attached gingiva by a shallow groove, called the free gingival groove. This groove is about 1.0 to 1.5 mm far from the actual gingival margin & follows its contour both labially & lingually. The free gingival groove is caused by functional impacts upon the free gingiva folding the movable free part back upon the attached & immovable zone.
Gingival sulcus: Is a shallow groove lined by non-keratinized epithelium, the bottom of which is at the point of separation of attachment epithelium from tooth. The depth of gingival sulcus under normal conditions varies from 0-6mm, 45% of all measured sulci were below 0.5 mm the average being 1.8 mm. The shallower the sulcus the more favorable is the condition at gingival margin. Lymphocytes & plasma cells are seen in the C.T at bottom of gingival sulcus.
Attached gingiva: is immovably anchored to underlying cementum or periosteum. It extends from free gingival groove to mucogingival junction, which separates it from underlying alveolar mucosa. The surface of attached gingiva shows the characteristic stippling resembling that of an orange peel. This stippling is a functional adaptation to mechanical impacts. The attached gingiva appears slightly depressed between adjacent teeth corresponding to the depression on alveolar process between eminences of sockets. Absence of stippling of attached gingiva is an indication of inflammation.
Interdental papilla: portion of gingiva, which fills the interproximal space between two adjacent teeth & thus extends below the contact area. In cases where there is no contact point, the interdental papilla is reduced. The interdental papilla simulates a tent shape from the labial or buccal side, while lingually it is wedge in shape & the base corresponds to a line connecting the margin of the gingiva at center of one tooth to center of the next. The apex tapers to the contact area or point. Deep to interdental gingival tissue are transeptal fibers of P.L & then crest of interdental septum of bone. Beneath the contact areas the height of interdental papilla is less than that found lingually & labially, or buccally. Interdental gingival tissue found in the depression between the two peaks of interdental papilla is called col this col usually lacks keratinizations.
Histology of Gingiva
Gingiva is formed of surface epithelium & underlying L.P. 3 types of gingival epithelium exists according to behavior of keratin.
1- Orthokeratinized epithelium: stratum corneum consists of flat tightly packed scales & the nuclei are completely absent.
2- Pararkeratenized epithelium: the stratum corneum consists of flat horny scales, which retain pyknotic nuclei or remnants of nuclear material. This type constitutes 75%.
3- Nonkeratenized epithelium: The stratum corneum is absent. The sheltered areas of gingiva are always non-keratinized, & these are the epithelial lining of gingival sulcus & the epithelium of the col.
Lamina Propria: made of dense C.T. composed of bundles of collagenous fibers, fibroblasts, B.Vs, lymphatics & nerves. The lamina propria consists of papillary layer & a reticular layer. The papillary layer is formed of tall, numerous & slender papillae. Few elastic fibers are confined to walls of B.Vs. The reticular layer is formed of same kind of tissue, the fibers being arranged in a delicate network.
Lamina propria of gingiva contains dense bundles of collagen whose function include support of free gingiva, binding of attached gingiva to alveolar bone & tooth, & linkage of teeth one to another. These principal fiber groups have been given names based upon their orientation & attachments, & called gingival ligament. Their main function is to provide support for gingiva against tooth & alveolar bone surface, resisting masticatory loads, & the component of this ligament are:-
DENTO-GINGIVAL JUNCTION
The components of gingiva both epithelium & L.P. are attached to the tooth & both contribute to security of dentogingival junction. The epithelial portion of gingiva, which is in direct contact with surface of tooth, is called attachment epithelium or junctional epithelium.
This epithelium is an epithelial collar that surrounds the tooth & normally extends from bottom of gingival sulcus towards the C.E.J & often surpasses the C.E.J. The length of attachment epithelium of tooth in adult varies from 1-3 mm, which is nearly equal to the distance between the apical end of attachment epithelium & crest of alveolar bone.
HISTOLOGICAL STRUCTURE
Coronally; the junctional epithelium may be 15-30 cells thick, whilst apically it narrows to only 1-3 cells thick. It consists of 2 zones; a single cell layer of cuboidal cells (the stratum germinativum) overlying several layers of flattened cells equivalent to a stratum spinosum. There is no stratum granulosum or corneum. The cells of the stratum germinativum rest on a typical lamina propria which shows many capillaries & appears to be more cellular than other parts of the gingiva. The C.T. interface is smooth.
The cells of the junctional epithelium immediately adjacent to the tooth attach themselves to tooth (enamel or cementum) in the same way as cells of the stratum germinativun elsewhere attach themselves to lamina propria (i.e. by hemidesmosomes within the cell & a basal lamina produced by epithelial cells.
This combination of hemidesmosomes & basal lamina is known as attached apparatus or epithelial attachment. The basal lamina in contact with the tooth is termed the internal basal lamina.
1- Dentogingival fibers; it is part of the P.L. & it arise from the root surface above alveolar crest & radiate to insert into the lamina propria of gingiva. The most superficial fibers lie beneath the sulcular epithelium.
2- Circular fibers encircle each tooth within the marginal & interdental gingiva, some attach to cementum, some to alveolar bone, some cross interdentally to join the fiber group of adjacent tooth.
3- Alveologingival fibers; run from crest of alveolar bone & interdental septum radiating coronally into overlying L.P. of gingiva
4- Dentoperiosteal fibers; occur only in labial, buccal & lingual gingiva. They arise from cementum & pass over the alveolar crest to insert into periostium.
5- Transeptal fibers pass horizontally from the root of one tooth, above alveolar crest to be inserted into the root of adjacent tooth. Such fibers provide an anatomical basis for linking all the teeth in the dentition
6-Semicircular fibers emanate from cementum near the cemento-enamel junction, cross the free marginal gingiva, & insert into a similar position on the opposite side of the tooth.
7- Transgingival fibers reinforce the circular & semicircular fibers. The fibers arise from the cervical cementum & extend into the marginal gingiva of the adjacent tooth, merging with the circular fibers.
8- Interdental fibers pass through coronal portion of interdental gingiva in buccolingual direction, connecting buccal & lingual papillae.
9- Vertical fibers arise in alveolar mucosa or attached gingival & pass coronally towards marginal gingiva & interdental papilla.
10- Longitudinal fibers extend for long distances within the free gingival, some for the whole length of the arch
B) Hard palate
It is keratinized masticatory mucosa.
It is pink in color which is firmly attached to underlying structures
Macro-Anatomy of hard palate
The palate is characterized by the presence of 4 different regions:-
1- Palatine gingiva
Adjacent directly to the teeth which is similar to the previously described gingiva but mucogingival junction is not present.
2- Median palatine raphe
Extends from the palatine papilla posteriorly.
Palatine papilla (incisive) is pear shaped & is formed of dense C.T. that contains the oral part of naso-palatine duct (this duct is lined by simple or pseudostratefied columnar epithelium rich in goblet cells).
In median palatine raphe, it is difficult to differentiate between lamina propria & submucosa.
Radiating from this raphe, transverse folds called palatine rugea which is formed of dense C.T. covered by epithelium.
3- The anterolateral area (fatty zone)
This area present between the raphe & the gingiva anteriorly.
Its lamina propria is fixed to periosteum by bands of fibrous C.T. dividing the submucosa into compartments containing fat cells.
4- The postero-lateral area (glandular zone)
- Present posterior to the fatty zone.
- The submucosa contains pure mucous glands.
The fatty and glandular zones act as cushion.
The C. T. of hard palate is thick anteriorly than posteriorly.
Anterior palatine B.Vs. are present in sulcus between alveolar process & H.P, where they are surrounded by loose C.T.
Nasopalatine Duct Cyst:-
Typical presentation with a dome-shaped bluish enlargement overlying the incisive canal.
Non-keratinized oral epithelium
The oral mucosa that are covered by this type of epithelium shows absence of both keratin & granular cell layers. The epithelium is thicker & superficial 1/2 of epithelium shows changes which distinguishes them from basal & prickle cells. These include increase in size, accumulation of glycogen & occasionally the presence of keratohyaline granules. Function of keratohyaline granules appear to be associated with thickening of cell membrane. This specialization permits classification of prickle cell layer into 2 regions, the superficial layers & deeper layer. The cells of both strata are larger & tightly packed together, the intercellular spaces are nearly absent & hence, absence of prickly appearance.
A) Lining mucosa (firmly attached)
These are the mucous membrane covering muscles and they are firmly attached to the epimysium or fascia, in these regions the mucosa is elastic. These 2 characteristics permit the mucosa to maintain a relatively smooth surface during muscular movements & prevent its elevation into folds & lodging them between biting surfaces of teeth during mastication.
1- Inferior surface of tongue
- Covered by thin non-keratinized epithelium with short & numerous C.T. papillae.
- The submucosa can not be differentiated as a separate layer where it connects the mucous membrane to the C.T. surrounding tongue muscles.
2- Soft palate
- Its epithelium is continuous with that of hard palate but non-keratinized So between them there is a healthy line.
- Its epithelium forms the nasal side is pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium with goblet cells.
- It is highly vascularized & red in color.
- Lamina propria is thin with few & short papillae.
- A continuous layer of elastic fibers separating lamina propria from submucosa.
- The submucosa contains fat cells & mucous glands.
3- Cheek
The epithelium is non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.
C. T. papillae are short, irregular with few elastic fibers.
In submucosa & between the buccinator muscle bundles small mixed salivary gland present.
Sometimes isolated sebaceous glands may present in the C.T. lateral to the mouth corner (called Fordyce granules or spots).
The firm attachment of cheek mucosa to the muscles prevents its biting especially during mastication.
4- Lip
Formed of 3 surfaces.
lining mucosab) transitional zone. c) skin side.
a) Lining mucosa
Similar to that of cheek except:
1-Submucosa contains fat cells & mixed S.Glands. on surface of orbecularis oris muscle.
2- No Fordyce spots.
b) Transitional zone
Lying between lining mucosa and skin side of lip.
Present only in human race and represented as red zone called vermillion border.
Covered by stratified squamous epithelium with thin layer of keratin.
C.T. papillae are numerous, long and densely arranged, these deep papillae carry large capillary loops, so the thin layer of epithelium permits the red color of blood.
One or two sebaceous glands may be present.
c) The skin side
Consists of:
1- Epidermis
Formed of stratified squamous keratinized epithelium with hair, sweat and sebaceous glands.
The epithelium is similar to that of keratinized mucosa except that; there is additional layer present between granular cell layer and the keratinized layer called stratum lucidum.
The stratum lucidum is a pale translucent layer formed of 2-3 layers of flat cells, with very small nucleus and indistinct boundaries.
Melanoblasts present in between the basal cell layer (in black races they may fill all epithelial layers & even C.T. papilla).
The hair follicle
Has a shaft projected above the surface & root embedded in an invagination of epidermis called hair follicle.
The root terminates in an expansion called hair bulb.
An upward invagination of C.T. to hair bulb called hair papilla.
One or two sebaceous glands open in the neck of the hair follicle.
Sweat glands also present and consist of coiled secretory part and duct which formed of single cuboidal or pyramidal cells with large nucleus.
Myoepithelial cells present between basement membrane & secretory cells.
2- The dermis Formed of dense C. T. with few and short papillae. It is formed of:-
Reticular layer contains Collagen fibers arranged in network with less no. of cells. The layer contains thin elastic fibers.
Papillary layer contains Irregularly arranged collagen fibers with more cells. The layer contains thick elastic fibers
B) Loosely attached
1- Alveolar mucosa
Covers outer surface of alveolar bone & attached loosely to periostum.
Covered by stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium.
C.T. papillae are short or even missing.
The collagen fibers of lamina propria are regularly interwoven.
Submucosa may contain small mixed salivary gland.
Elastic fibers are thin in lamina propria & thick in submucosa
2- Vestibular fornix
It allows the free mobility of lips & checks.
It permits movement of lip & cheek, & covered by stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium. C.T. papillae are short & few.
Labial frenum (median & lateral) is folds of m.m. contain loose C.T. with no muscle fibers.
3- Floor of mouth
Allows free mobility of tongue.
Covered by thin stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium.
C.T. papillae are few & short.
Submucosa contains fat cells.
Sublingual & submandibular ducts are present near the covering mucosa in sublingual folds.
Specialized mucosa
Dorsal surface of tongue, which is divided by V- shaped sulcus terminalis into papillary part (ant 2/3) & lymphatic part (post 1/3)
Anterior 2/3 of tongue
Its dorsal surface contains papillae & taste buds.
Dorsum of tongue is covered by very thick keratinized epithelium, & the presence of papillae can make the microscopical appearances particularly variable. Filiform papillae are the most numerous & cover the whole dorsal surface of anterior 2/3 of tongue. They are conical with central C.T core covered by keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. Fungiform papillae are much less numerous & form smooth red elevations covered by non-keratinized epithelium. Vallate or cirumvallate, which are about 10-12 in number, are found in front of sulcus terminalis, the V-shaped groove which separates posterior 1/3 of tongue from anterior 2/3. Each vallate papilla is surrounded by a deep circular groove & small serous glands open into the base of the groove. Taste buds are present in the lateral wall of each papilla.
Types of tongue papillae
1- Filiform papillae
- Found on dorsal surface of tongue, as high, narrow conical structures that arranged in parallel rows & near post. 1/3 the rows become parallel to sulcus terminalis.
- The papilla is composed histologically from central core of C.T. covered by keratinized epithelium.
- The primary papilla sends up 1-2 secondary papillae, where the epithelium over them becomes hornified.
- This papilla dose not contains taste buds.
2- Fungiform papilla
- Present on dorsal surface of tongue in between filiform papillae & they are numerous at the tip of tongue & its lateral border.
- The papilla is mushroom like, narrow at the base with smooth rounded top.
- Histologically it composed of central core of primary C.T. papilla & covered by stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium.
- The secondary C.T. papillae make the blood vessels near to the surface epithelium so this papilla appears red in color.
- This papilla contains 1-2 taste buds at its lateral wall.
The papillae on the tip of tongue responsible for sweet sensation.
The papillae on lateral borders responsible for salt sensation.
Chorda tympani responsible for theses sensation.
3- Circumvallate papillae
Are (7-12 in no.) present on dorsal surface of tongue anterior to sulcus terminalis.
- They do not protrude above the surface of tongue but embedded in tongue & surrounded by deep trough, the taste buds located at the lateral wall of papilla & also at the lateral wall of trough.
- In the base of the trough the von Ebner salivary gland ducts open.
- The papilla has narrow base & wide surface with central core of C.T which sends secondary C.T papillae to the stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium.
● Circumvallate papillae responsible for the bitter sensation, by the glossopharyngeal nerve.
4- Foliate papillae
- They are ill developed in human (rudimentary) but are large in some animals.
- Present as sharp parallel clefts on lateral sides & anterior to sulcus terminalis.
- These clefts are bordered by narrow folds of mucous membrane at which taste buds are found. The von Ebner salivary gland opens in the clefts of these papillae.
- Foliate papillae responsible for Sour sensation by glossopharyngeal nerve.
Taste bud
♦ Present in
1) All tongue papillae except filiform.
2) Soft palate.
3) Posterior surface of epiglottis.
♦ They are intraepithelial structure, barrel or ovoid with rounded base resting on B.M & end with narrow opening toward the epithelial surface & called taste pore. Flattened small epithelial cells surround the taste pore.
Histology of the taste bud
Each taste bud is composed of about 3 modified epithelial cell type.
Outer supporting (sustentacullar) cells arranged like layers of onion & are in contact with neighboring epithelial cells.
Inner supporting (sustentacular) cells, they are shorter & rode shape cells.
Taste cells (Neuroepithelial cells) they are 11-12 in number & present between the inner supporting cells.
These cells are slender with dark stained nucleus & apically stiff bristle-like process extends to the space beneath taste pore.
Nerve plexus present in C.T. below the taste bud, some fibers enter it & end in contact with the taste cells.
Posterior 1/3 of the tongue
Other names: Root, lymphatic or pharyngeal part.
Lingual tonsil
Present as small rounded or oval elevations due to aggregation of lymphatic nodules in underlying C.T known as lingual follicles.
Lingual tonsil
Present as small rounded or oval elevations due to aggregation of lymphatic nodules in underlying C.T known as lingual follicles.
Histologically
- Lingual follicles covered by St Sq Epith (non-keratinized) which extended down in many sites to form lingual crypt. The lymphatic tissue surrounds the crypt & composed of germinal centers & lymphatic tissue fills the spaces between these centers.
- Ducts from underlying Weber mucous salivary gland open into the bottom of lingual crypt.
- Lingual tonsil forms a part of the lymphatic ring between mouth & nose from one side & pharynx on the other side.
Shift of Dento-Gingival junction (stages of passive eruption)
When the tooth first erupts; enamel is almost covered by epithelium. By further eruption & gingival recession, more of the tooth will be exposed in oral cavity.
Active eruption: The actual movement of teeth towards occlusal plane.
Passive eruption: It is the gradual exposure of the crown by separation of attached epithelium from tooth surface.
Passive eruption has 4 stages where the 1st & 2nd stages considered normal & 3rd & 4th stages may be normal or pathologic.
First stage
Occur in primary teeth till one year before shedding; in the permanent teeth till 20-30 years.
Coronal end of primary attachment epithelium present on the enamel & the apical end on the C.E.J.
Clinical crown is < than anatomical crown.
Second stage
Occur till the age of 40 years or even later.
The coronal end is still on the enamel & the apical end on cementum.
The clinical crown is less than the anatomical crown.
Third stage
It is a transient stage.
The coronal end present at the C.E.J & apical end on cementum.
The clinical crown equal to the anatomical crown.
Fourth stage
From 60 years or even later.
The coronal and the apical ends present on the cementum.
The clinical crown is longer than the anatomical crown.
Epithelial attachment (mode of attachment)
The attachment of epithelium to tooth surface is so strong that an attempt to detach the gingiva from tooth surface the junctional epithelium will tear rather than peel off from the tooth surface.
This firm union is achieved by what is called epithelial attachment.
Second stage
Occur till the age of 40 years or even later.
The coronal end is still on enamel & apical end on cementum.
Clinical crown is < than anatomical crown.
Third stage
It is a transient stage.
Coronal end present at C.E.J & apical end on cementum.
Clinical crown = anatomical crown.
Fourth stage
From 60 years or even later.
The coronal & apical ends present on cementum.
Clinical crown is > than anatomical crown