Hello This is my h.w instructions associate what you have learned about theory in comparison to the case study and reflect on it. · A comparison of what you have learned from the case study to related theories you have studied. Make sure to cite these theories in APA format. · A comparison of the case study to your nursing practice, giving one or two examples from your nursing experience in which you might have applied a particular theory covered. Your reflection should be a minimum of five to six paragraphs Below are the theories CHAPTER 15: Theories From the Biomedical Sciences Melanie McEwen Maria Leon is in her final year of a graduate program preparing to become a certified registered nurse anesthetist (CRNA). During the course of her graduate education, Maria observed that most people reported a burning sensation as propofol (a drug used to induce general anesthesia) was administered intravenously (IV). In conducting a review of the literature and discussing her observations with other CRNAs, Maria found several techniques used to minimize the injection pain. Based on this information, Maria decided that she would like to conduct a research study to examine the effectiveness of using lidocaine to reduce the injection pain of propofol. This project would fulfill the capstone requirement for her master’s degree. A literature review of pain management led Maria to the gate control theory, which posits that there is a gating mechanism in the spinal cord. When pain impulses are transmitted from the periphery of the body by nerve fibers, the impulses travel to the dorsal horns of the spinal cord, specifically to the area of the cord called the  substantia gelatinosa . According to the theory, when the gate is open, pain impulses ascend to the brain; when the gate is partially open, only some of the pain impulses can pass through. Pain medication has an effect on the gate, and if pain medication is administered before the onset of pain, it will help keep the gate closed, allowing fewer pain impulses to pass through. In planning her research project, Maria used the gate control theory to guide the design and structure of the study. For the study, she decided to compare two techniques for pain prevention. One technique involved mixing 20 ml of a 1% propofol solution with 5 ml of a 2% lidocaine solution and injecting 1 ml of the mixture immediately before administration of the propofol. The second technique involved the placement of a tourniquet inflated to 50 mmHg on the arm in which the IV access device was placed. Then, 5 ml of 2% lidocaine would be injected and the tourniquet would be removed 1 minute later; propofol would then be injected. A time frame of 20 seconds would allow the clients to report pain in the arm before the propofol took effect. Maria also planned to have a control group that did not have either of the pain prevention interventions. If the theory was correct, Maria hypothesized that both experimental groups would ha.

1. Hello This is my h.w instructions
associate what you have learned about theory in comparison to
the case study and reflect on it.
·
A comparison of what you have learned from the case study to
related theories you have studied. Make sure to cite these
theories in APA format.
·
A comparison of the case study to your nursing practice, giving
one or two examples from your nursing experience in which you
might have applied a particular theory covered.
Your reflection should be a minimum of five to six paragraphs
Below are the theories
CHAPTER 15: Theories From the Biomedical Sciences
Melanie McEwen
Maria Leon is in her final year of a graduate program preparing
to become a certified registered nurse anesthetist (CRNA).
During the course of her graduate education, Maria observed
that most people reported a burning sensation as propofol (a
drug used to induce general anesthesia) was administered
intravenously (IV). In conducting a review of the literature and
discussing her observations with other CRNAs, Maria found
several techniques used to minimize the injection pain. Based
on this information, Maria decided that she would like to
conduct a research study to examine the effectiveness of using
lidocaine to reduce the injection pain of propofol. This project
would fulfill the capstone requirement for her master’s degree.
A literature review of pain management led Maria to the gate
control theory, which posits that there is a gating mechanism in
the spinal cord. When pain impulses are transmitted from the
periphery of the body by nerve fibers, the impulses travel to the

2. dorsal horns of the spinal cord, specifically to the area of the
cord called the
substantia gelatinosa
. According to the theory, when the gate is open, pain impulses
ascend to the brain; when the gate is partially open, only some
of the pain impulses can pass through. Pain medication has an
effect on the gate, and if pain medication is administered before
the onset of pain, it will help keep the gate closed, allowing
fewer pain impulses to pass through.
In planning her research project, Maria used the gate control
theory to guide the design and structure of the study. For the
study, she decided to compare two techniques for pain
prevention. One technique involved mixing 20 ml of a 1%
propofol solution with 5 ml of a 2% lidocaine solution and
injecting 1 ml of the mixture immediately before administration
of the propofol. The second technique involved the placement of
a tourniquet inflated to 50 mmHg on the arm in which the IV
access device was placed. Then, 5 ml of 2% lidocaine would be
injected and the tourniquet would be removed 1 minute later;
propofol would then be injected. A time frame of 20 seconds
would allow the clients to report pain in the arm before the
propofol took effect. Maria also planned to have a control group
that did not have either of the pain prevention interventions.
If the theory was correct, Maria hypothesized that both
experimental groups would have less pain from the injection
because the gate that allowed pain sensations would not open or
would only partially open. She did not know which of the two
experimental procedures would be more effective in preventing
pain but was enthusiastic about conducting the study and adding
to the body of knowledge on pain prevention in anesthesia.
Theories from the biomedical sciences (e.g., biology, medicine,
public health, physiology, pharmacology) have had a
tremendous impact on nursing practice since Nightingale’s time.
Indeed, many of these theories are so integral to nursing
practice that they are overlooked or taken for granted. For
example, at the beginning of the 21st century, the germ theory

3. seems almost too elemental to mention because even
kindergarten children are taught the basic concept of germs and
how to prevent infection. But nurses should recognize the
relatively recent discovery of this revolutionary theory (late
1800s) and understand that a significant amount of nursing care
is based on it. Other theories, concepts, and principles are
similarly ingrained within nursing practice.
Biomedical theories have been the basis for research efforts of
physiologists, physicians, and laboratory-based scientists for
many years. Nurses have also been involved in research of this
type and are increasingly directing studies that have a
physiologic or biologic basis. As with any study, the underlying
theories or conceptual frameworks may be broad (e.g., germ
theory) or very narrow (e.g., gate control theory).
This chapter presents some of the most commonly used theories
and principles from the biomedical sciences to illustrate how
they are being used in studies conducted by nurses and applied
in nursing practice. The number of these theories is staggering;
thus, space allows for discussion of only a few. Although there
is some overlap, the theories will be grouped into two large
categories: theories of disease causation (e.g., germ theory,
natural history of disease) and theories related to physiology
(e.g., stress and adaptation, cancer causation, pain).
Theories and Models of Disease Causation
On a day-to-day, moment-to-moment basis, nurses in practice
use any one of a number of concepts, principles, and theories
from biology and public health. These theories are often related
to disease causation and progression. This includes
pathogenesis and infection, as well as multiple epidemiologic
concepts and principles (e.g., risk factor, exposure, prevention).
This section provides a review of a few of these principles,
theories, and models and shows how they are used in nursing
practice and nursing research.
Evolution of Theories of Disease Causation
Disease refers to any condition that disturbs the normal
functioning of an organism, whether it affects one organ or

4. several systems. The term has also been defined as the failure of
an organism to respond or adapt to its environment. The concept
has changed dramatically over the course of time, however, and
ideas about the cause of disease have been influenced by the
prevailing culture and scientific thought.
In ancient times, disease was frequently viewed as a divine
intervention or punishment. Early human beings attributed
diseases to the influence of demons or spirits, and magic was a
large part of treatment and prevention. As time passed, other
interventions or treatments, such as the use of plant extracts,
became more common.
As humans formed into societies and distinct cultural groups,
two trends, or approaches, to medicine evolved. Sorcerers and
priests embraced a magico-religious approach, whereas early
physicians and scientists developed an empirico-rational
approach. The empirico-rational approach was based on
experience and observation and was practiced at first by priests
but was adapted by nonclerical physicians. Modern medicine
arose primarily from the empirico-rational approach as the
human body and its functions became better known and as
science led medical practice away from superstition and focus
on the spiritual realm to include scientific processes and
reasoning.
In the 17th century, William Harvey, an English physician and
anatomist, demonstrated the dynamics of blood circulation
(Donahue, 2011). Detailed studies of the organs, diseases, and
processes, such as physiology and respiration, quickly followed,
conducted by eminent physicians and scientists of the time.
Medical debates focused on minute features of the body and
how to treat particular diseases. Philosophies and theories
developed that were largely reductionistic and deductive,
focusing on cause and effect; the medical model quickly
evolved.
In the latter part of the 19th century, scientists began to unravel
the basic causes of infectious disease. Modern medicine began
with the advent of Pasteur’s germ theory, which posited that a

5. specific microorganism was capable of causing an infectious
disease (Black & Hawks, 2009). The focus on single-agent or
single-organism cause for disease persisted for a number of
decades and resulted in multiple successes in both treating and
preventing communicable diseases. Today, however, the
predominant general model of disease causation is multicausal,
involving invasive agents, immune responses, genetics,
environment, and behavior.
A number of theories and models describe disease causation and
the properties that relate to disease processes and prevention.
Some of the most frequently encountered models in nursing
practice and research are discussed in the following sections.
Germ Theory and Principles of Infection
Louis Pasteur first proposed the germ theory in 1858. He
theorized that a specific organism (i.e., a germ) was capable of
causing an infectious disease (Kalisch & Kalisch, 2004). Today,
this seems like a simple theory, but it is one that was critical to
the development of modern medical care. Its impact has been
phenomenal and has helped to radically reduce the number of
deaths from infection.
At the beginning of the 21st century, theories of infection are
most often applied to prevent infection (e.g., practicing strict
hand washing, cleansing a scrape and applying antibiotic
ointment, or prophylactically treating a surgery client with
antibiotics) or to describe the process that seeks to identify,
understand, and manage infectious diseases. This process
initiates the search for the causative agent of an infection and
method(s) of transmission. Once this has been accomplished,
the focus can shift to the development of ways to prevent and
treat the disease.
One of the most recent and dramatic examples of this process
was the outbreak of AIDS. The syndrome was first identified by
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in September of
1982, but months passed before it was determined that the
causative agent was a retrovirus, later termed
HIV

6. (Shi & Singh, 2012). Early in the process, even before the virus
was isolated, methods of transmission (e.g., sexual,
transplacental, via blood products) were recognized and
interventions for prevention proposed. Research on treatment
has produced somewhat successful results in recent years and is
ongoing.
CHAPTER 15: Theories From the Biomedical Sciences
Melanie McEwen
Maria Leon is in her final year of a graduate program preparing
to become a certified registered nurse anesthetist (CRNA).
During the course of her graduate education, Maria observed
that most people reported a burning sensation as propofol (a
drug used to induce general anesthesia) was administered
intravenously (IV). In conducting a review of the literature and
discussing her observations with other CRNAs, Maria found
several techniques used to minimize the injection pain. Based
on this information, Maria decided that she would like to
conduct a research study to examine the effectiveness of using
lidocaine to reduce the injection pain of propofol. This project
would fulfill the capstone requirement for her master’s degree.
A literature review of pain management led Maria to the gate
control theory, which posits that there is a gating mechanism in
the spinal cord. When pain impulses are transmitted from the
periphery of the body by nerve fibers, the impulses travel to the
dorsal horns of the spinal cord, specifically to the area of the
cord called the
substantia gelatinosa
. According to the theory, when the gate is open, pain impulses
ascend to the brain; when the gate is partially open, only some
of the pain impulses can pass through. Pain medication has an
effect on the gate, and if pain medication is administered before
the onset of pain, it will help keep the gate closed, allowing
fewer pain impulses to pass through.
In planning her research project, Maria used the gate control
theory to guide the design and structure of the study. For the
study, she decided to compare two techniques for pain

7. prevention. One technique involved mixing 20 ml of a 1%
propofol solution with 5 ml of a 2% lidocaine solution and
injecting 1 ml of the mixture immediately before administration
of the propofol. The second technique involved the placement of
a tourniquet inflated to 50 mmHg on the arm in which the IV
access device was placed. Then, 5 ml of 2% lidocaine would be
injected and the tourniquet would be removed 1 minute later;
propofol would then be injected. A time frame of 20 seconds
would allow the clients to report pain in the arm before the
propofol took effect. Maria also planned to have a control group
that did not have either of the pain prevention interventions.
If the theory was correct, Maria hypothesized that both
experimental groups would have less pain from the injection
because the gate that allowed pain sensations would not open or
would only partially open. She did not know which of the two
experimental procedures would be more effective in preventing
pain but was enthusiastic about conducting the study and adding
to the body of knowledge on pain prevention in anesthesia.
Theories from the biomedical sciences (e.g., biology, medicine,
public health, physiology, pharmacology) have had a
tremendous impact on nursing practice since Nightingale’s time.
Indeed, many of these theories are so integral to nursing
practice that they are overlooked or taken for granted. For
example, at the beginning of the 21st century, the germ theory
seems almost too elemental to mention because even
kindergarten children are taught the basic concept of germs and
how to prevent infection. But nurses should recognize the
relatively recent discovery of this revolutionary theory (late
1800s) and understand that a significant amount of nursing care
is based on it. Other theories, concepts, and principles are
similarly ingrained within nursing practice.
Biomedical theories have been the basis for research efforts of
physiologists, physicians, and laboratory-based scientists for
many years. Nurses have also been involved in research of this
type and are increasingly directing studies that have a
physiologic or biologic basis. As with any study, the underlying

8. theories or conceptual frameworks may be broad (e.g., germ
theory) or very narrow (e.g., gate control theory).
This chapter presents some of the most commonly used theories
and principles from the biomedical sciences to illustrate how
they are being used in studies conducted by nurses and applied
in nursing practice. The number of these theories is staggering;
thus, space allows for discussion of only a few. Although there
is some overlap, the theories will be grouped into two large
categories: theories of disease causation (e.g., germ theory,
natural history of disease) and theories related to physiology
(e.g., stress and adaptation, cancer causation, pain).
Theories and Models of Disease Causation
On a day-to-day, moment-to-moment basis, nurses in practice
use any one of a number of concepts, principles, and theories
from biology and public health. These theories are often related
to disease causation and progression. This includes
pathogenesis and infection, as well as multiple epidemiologic
concepts and principles (e.g., risk factor, exposure, prevention).
This section provides a review of a few of these principles,
theories, and models and shows how they are used in nursing
practice and nursing research.
Evolution of Theories of Disease Causation
Disease refers to any condition that disturbs the normal
functioning of an organism, whether it affects one organ or
several systems. The term has also been defined as the failure of
an organism to respond or adapt to its environment. The concept
has changed dramatically over the course of time, however, and
ideas about the cause of disease have been influenced by the
prevailing culture and scientific thought.
In ancient times, disease was frequently viewed as a divine
intervention or punishment. Early human beings attributed
diseases to the influence of demons or spirits, and magic was a
large part of treatment and prevention. As time passed, other
interventions or treatments, such as the use of plant extracts,
became more common.
As humans formed into societies and distinct cultural groups,

9. two trends, or approaches, to medicine evolved. Sorcerers and
priests embraced a magico-religious approach, whereas early
physicians and scientists developed an empirico-rational
approach. The empirico-rational approach was based on
experience and observation and was practiced at first by priests
but was adapted by nonclerical physicians. Modern medicine
arose primarily from the empirico-rational approach as the
human body and its functions became better known and as
science led medical practice away from superstition and focus
on the spiritual realm to include scientific processes and
reasoning.
In the 17th century, William Harvey, an English physician and
anatomist, demonstrated the dynamics of blood circulation
(Donahue, 2011). Detailed studies of the organs, diseases, and
processes, such as physiology and respiration, quickly followed,
conducted by eminent physicians and scientists of the time.
Medical debates focused on minute features of the body and
how to treat particular diseases. Philosophies and theories
developed that were largely reductionistic and deductive,
focusing on cause and effect; the medical model quickly
evolved.
In the latter part of the 19th century, scientists began to unravel
the basic causes of infectious disease. Modern medicine began
with the advent of Pasteur’s germ theory, which posited that a
specific microorganism was capable of causing an infectious
disease (Black & Hawks, 2009). The focus on single-agent or
single-organism cause for disease persisted for a number of
decades and resulted in multiple successes in both treating and
preventing communicable diseases. Today, however, the
predominant general model of disease causation is multicausal,
involving invasive agents, immune responses, genetics,
environment, and behavior.
A number of theories and models describe disease causation and
the properties that relate to disease processes and prevention.
Some of the most frequently encountered models in nursing
practice and research are discussed in the following sections.

10. Germ Theory and Principles of Infection
Louis Pasteur first proposed the germ theory in 1858. He
theorized that a specific organism (i.e., a germ) was capable of
causing an infectious disease (Kalisch & Kalisch, 2004). Today,
this seems like a simple theory, but it is one that was critical to
the development of modern medical care. Its impact has been
phenomenal and has helped to radically reduce the number of
deaths from infection.
At the beginning of the 21st century, theories of infection are
most often applied to prevent infection (e.g., practicing strict
hand washing, cleansing a scrape and applying antibiotic
ointment, or prophylactically treating a surgery client with
antibiotics) or to describe the process that seeks to identify,
understand, and manage infectious diseases. This process
initiates the search for the causative agent of an infection and
method(s) of transmission. Once this has been accomplished,
the focus can shift to the development of ways to prevent and
treat the disease.
One of the most recent and dramatic examples of this process
was the outbreak of AIDS. The syndrome was first identified by
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in September of
1982, but months passed before it was determined that the
causative agent was a retrovirus, later termed
HIV
(Shi & Singh, 2012). Early in the process, even before the virus
was isolated, methods of transmission (e.g., sexual,
transplacental, via blood products) were recognized and
interventions for prevention proposed. Research on treatment
has produced somewhat successful results in recent years and is
ongoing.
CHAPTER 17: Learning Theories
Evelyn M. Wills
Melanie McEwen
Barbara Davis is a family nurse practitioner working in a
community clinic. Recently, she cared for Frank Young, a 65-

11. year-old African American who came to the clinic at his wife’s
insistence because of recurring, severe headaches. Mr. Young
reported that his headaches started about 6 months ago; he
attributed them to stress caused by his recent retirement.
Mr. Young’s physical findings indicated that he was about 50
lbs overweight and that his blood pressure while sitting was
204/110 mmHg. His lower legs and feet were slightly
edematous, and laboratory tests revealed a total cholesterol
reading of 290 mg/dl. All other laboratory blood and urine
results were normal.
Barbara explained to Mr. Young that he has high blood pressure
and asked to discuss the problem with both him and his wife.
She led the Youngs to a room in which they sat in comfortable
chairs around a small table. Barbara began the discussion by
asking if the couple had any experience with hypertension
(HTN). She explained the relationship among HTN, race, age,
gender, and weight and described its prevalence among various
groups. She showed the Youngs a short video that used
nonmedical terms to describe HTN, visually illustrated the
physiologic changes that cause HTN, and then explained some
of the possible complications.
After the video, Barbara questioned the Youngs to evaluate
their level of understanding. A 15-minute discussion followed
in which Barbara described management strategies. She gave
Mr. Young two prescriptions and explained what they were for
and how to take them. Following the explanation, she had him
repeat the information to her. They also discussed the
importance of limiting sodium intake, and Barbara gave the
Youngs a booklet with pictures to show the exact types,
varieties, and amounts of foods available in their region and
whether the sodium content was safe, high, or too high to
consume. It included condiments, with the allowed amounts, on
a full-color poster that could be placed on the side of the
refrigerator or attached to the door of a cabinet. There were
recipes for variations on favorite foods with lowered sodium
content, and the booklet also had removable shopping lists to

12. assist Mrs. Young when she had to make quick decisions in
grocery stores. Learning that both Mrs. and Mr. Young enjoyed
working and gaming on the computer, Barbara included
websites with helpful hints on limiting sodium and fats, and the
URLs for “say NAYtoNA,” a local Facebook support group
page and Twitter site for social support.
At the end of the appointment, they reviewed the ways to lower
Mr. Young’s blood pressure and they set up an appointment
with the clinic’s dietitian to go over ways the Youngs could
reduce the amount of fat and salt in their diet. Finally, Barbara
made a follow-up appointment for the next week and
encouraged Mrs. Young to accompany her husband to that
meeting.
One of the most important roles of professional registered
nurses (RNs) and advanced practice nurses (APNs) is teaching.
Teaching performed by nurses at all levels is usually more
informal than formal. That is, the nurse teaches clients and their
families, or students and colleagues, more often on a one-to-one
basis as the need arises than in a formal, planned teaching
session in a classroom setting. But teaching includes more than
just providing clients with information. Because someone has
been told something does not mean that learning has occurred.
Many factors are involved for learning to be successful, and
providing information is only one of them.
Health information is usually foreign and difficult to understand
for patients and families; the idea of health literacy as a
component of health teaching is important in teaching
patients/clients. Health literacy is defined as “the degree to
which an individual has the capacity to obtain, communicate,
process and understand basic health information and services to
make appropriate health decisions” (Bastable, Myers, &
Poitevent, 2014, p. 261). Although health literacy is not an
educational theory, health teaching depends on the abilities of
nurses to bring information and education to individuals and
groups regardless of their educational level and ability to learn.
Because many patients depend on someone else to help or to

13. care for them, the caregivers must also be taught to provide
assistance so that the patient may heal or live with chronic
diseases or the effects of illness and trauma.
This chapter provides professional nurses with tools to facilitate
learning for patients, families, and staff. Basic theories of
learning can serve as a framework for the nurse in all teaching
endeavors. Theories provide a way to organize thinking for what
will be communicated to other people. They may offer a
mechanism whereby the instructor can look at a situation in a
different way when current methods are not working, or they
may provide a map for charting unfamiliar territory. In any
event, facilitating learning is an essential objective of the
professional nurse, and application of theories helps ensure that
learning is optimized.
What Is Learning?
Learning has been defined as “a relatively permanent change in
behavior or in behavioral potentiality that results from
experience and cannot be attributed to temporary body states
such as those induced by illness, fatigue, or drugs” (Olson &
Hergenhahn, 2012, p. 6). Learning occurs as individuals interact
with their environment, incorporating new information into
what they already know (Braungart, Braungart, & Gramet, 2014;
Candela, 2012). Further, if learning is to be permanent, it must
be treated as a process that occurs over time rather than an
isolated event. Often, time and repeated contacts are required
for an individual to acquire new knowledge that is meaningful
and significant (Forrest, 2004).
Learning can be grouped into three categories: psychomotor
learning (the acquisition and performance of skills), affective
learning (a change in feelings, values, or beliefs), and cognitive
learning (acquiring information). Examples of psychomotor
learning would include a nursing student mastering certain
patient care procedures (e.g., inserting an IV line or changing a
sterile dressing) and a patient learning to self-inject insulin.
Illustrations of affective learning include an alcoholic acquiring
strategies to overcome addiction and a nurse developing cultural

14. sensitivity when caring for immigrants. Cognitive learning
generally involves the addition of new information, as when a
new mother learns how to care for her infant or a novice nurse
learns to recognize the signs and symptoms of heart failure.
Although not always recognized, psychomotor learning tends to
be more easily accomplished and measured than affective and
cognitive learning (Rankin & Stallings, 2005). Nurses must
understand all three types of learning and know how to
facilitate each in patients and their families as well as among
other nurses and ancillary staff.
The process of assimilating new knowledge into our daily lives
makes all humans constant learners, because learning is
necessary for survival. Although all animals can learn, humans
are capable of using their knowledge to be creative, predict the
future, explain the past, or deal with the present. Indeed,
learning is such an important human experience that it has
created the desire or curiosity to discover how people learn.
This search to understand how people learn has led to the
development and formalization of learning theories.
What Is Teaching?
It must be recognized that although teaching and learning are
interrelated, learning occurs as a separate and individual
process apart from teaching. Teaching refers to the intentional
act of communicating information and is often defined as the
facilitation of learning (Bastable & Alt, 2008). To accomplish
this, teachers must be aware of the learning styles and learning
needs of the individual and how capable that individual is of
responding to the demands of instruction.
It is a common assumption that teaching is helping one to gain
knowledge. While that is certainly an important component of
teaching, knowledge is seldom enough to elicit a change in
behavior or thinking. Knowing what should be done and acting
on that knowledge are two different things. For example, a
patient with chronic renal failure may
know
that salt and potassium are to be avoided in the diet, but

15. learning has not occurred until that knowledge has been
incorporated as a change in behavior.
Anyone who teaches, including a mother or father teaching a
child how to put away toys, or a woman teaching a friend to
crochet, has some belief regarding how learning occurs.
Unfortunately, sometimes the knowledge the teacher possesses
about learning is simplistic: “I told you; therefore, you should
know.” An individual’s beliefs about learning can influence that
person’s behavior regarding what should happen to make
learning occur. By understanding basic theories of learning, the
professional nurse will be better prepared to help the learner
make the transition from acquiring knowledge to learning. This
chapter presents some of the many theories of learning and
describes how they are used to solve problems encountered in
the teaching–learning process. These theories may be used by
nurses in practice or education, as well as for designing,
implementing, and evaluating research projects that involved
education.
Categorization of Learning Theories
Some nurses might question why it is important to understand
the process of learning and to know about some of the theories
of learning. Learning theories describe the processes used to
bring about changes in the ways individuals understand
information and changes in the ways they perform a task or
skill. Further, learning theories can help provide a focus for
creating an environment and conditions in which teaching can
occur more effectively (Candela, 2012). Kurt Lewin is credited
with the adage: “There is nothing so practical as