1. THE GRAMMAR
The grammar of a language
is a complex of systems that
require to be analyzed,
studied on three levels:
1. Phonology (set of sounds/
symbols)
2. Morphology (combinations
of sounds that carry single
units of meaning)
3.Syntax (how single units of
meaning are combined to
form words, phrases and
sentences.
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2. Words and Sentences
Single or Group of
alphabets combine
together to form word
and.
Single or Group of words
expressing meaning is
known as sentence.
Each sentence comprises
three parts
1. Subject
2. Verb
3. Object
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3. Definitions
Subject:- It is a part of a sentence that indicates who
or what performs the action subject usually appears
before the verb.
Verb:- It describes an action.
Object:- It is an entity that is acted upon by the
subject.
Some times the sentence will have only verb e.g.
Shoot, Fire, Run, Sit-down, Stand-up.etc
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4. PARTS OF SPEECH
NOUN : A noun is a word which names a person, place, thing, idea, living
creature or quality.
Examples: boy, theatre, box, thought, tree, kindness, pen, chair.
PRONOUN : A pronoun is used in place of a noun, to avoid repeating the
noun.
Examples : I, We, You, It, He, She, Him, Her, Your, Its, mine
VERB : A verb is a word which describes an action (doing something) or a
state (being something).
Examples : walk, talk, think, believe, live, like, want, is, am, was, were.
ADJECTIVE : An adjective is a word that describes or qualifies a noun.
Examples : big, yellow, thin, amazing, beautiful, quick, important
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5. ADVERB : An adverb : Word that qualifies a verb, an adjective or an adverb
itself. It tells you how something is done. It may also tell you when or where
something happened.
Examples : slowly, intelligently, well, yesterday, here, very, fast.
PREPOSITION : A preposition usually comes before a noun, pronoun or
noun phrase. It is a locator of time and place. It joins the noun to some other
part of the sentence.
Examples : on, in, at, for, of, off, beside, near, through, below, between.
CONJUNCTION : A conjunction joins two words, phrases or sentences
together. Examples : but, so, because, and, or, otherwise, hence, moreover,
either-or, neither-nor, so that, not only- but also.
INTERJECTION : An interjection is an unusual kind of word, because it
often stands alone. Interjections are words which express sudden emotions of
sorrow, pity, surprise, joy, etc. and these are usually followed by exclamation
marks.
Examples : Hello!, Hurrah!, Alas!, Bravo!, Oh!, Ouch!, Goodbye!
ARTICLES : An article is used to introduce a noun. Examples : a, an, the
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6. Parts of speech (Nouns)
Nouns may be classified
as:
Proper / common
Singular / plural (annex)
Count / non-count
/abstract (annex)(how
much – how many)
Collectible (group
nouns)
Units of measurement.
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7. Definition
(Proper and common nouns)
Nouns – words used to
name a person, place,
thing, object, quality, idea,
concept, or an action.
Proper Nouns- special or
particular name given to
common nouns to
distinguish them from
others of the same kind.
Example:
Common- woman
Proper - Sunita
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8. Proper and common nounsCOMMON PROPER COMMON PROPER
day Saturday associations Members Club
month October Movies Titanic
mountain Himalaya planets Earth
river Ganga city Mumbai
ocean Indian Ocean historical periods Moghul age
book Applied
Linguistic
Language Hindi
newspaper Times of
India
nationality Indian
religion Hindu School course CBSC
brand of product TATA institutions I I M/ I I T
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9. COUNTABLE NOUNS
That can be counted. For example : man, room, tree, pen
* ‘Many’, ‘Few’, ‘a few’, ‘a couple of’, etc. can be used to
quantify them.
UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
* That can’t be counted. For example : stars, rice, smoke,
hair, money, water, cloth, etc.
* ‘Much’, ‘little’, ‘a little’, ‘a bit of’, ‘a great deal of’, etc. can
be used to quantify them.
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11. Person
There are three types of Persons.
1. First Person:- First person is the speaker... I, we, me and
us.
2. Second Person:- It is the person spoken to literally...
you.
3.Third Person:- It is the person about whom it talks. It
includes ...He, She, It and them.
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13. REFLEXIVE / EMPHATIC
The PM himself paid a visit. (Emphatic)
The PM held himself responsible. (Reflexive)
You yourself expressed your fears. (Emphatic)
You express yourself poorly. (Reflexive)
In the above examples, the pronouns in the first sentences are used to put
emphasis on the subject, whereas in the other sentences they are used as an
object to which the verb reflects.
The Emphatic pronoun gives additional information and even by removing
it, the sentence would be meaningful. On the contrary, if the reflexive pronoun
is deleted from the sentence, the sentence will be incomplete and
meaningless.
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14. CHOOSE THE CORRECT OPTION
1. He is as tall as me / I.
2. They are as rich as us / we.
3. Who / Whom are you going to marry?
4. Who / Whom is hurt in the accident?
5. Nancy and I / me are going for a movie tonight.
6. My brother, who / that is a doctor, stays in Pune.
7. My mother, who / that is a teacher, is very strict.
8. Out of the ten cars, the one which / that is black in colour, is mine.
9. Everyone was invited but he / him.
10. Everybody was present except she / her.
11. He is the candidate who / whom / that we are looking for.
12. He is the kind of candidate who / whom / that we are looking for.
13. He is the wisest man who / whom / that I know.
14. One should respect his parents. (Spot the error)
15. If the baby does not like the milk, throw it. (Spot the error)
16. Everyone should respect their parents. (Spot the error)
17. Rahul, I and You are going to Mumbai. (Spot the error)
18. None of the students is / are well.
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15. 1. He is as tall as me / I.
2. They are as rich as us / we.
3. Who / Whom are you going to marry?
4. Who / Whom is hurt in the accident?
5. Nancy and I/ me are going for a movie tonight.
6. My brother, who / that is a doctor, stays in Pune.
7. My mother, who / that is a teacher, is very strict.
8. Out of the ten cars, the one which / that is black in colour, is mine.
9. Everyone was invited but he / him.
10. Everybody was present except she / her.
11. He is the candidate who / whom / that we are looking for.
12. He is the kind of candidate who / whom / that we are looking for.
13. He is the wisest man who / whom / that I know.
14. One should respect one’s parents.
15. If the baby does not like the milk, throw the milk.
16. Everyone should respect his / her parents.
17. You, Rahul and I are going to Mumbai.
18. None of the students is / are well.
ANSWERS
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16. VERBS
Verb is the heart of a sentence.
The boy kicked the ball.
I am writing an essay.
The child cries.
I am a teacher.
(You) Look upstairs.
(You) Bring me a chair.
* A sentence is not possible without a verb and a subject.
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17. Tense
Tense expresses time reference with the reference to
the moment of speaking they are usually manifested
by use of specific forms of verbs.
Tense is generally found in three forms:-
Past Tense
Present Tense
Future Tense
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18. TENSE SIMPLE CONTINUOUS PERFECT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
I write I am writing I have written I have been writing
You write You are writing You have written You have been writing
He/She/It writes He/She/It is writing He/She/It has written He/She/It has been writing
I wrote I was writing I had written I had been writing
You wrote You were writing You had written You had been writing
He wrote He was writing He had written He had been writing
I will/shall write I will/shall be writing I will/shall have written I will/shall have been writing
You will/shall write You will be writing You will have written You will have been writing
He will/shall write He will be writing He will have written He will have been writing
PRESENT
PAST
FUTURE
TENSES
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19. TENSE SIMPLE CONTINUOUS PERFECT
PERFECT
CONTINUOUS
PRESENT
Write / writes Is / am / are writing Has / have written Has / have been writing
is / am / are
written
Is / am / are being
written Has / have been written X
PAST
wrote Was / were writing had written had been writing
Was / were
written
Was / were being
written had been written X
FUTURE
Will / shall
write Will / shall be writing Will / shall have written
Will / shall have been
writing
Will / shall be
written X
Will / shall have been
written X
ACTIVE - PASSIVE VOICE
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20. SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE
Routine / Habitual Actions : I wake up at 6 every morning.
Rahul goes to office everyday.
Children fly kites on Uttarayan.
General / Universal Truths : The sun rises in the east.
A watermelon is sweet.
Vivid narration / Commentaries :
Guru now rushes forward and deals a heavy blow to Anna.
Here the ball goes up in the air and Kumble catches it.
A future event that is planned / arranged / scheduled :
Our exams begin on 12th
February.
The bus comes at 10:30 am.
Instead of Simple Future Tense, in clauses of time and condition :
I shall wait till you finish your lunch.
If it rains we shall get wet.
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21. To introduce quotations : Keats says, “A thing of beauty is a joy forever.”
Aristotle says, “ Happiness depends upon ourselves.”
Instead of Present Continuous Tense with certain type of verbs :
Verbs of Perception, eg.- see, hear, smell, notice, recognize
Verbs of Appearing, eg.- appear, look, seem
Verbs of Emotion, eg.- want, wish, desire, feel, like, love, hate, hope, prefer
Verbs of Thinking, eg.- think, suppose, believe, agree, consider, trust, remember
Verbs showing Possession, eg.- have, own, possess, belong, be (except in passive)
‘I see an aeroplane’, not ‘I am seeing an aeroplane’.
‘I own a bungalow’, not ‘I am owning a bungalow’.
They may however be used in the continuous tenses with a change of meaning; as,
I am thinking of (=considering the idea of ) going to America.
Mr. Singh is minding (=looking after) the baby while his wife is out shopping.
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22. PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE
An action going on at the time of speaking : She is singing now.
The boys are playing hockey.
I am listening to music.
A temporary action which may not be happening at the time of speaking :
I am reading ‘David Copperfield’.
She is learning to play cello.
An action that is planned or arranged to take place in near future :
I am going to cinema tonight.
My aunt is flying to New York tomorrow.
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23. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
Indicates activities completed in recent past : He has just gone out.
I have just completed my work.
Expresses past actions whose time is not given and not defined :
Have you watched ‘Bhool Bhulaiya’?
I have been to Australia.
I have never seen CM Sir to be angry.
Expresses past actions whose effect is still there at present :
I have already watched this movie twice.
I have cut my finger (and it is bleeding now).
I have finished my work ( and now I am free).
Denotes an action beginning at sometime in past and continuing upto the
present : I have known him for a long time.
He has been ill since last week.
We have lived here for ten years.
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24. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Indicates action that began sometime in past and is still continuing :
He has been sleeping for five hours.
They have been constructing the road for several months.
I have been staying in Ahmedabad since my birth.
She has been working as a Manager since 1999.
‘Since’ indicates a point of time
‘For’ indicates period or duration of time
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25. SIMPLE PAST TENSE
Indicates completed actions, the time may be either implied or indicated by
the context :
I visited Goa in the year 2000.
I received his letter a week ago.
The distributors released the movie yesterday.
I learnt to speak English in Bangalore.
For past habits : He studied many hours everyday.
She always carried an umbrella when she went out in the sun.
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26. PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE
Denotes an action going on at sometime in the past, the time may or may
not be indicated :
We were listening to the radio all evening.
It was getting darker.
She was sleeping when the door bell rang.
It was raining while I was watching T.V.
Also used for persistent habits in the past : He was always grumbling.
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27. PAST PERFECT TENSE
Describes an action completed before a certain moment in the past :
I met him in New Delhi in 1970. I had seen him last five years before.
Used when there are two past actions and it may be necessary to show
which action happened first :
When I reached the station, the train had left.
The patient had died, before the doctor came.
I had completed my work, before he arrived.
When I was in college, I had participated in a number of competitions.
The action that happened first takes Past Perfect Tense whereas the
other action takes Simple Past Tense
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28. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Denotes an action that began before a certain point in the past and
continued upto that time :
Shahrukh had been acting in T.V. serials before he got a break in movies.
When Mr. Trivedi came to the school in 1965, Mr. Shah had already been
teaching there for five years.
The students had been studying till late night.
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29. SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE
Used for an action that has still to take place :
I shall see him tomorrow.
He will get admission in a good B-school.
The teacher will take a test tomorrow.
Simple Future Tense expresses colorless future. When the future is
colored with intention, the ‘going to’ infinitive construction is used :
I will build a new house. (sometime in future, not decided)
I am going to build a new house. (planned and in near future)
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30. USAGE OF ‘SHALL’, ‘WILL’
PERSON Normal sentences
without any intention
Determination,
willingness, desire,
threat, promise, etc.
1ST I (shall) We (will)
2ND You (will) You (shall)
3RD He/She/It (will) He (shall)
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31. FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE
Represents an action as going on at sometime in future :
I shall be reading the paper when you come.
When I get home, my children will be studying.
I will be taking your lecture at this time tomorrow.
Also used for planned future events :
I will be staying here till Sunday.
He will be meeting us next week.
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32. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
Used to indicate the completion of an action by a certain time in future
I shall have written my exercise by the time you come.
You will have given GCET by next monsoon.
She will have flown to Canada by the time you get married.
FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Indicates an action represented as being in progress over a period of time
that will end in future :
By next July we shall have been living here for four years.
When he gets the degree, he will have been studying at Oxford for three
years.
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34. TRANSITIVE VERBS
Verbs that need an object to make the sentence complete or meaningful are
called transitive verbs. Here the action gets transferred from the subject to the
object.
The hunter killed the tiger.
I watched a movie.
In the above sentences, the verbs ‘killed’ and ‘watched’ need objects to make
the sentence complete. Without the objects, the sentences will not make any
sense.
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35. INTRANSITIVE VERBS
Verbs that don’t need an object to make the sentence complete or meaningful
are called intransitive verbs. Here the actions do not get transferred from the
subject to the object.
The baby cries.
The wind blows.
Nandini runs fast.
In the above sentences, the verbs are intransitive as they don’t need an object
to make the sentence meaningful or complete.
It depends on the usage, whether a verb is transitive or intransitive. Most of
the verbs can be used transitively as well as intransitively.
‘Tell’ is a transitive verb whereas ‘Say’ is an intransitive verb. ‘Tell’ needs a
receiver or listener.
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36. The building collapsed. (Used intransitively)
The earthquake collapsed the building. (Used transitively)
This horse never kicks. (Used intransitively)
This horse kicked the little boy. (Used transitively)
In the above sentences, the verbs ‘collapsed’ and ‘kick’ have been used
transitively as well as intransitively.
Present Past Past Participle
Lie Lay Lain (Intransitive)
Lay Laid Laid (Transitive)
The doctor asked me to lie down.
Please lay the table for me.
He lay on the beach.
The hen laid 3 eggs.
Last Sunday, I had lain in the bed for over 12 hours.
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37. AUXILIARY VERBS
Auxiliaries are helping verbs that indicate the tense or the mood of the
sentence.
Is, am, are, was, were, has, have, had, be, been, being, do, does, did are called
Primary Auxiliaries.
Can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, must, dare, ought to,
has to, have to, had to, need, needn’t are called Modal Auxiliaries.
I am singing a song. (indicates tense)
She has submitted her project. (indicates tense)
I can cook Continental cuisine. (indicates mood)
You must work hard. (indicates mood)
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38. LINKING VERBS
Linking verbs link or connect the subject to the predicate (i.e. the remaining
part of the sentence) The Predicate identifies or describes the subject. Linking
verbs do not indicate any action.
The pizza smells delicious.
The flowers appear to be fresh.
The movie seems interesting.
She was a brilliant student.
I am a teacher.
In the above sentences, the verbs do not indicate any action. They are just
connecting the subject to the rest of the part of the sentence.
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39. PARTICIPLES
Participles are of two types – Present and Past
Present Participle is verb + ing
‘Writing’ and ‘Written’ are the two participles of ‘Write’
‘Dancing’ and ‘Danced’ are the two participles of ‘Dance’
The participles can act as an adjective as well as a noun.
The crying baby had a wet diaper.
The burning log fell off the fire.
I sold the broken chair as scrap.
I am not interested in this proposal.
In the above sentences, the participles have been used as adjectives.
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40. GERUND
When a participle is used as a noun, it is called a gerund.
Smoking is injurious to health.
I want to try paragliding.
She hates cooking.
Swimming is the best form of exercise.
In the above sentences, the participles are used as nouns. They are either the
subject or the object but not verbs. These are called gerunds.
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41. INFINITIVES
Infinitives are to + verb. They can act as a noun, an adjective or an adverb.
I love to sleep.
To wait seemed foolish when decisive action was required.
I want to go to Goa.
Do you wish to register?
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42. CHOOSE THE CORRECT OPTION
1. She does not dance / dances well.
2. Rahul dance / dances on the stage.
3. The problem is / are taxes.
4. The mice is / are a problem.
5. The news is / are interesting.
6. None of the students is / are present.
7. Is / are your father and mother home?
8. Around the corner is / are a bakery and a wine shop?
9. Gold, along with silver, is / are rising in price.
10. The house, with its contents, was / were insured.
11. The wages of his sins is / are death.
12. Time and tide wait / waits for none.
13. The novelist and poet is / are dead.
14. My friend and my benefactor has / have come.
15. The committee has / have issued its / their report.
16. The committee is / are divided on a minor issue.
17. Fifty-thousand rupees is / are a big amount.
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43. 18. Fifty-thousand rupees has / have been deposited in the bank.
19. The United States has / have a huge army.
20. A dozen of mangoes cost / costs Rs. 200.
21. If I was / were the Superman, I would have first changed my dress-code.
22. The teacher told that honesty is the best policy. (Spot the error)
23. Hrithik’s dressing is simple but his belongings expensive. (S.E.)
24. Krunal never has and never will love anyone in his life. (S.E.)
25. Ten new students have been enrolled and two left the course. (S.E.)
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44. ANSWERS
She does not dance / dances well.
Rahul dance / dances on the stage.
The problem is / are taxes.
The mice is / are a problem.
The news is / are interesting.
None of the students is / are present.
Is / Are your father and mother home?
Around the corner is / are a bakery and a wine shop?
Gold, along with silver, is / are rising in price.
The house, with its contents, was / were insured.
The wages of his sins is / are death.
Time and tide wait / waits for none.
The novelist and poet is / are dead.
My friend and my benefactor has / have come.
The committee has / have issued its / their report.
The committee is / are divided on a minor issue.
Fifty-thousand rupees is / are a big amount.
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45. Adjectives
Definition
ADJECTIVES
A word that qualifies or describes a noun
is called an adjective.
Examples : a smart boy
a large room
a black horse
an intelligent girl
a delicious dish
• Articles as adjectives
• Order of adjectives in a series (color,
size, origin, nationalities, shape, age,
etc..)
• Past participles / gerunds used as
adjectives
• Comparatives and superlatives
comparisons (annex-practice)
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46. ADVERBS
A word that qualifies a verb, adjective or an adverb is
called an adverb.
Examples :smartly, intelligently,
beautifully, clearly, slowly, bravely,
fast, well, hard, nicely,
sweetly, sincerely, etc.
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47. CHOOSE THE CORRECT OPTION
1. The flowers smell sweet / sweetly.
2. The boy laughed loud / loudly.
3. The boy looks confident / confidently.
4. My boss is elder / older to / than me / I.
5. Few / A few chocolates are left.
6. These days women spend less / fewer / lesser hours in the kitchen.
7. Of the three, tea, coffee and cocoa, the last / latter is his favourite.
8. Of the two students, Mann and Adarsh, the last / latter is my favourite.
9. The Ganga is the most holiest of all the rivers. (Spot the error)
10. I prefer tea than coffee. (Spot the error)
11. The population of Mumbai is more than Ahmedabad. (Spot the error)
12. Mt. Everest is larger than all the mountain peaks. (Spot the error)
13. My plan is more preferable than yours. (Spot the error)
14. This material is superior in quality than that. (Spot the error)
15. This is the most unique piece of jewellery. (Spot the error)
16. Gandhiji was never born in Ahmedabad. (Spot the error)
17. I never remember having read such an interesting book. (Spot the error)
18. He is too tired. (Spot the error)
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48. 1. The flowers smell sweet / sweetly.
2. The boy laughed loud / loudly.
3. The boy looks confident / confidently.
4. My boss is elder / older to / than me / I.
5. Few / A few chocolates are left.
6. These days women spend less / fewer / lesser hours in the kitchen.
7. Of the three, tea, coffee and cocoa, the last / latter is his favourite.
8. Of the two students, Mann and Adarsh, the last / latter is my favourite.
9. The Ganga is the holiest of all the rivers.
10. I prefer tea to coffee.
11. The population of Mumbai is more than that of Ahmedabad.
12. Mt. Everest is larger than all other mountain peaks. OR
Mt. Everest is larger than any other mountain peak.
13. My plan is preferable to yours.
14. This material is superior in quality to that.
15. This is the unique piece of jewellery.
16. Gandhiji was not born in Ahmedabad.
17. I remember never having read such an interesting book.
18. He is too tired to walk.
ANSWERS
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49. Prepositions
Definition
• IN, ON and AT
(annex
–time and location)
• All prepositions
• Transitional
expressions
(prep. Phrases-
annex)
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50. 1. ‘All of’ should always be followed by a pronoun
All of us went for the picnic.
All of them called me on my birthday.
All / All of the ladies belong to the Rotary Club.
2. Between - two
Among - more than two
Hari is sitting between / among Urvashi and Urmi.
Place a piece of paper between / among the slides of glass in the box.
Distribute the chocolates among / between the students.
3. Beside - adjacent to
Besides – in addition to
Come, sit beside me.
I have learnt swimming besides painting.
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51. 4. In - place, time
Into - inward direction, movement, change of form
She walked in / into my office.
She stayed in / into the room the whole day.
The boy jumped in / into the pool.
I was into / in the class, when the professor came.
The glass broke in / into pieces.
The magician turned the dove in / into a beautiful girl.
5. At - specific time and place, for relatively smaller areas
In - place, time (month, year, part of the day)
I stay at / in Vastrapur, at / in Ahmedabad.
My office was at / in Satellite at / in Ahmedabad at / in India before I shifted
to the U.S.
I was born in the month of October in 1980.
I called him up in morning.
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52. 6. On - Physical connection, day, date, street
Upon - Intangible things (used for laying emphasis), also similar to on
The paper was on / upon the desk when I left.
My birthday is on Monday, on 30th
October.
The institute is on C.G.Road.
Upon / on entering the room, I found him hanging.
Newton’s theories were based on / upon his research.
She still depends upon / on her parents for her survival.
She was joyful upon / on seeing her child take his first steps.
He climbed upon / on his horse and rode off.
7. Phrasal Verbs - Verbs + Prepositions
Agree + Preposition
She didn’t agree to / with Vishal’s proposal.
She always agrees with / to me.
The committee did not agree on / upon / at / with this petty issue.
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53. Agree + with : person
Agree + to : plan, proposal
Agree + upon : thought, idea, opinion
Employed + Preposition
I am employed with / at / in / by Endeavor.
I am employed at / in Ahmedabad.
She has been employed for / by / with marketing.
She has been employed for / at / with Rs. 20000 per month.
He was employed by / with Mr. Hitesh to / for / by complete the new project.
Employed + to : purpose, task
Employed + with : firm, group
Employed + for : profile, department, salary, post
Employed + in : firm, organization
Employed + at : place
Employed + by : person, firm
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54. Some other useful prepositions are : of, off, before, under, beneath,
underneath, behind, over, above, below, across, along, alongwith, near,
through, like, about, around, by, towards, beyond, within, without, with, for,
since, to, etc.
The wheel of the car came off.
My shoes are under the bed.
The aeroplane flew over my head.
My office is located above a medical store.
Girls below 15 years cannot participate in this competition.
I got a sketch pen free along with this sketch book.
I am walking along the river bank.
She had parked her vehicle across the road.
God is around us.
Don’t go beyond that signboard.
There is a canteen within my college campus.
The boy threw the ball through the window.
We are moving towards north.
My sister is like my mother.
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55. CONJUNCTIONS
Rule 1 : ‘But’ is a conjunction as well as a preposition.
The bridegroom is rich but the bride is poor. (used as conjunction)
Everyone but her attended the lecture. (used as preposition)
Rule 2 : ‘As’ should be used as a conjunction and not as a preposition
Lata Mangeshkar sings as a nightingale does.
Lata Mangeshkar sings like a nightingale.
Rule 3 : Usage of ‘Not only - but also’
The company manufactures not only leather goods but also plastic wares.
He not only educated his son in one of the best schools but also sent
him abroad for further studies.
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56. Rule 4 : ‘No sooner’ should be followed by ‘than’
No sooner did the teacher enter the class than the students stopped talking.
Rule 5 : ‘Hardly’ and ‘Scarcely’ should be followed by ‘when’
Scarcely had he gone when a policeman knocked at the door.
Hardly had I entered home when the phone rang.
Rule 6 : The phrase ‘seldom or ever’ is meaningless. It should be ‘seldom or
never’ or ‘seldom if ever’.
Such goods are made for export, and are seldom or never used in this country.
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57. PARALLELISMS
I go to club regularly not only to meet my friends but also for staying fit.
I love reading, cooking and to explore new places.
Her views are radical and something that inspire us.
Addy ran across the yard, jumped over the fence, and down the alley he sprinted.
The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately and
in a thorough manner.
It was both a long ceremony and very tedious.
My income is smaller than my wife.
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58. I go to club regularly not only to meet my friends but also to stay fit.
I love reading, cooking and exploring new places.
Her views are radical and inspiring.
Addy ran across the yard, jumped over the fence, and sprinted down the
alley.
The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately
and thoroughly.
The ceremony was both long and tedious.
My income is smaller than my wife’s.
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59. DANGLING MODIFIERS
1. Sitting at the gate, a scorpion stung him.
2. Upon entering the room, the music overwhelmed me.
3. Walking out of the stadium, the lights were flickering.
4. Having tested positive for cocaine, the police arrested him.
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60. 1. Sitting at the gate, a scorpion stung him.
Subject
Dangling modifier Main Clause
The modifier should refer to the subject in the Main Clause. Here, the modifier
refers to the subject ‘Scorpion’. Hence the sentence means, the scorpion is
sitting at the gate, which is incorrect.
Hence, a change should be made either in the modifier or in the Main Clause to
correct the sentence.
a) Sitting at the gate, he was stung by the scorpion.
b) While he was sitting at the gate, a scorpion stung him.
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61. 2. Upon entering the room, the music overwhelmed me.
a) Upon entering the room, I was overwhelmed by the music.
b) As I entered the room, the music seemed to overwhelm me.
3. Walking out of the stadium, the lights were flickering.
a) Walking out of the stadium, he saw the lights flickering.
b) While he was walking out of the stadium, the lights were flickering.
4. Having tested positive for cocaine, the police arrested the accused.
a) Having tested positive for cocaine, the accused was arrested by
the police.
b) As the accused tested positive for cocaine, the police arrested him.
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62. ORDER OF WORDS
1. The Subject usually comes before the verb and the Object after the verb.
The dog bit the boy.
Subject Verb Object
The king wears a crown.
Subject Verb Object
2. When there is an indirect object and also a direct object, the indirect
precedes the direct.
Lend me your ears.
IO DO
He gave me a ticket.
IO DO
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63. 3. When the adjective is used attributively, it comes before the noun whereas
if it is used predicatively it comes after the noun.
Few cats like cold water. (Attributively used)
Adj. Noun Adj. Noun
The horse became restless. (Predicatively used)
Noun Adj.
The house is spacious and beautiful.
Noun Adj.
4. The adverb is generally placed close to the word which it modifies.
He never tells a lie.
John is a rather lazy boy.
But when an adverb is intended to modify the sentence as a whole, it is
placed at the beginning of the sentence.
Certainly he made a fool of himself.
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64. 5. All qualifying clauses are placed as close as possible to the words which they
qualify.
He died in the village where he was born.
The dog that barks does not bite.
People who live in glass houses should not throw stones.
The girl who is standing at the corridor is my sister.
The day when I was born was Thursday.
6. Owing to faulty arrangement of words, a sentence may be turned into complete
nonsense.
A gentleman has a dog to sell who wishes to go abroad.
A nurse maid is wanted for a baby about twenty years old.
A gentleman who wishes to go abroad has a dog to sell. (Correct)
A nurse maid about twenty years old is wanted for a baby. (Correct)
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65. Interjections and other words
Definition and examples
• Onomatopoeias
• Numerals (cardinals,
ordinals)
• Determiners
• Qualifiers
• Subordinators
• interrogatives
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66. ARTICLES
DEFINITE INDEFINITE
THE A, AN
SPECIFIC NOUNS GENERAL NOUNS
SINGULAR / PLURAL SINGULAR
INDICATES CLASS INDICATES CLASS
INDICATES ONE / SINGLE
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67. A AN
Consonant Sound Vowel Sound
Examples : a pen an orange
a child an umbrella
a university an honest person
a union an honourable man
a European an M.B.A
a one-rupee coin an sms
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