This document summarizes a study examining police reports of domestic violence involving LGBTQ+ couples. Key findings include: - Rates of domestic violence among LGBTQ+ couples are similar to or higher than heterosexual couples. - Police reports rely on binary gender definitions which impacts analyzing LGBTQ+ victimization rates. - Types, seriousness and number of charges laid against LGBTQ+ and heterosexual perpetrators were similar. - Risk factors identified varied between LGBTQ+ and heterosexual couples depending on type of police report. The study highlights the need to incorporate LGBTQ+ perspectives and considerations into police training and domestic violence response.

1. Queering the Response to IPV
Coming Together For Action
Global Alliance
On-line Conference
October 6-9, 2020
Susan Scott, PhD
Sarah Tilley, MSW
Angela Hovey, PhD, RSW
Lori Chambers, PhD
BJ Rye, PhD, St. Jerome’s University, University of Waterloo

2. Acknowledgements
This research is supported by Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada

3. Study Background

4. • This study is a sub-study of a larger project
• Larger project examined domestic violence call data from a police service detachment in a
mid-sized, combined rural/urban centre in south central Ontario wanted to
• Sub-study involved analysis of 2SLGBTQQIPAA (two-spirit, lesbian, gay, bisexual,
trans/transgender, queer, questioning, intersex, pansexual, asexual, and allies (complex,
continuously evolving term) police domestic violence call data and comparisons with
relevant research literature and with male-female calls in datasets
 Referred to in the presentation as LGBTQ+)
• Shed light on need for LGBTQ+ approaches to addressing domestic violence
• Study is limited by
 Small sample sizes
 Overlap in couples within small sample size

5. APPROACHES USED

6. 1) Literature Review
 Search It All (part of EBSCO Discovery Service) 2017 to 2019
 LGBTQ+ review component included 37 articles
o Male same sex IPV (7), Female same-sex IPV (7), Trans-specific IPV (3), Male and female same sex
IPV (12), All of the above (8)
2) DVSR CC and DVSR Non-CC Analysis
 Drew all LGBTQ+ call data from a census of DVSR forms for occurrences from January
2012 to November 2014 for the main study
3) Comparisons between Data and the Literature

7. Findings
Prevalence and Demographics
Risk-Related Factors
Service Referrals

8. Prevalence and Background Demographics
• Rates of victimization are similar to or higher than heterosexual
domestic violence victimization rates, depending on the study reviewed
o Bisexual individuals, regardless of gender, experience the highest rate of domestic violence
• Heavy reliance in the literature on binary definitions of gender
• Police forms also rely on binary definitions of gender

9. Number of LGBTQ+ Domestic Violence Calls
DVSR NON-CC DVSR CC
Total calls in dataset = 2439
Confirmed LGBTQ+ calls = 22 (0.9% of
total calls)
• 15 calls were female same-sex (0.6%
of total calls)
• 7 calls were male same-sex (0.3% of
total calls)
Total calls in dataset = 985
Confirmed LGBTQ+ calls = 20 (2.0% of total
calls)
• 12 calls were female same-sex (1.2% of
total calls)
• 8 calls were male same-sex (0.8% of
total calls)
• DVSR data appears consistent with the literature re LGBTQ+ people experience violence at higher rates
than the general population
• Consistent With Canadian Census 2016:
• 1.7% of total population reported being “homosexual” and 1.3% reported being “bisexual”
• 0.9% reported in married or common law relationships so police call rate

10. Number of Couples Involved
DVSR NON-CC DVSR CC
• 13 unique same-sex couples involved in
the 22 calls
• 4 unique couples were associated with
multiple calls to police
• 2 male same-sex and 2 female same-
sex couples
• None had children present during
violence; none had children
• 3 unique couples involved in the 8 calls for male same-
sex couples
• None had children in common
• No children were present during the violence
• 6 unique couples involved in 12 calls for female same-sex
couples
• In 2 calls, both parties were charged
• 4 calls involved one couple each
• None had children in common
• Children (toddlers) were present during violence in 4
calls
• DVSR data is consistent with Census data shows that 1/8 of same-sex couples have children living with
them (Statistics Canada, 2016)
• Women are more apt to be responsible for child care

11. DVSR CC Charges Laid
Types of Charges Seriousness of Charges Number of Charges
Crimes Against Persons
• Assault Bodily Harm, Assault With a Weapon, Assault,
Assault With Intent to Resist Arrest, Assault a Peace
Officer, Uttering Death Threats, Criminal Harassment
Crimes Against Property
• Mischief Under $5,000, Theft Under $ 5,000,
Possession of Property Obtained by Crime Under $
5,000, Cause Disturbance, Break and Enter a Dwelling
House
Drug-related
• Possession of Marijuana
Administration of Justice
• Failure to Comply, Breach of Recognizance, Breach of
Probation
• 70% of charges were not
very serious
• 30% were serious
• Serious crimes
against persons,
serious property
crimes
• Range from 1 to 4
charges laid
• 12 calls had 1 or
2 charges laid
• 8 calls had 3 or
4 charges laid
• Mode = 1 charge
• Average = 2 charges
• No differences by gender for types of charges laid, charge seriousness, and number of charges laid
• Number of charges laid and seriousness of charges are similar between same-sex couples and male-
accused/female victim couples

12. Risk Related Factors
• The literature indicates that most risk factors are the same for LGBTQ+ and male-
female domestic violence
• LGBTQ+ specific factors related to experiences of discrimination and minority
stress identified in the literature
 Threats to out the victim regarding their orientation and/or identity
 Social isolation
 Concealment of orientation and/or identity, especially among men who have sex with men
 Negative coming out experiences, lack of connection to queer community, movement from one
relationship to another quickly without time to heal (women who have sex with women)
 Insults, degradation re identity, body, gendered traits; withholding transition related financial support
and resources; desire to punish gender norm transgression stemming from transphobia (trans
relationships)
 Heterosexism and sexual stigma/internalized homonegativity, transphobia, cissexism
 Minority stress
 Condom-less anal intercourse and HIV infection

13. General Findings re DVSR Form Risk Factors
• Forms do not include LGBTQ+ specific risk factors
• Few differences were found between same sex couples by gender and
between same sex couples and male accused-female victim couples
regarding risk factors noted
• Significant differences in the number of risk factors identified were found
 Non-CC calls: same-sex couples tended to have more risk factors noted than male-
female couples
 CC calls: male-female couples tended to have more risk factors noted than same-sex
couples

14. DVSR CC Risk Factors
• Number of risk factors endorsed by police for same-sex couples
 Average = 3.3 Median = 2 Mode = 0 (8 of 20 forms) Range 0 to 11
o One female couple with 2 calls had 11 on one form and 9 on the other
o One male couple with 1 call had 11 risk factors
• Wide variation in risk factors endorsed
 None were prevalent among the majority of same-sex couple
• Most frequently endorsed for same-sex couples (7 of 20 calls)
 Recent relationship change
 Recent stress for the accused
 Accused threatened suicide

15. • Same-sex couples had lower endorsement of specific risk factors than male
accused-female victim couples (but small effect sizes)
 Exhibiting externalizing behaviours
 Jealousy/obsessiveness
 Stalking
 Escalation of conflict/assault

16. DVSR Non-CC: Risk Factors
• Risk factors endorsed more frequently for same-sex couples than male
accused-female victim
 Conflict escalation
 Threatened suicide
 Exhibits jealousy or obsessiveness

17. Police Referrals to Community Resources
Service Offers DVSR CC
n=20
DVSR Non-CC
n=22
Offered to Contact Victim
Services?
20 19
Did victim accept offer? 2 1
Place of safety
provided/Women’s shelter?
9 6
Information on safety planning
provided?
18 15
Victim Support Line given? 17 15
NB: No differences between same-sex and heterosexual couples for any of the services offered

18. Help-Seeking Literature: Barriers to Help-Seeking
• Stigma issues are overarching
• Police-Related
 LGBTQ+ people are less likely to report domestic violence than others
 Mistrust and lack of confidence in police
• Service-Related
 Limited LGBTQ+-specific services
 Lack of knowledge about where to turn since most community services are for heterosexual women
 Some services (e.g., VAW shelters) may not accept some individuals (e.g., male survivors, trans people)
 Heteronormativity, cis-normativity and homophobia within service delivery organizations
 Previous negative experiences with mainstream service providers
 Bisexual people face issues with both services designed for heterosexual and those designed for queer people
 Trans people may be turned away from services or have to hide their identity
• DV and Community
 Difficulty seeing oneself as victim and/or perpetrator
 Fear that acknowledging the issues may reflect badly on the LGBTQ+ community, especially in small rural settings
 Fear of lack of confidentiality within small LGBTQ+ community

19. Summary
• Study shines light on LGBTQ+ domestic violence police calls
• Support of Literature
 Higher rates of victimization in LGBTQ+ relationships than others
 LGBTQ+ couples are less likely to have children and therefore less likely to have
children present during situations of violence
 Low uptake on services offered
• DVSR forms rely on the traditional gender binary impacting ability to
examine LGBTQ+ victimization rates
• Number, seriousness, and type of charges against LGBTQ+ and heterosexual
people in situations of domestic violence were similar

20. • LGBTQ+-specific risk factors are not overtly included in the DVSR forms
• Same sex couples tend to have
 More risk factors endorsed for the DVSR Non-CC calls and fewer risk factors endorsed
for DVSR CC calls than male accused-female victim calls
 Lower endorsement (small effect sizes) of the following on the DVSR CC: Exhibiting
externalizing behaviours; Jealousy/obsessiveness; Stalking; Escalation of
conflict/assault
 Higher endorsement of the following (small effect sizes) on the DVSR Non-CC: Conflict
escalation; Threatened suicide; Exhibits jealousy or obsessiveness
o Important to consider greater endorsement of threats of suicide for LGBTQ+ couples regardless of
CC/Non-CC, especially for younger couples

21. Recommendations
1) DVSR Forms
 Revise DVSR forms to reduce gender binary and incorporate LGBTQ+-specific risk
factors
2) Responding to Calls
 Ensure that officers responding to calls understand LGBTQ+ issues and risk factors and
work in non-stigmatizing ways
o Especially important to consider issues re suicide, threatening suicide
3) Training
 For police officers and community service providers re: LGBTQ+ domestic violence
issues, risk factors, and gender issues

22. Questions or comments?

23. References
Beydoun, H. A., Williams, M., Beydoun, M. A., Eid, S. M., & Zonderman, A. B. (2017). Relationship of physical intimate partner violence with mental health diagnoses in the nationwide
emergency department sample. Journal of Women’s Health, 26(2), 141-151. doi:10.1089/jwh.2016.5840
Blackburn, M. V., & Smith, J. M. (2010). Moving beyond the inclusion of LGBT-themed literature in English language arts classroom: Interrogating heteronormativity and exploring
intersectionality. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 53(8), 625-634. doi:10.1598/JAAL.53.8.1
Brown, T. N. T., & Herman, J. L. (2015). Intimate partner violence and sexual abuse among LGBT people. The Williams Institute. Retrieved from
https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/Intimate-Partner-Violence-and-Sexual-Abuse-among-LGBT-People.pdf
Buller, A. M., Devries, K. M., Howard, L. M., & Bacchus, L. J. (2014). Associations between intimate partner violence and men who have sex with men: A systemic review and meta-
analysis. PLoS Med, 11(3), e1001609. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001609
Burczycka, M. (2017b). Section 3: Police-reported intimate partner violence. Statistics Canada. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/85-002-x/2017001/article/14698/03-
eng.htm
Calton, J. M., Bennett Cattaneo, L., Gebhard, K. T. (2016). Barriers to help seeking for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer survivors of intimate partner violence. Trauma,
Violence, & Abuse, 17(5), 585-600. doi:10.1177/1524838015585318
Carney, M., Buttell, F., & Dutton, D. (2007). Women who perpetuate intimate partner violence: A review of literature with recommendations for treatment. Aggression and Violent
Behaviour, 12(1), 108-115. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2006.05.002
Charak, R., Villarreal, L., Schmitz, R. M., Hirai, M., & Ford, J. D. (2019). Patterns of childhood maltreatment and intimate partner violence, emotional dysregulation, and mental health
symptoms among lesbian, gay, and bisexual emerging adults: A three-step latent class approach. Child Abuse & Neglect, 88, 99-110. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.01.007
Cossman, B. (2019). Same-sex marriage beyond Charter dialogue: Charter cases and contestation within government. University of Toronto Law Journal, 69(2), 183-210.
doi:10.3138/utlj.2018-0018
Coston, B. M. (2019). Disability, sexual orientation, and the mental health outcomes of intimate partner violence: Comparative study of women in the US. Disability and Health Journal,
12(2), 164-170. doi:10.1016/j.dhjo.2018.11.002
Counselman-Carpenter, E., & Redcay, A. (2018). Mining for posttraumatic growth (PTG) in sexual minority women who survive intimate partner violence: A conceptual perspective.
Behavioral Science, 8(77), 1-10. doi:10.3390/bs8090077

24. Douglas, E. M. & Hines, D. A. (2011). The helpseeking experiences of men who sustain intimate partner violence: An overlooked population and implications for practice. Journal of
Family Violence, 26(6), 473-485. doi:10.1007/s10896-011-9382-4
Edwards, K. M., & Sylaska, K. M. (2013). The perpetration of intimate partner violence among LGBTQ college youth: Minority stress. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 42(11), 1721-1731.
doi:10.1007/s10964-012-9880-6
Fleming, P. J., Gruskin, S., Rojo, F., & Dworkin, S. L. (2015). Men’s violence against women and men are inter-related: Recommendations for simultaneous intervention. Social Science
and Medicine, 146, 249-256. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.10.021
Ford, C. L., Slavin, T., Hilton, K. R., & Holt, S. L. (2013). Intimate partner violence prevention services and resources in Los Angeles: Issues, needs, and challenges for assisting lesbian,
gay, bisexual, and transgender clients. Health Promotion Practice, 4(6), 841-849. doi: 10.1177/1524839912467645Gaman, A., McAfee, S., Homel, P., & Jacob, T. (2017). Understanding
patterns of intimate partner abuse in male-male, male-female, and female-female couples. The Psychiatric Quarterly, 88(2), 335-347. doi:10.1007/s11126-016-9450-2
Goldenberg, T., Stephenson, R., Freeland, R., Finneran, C., & Hadley, C. (2016). ‘Struggling to be the alpha’: Sources of tension and intimate partner violence in same-sex relationships
between men. Culture, Health, & Sexuality, 18(8), 875-889. doi:10.1080/13691058.2016.1144791
Goodmark, L. (2013). Transgender people, intimate partner abuse, and the legal system. Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review, 51, 48-104.
Halerpin, D. M. (2003). The normalization of queer theory. Journal of Homosexuality, 45(2-4), 339-343. doi:10.1300/J082v45n02_17
Hardesty, J. L., Oswald, R. F., Khaw, L., & Fonseca, C. (2011). Lesbian/bisexual mothers and intimate partner violence: Help seeking in the context of social and legal vulnerability.
Violence Against Women, 17(1), 28-46. doi:10.1177/1077801209347636
Hester, M. (2012). Portrayal of women as intimate partner domestic violence perpetrators. Violence Against Women, 18(9), 1067-1082. doi: 10.1177/1077801212461428
Hicks, S., & Jeyasingham, D. (2016). Social work, queer theory and after: A genealogoy of sexuality theory in neo-liberal times. British Journal of Social Work, 46(8), 2357-2373.
doi:10.1093/bjsw/bcw103
Kelly, J. B., & Johnson, M. P. (2008). Differentiation among types of intimate partner violence: Research update and implications for intervention. Family Court Review, 46(3), 476-499.
Kelly, L. (2003). Disabusing the definition of domestic violence: How women batter men and the role of the feminist state. Florida State University Law Review, 30(4), 791-855.
Knauer, N. J. (1999). Same-sex domestic violence: Claiming a domestic sphere while risking negative stereotypes. Temple Political & Civil Rights Law Review, 8, 325-350.
Langenderfer-Magruder, L., Whitfield, D. L., Walls, A. E., Kattari, S. K., & Ramos, D. (2016). Experiences of intimate partner violence and subsequent police reporting among lesbian, gay,
bisexual, transgender, and queer adults in Colarado: Comparing rates of cisgender and transgender victimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 31(5), 855-871.
doi:10.1177/0886260514556767
Lenon, S. (2018). “Making it right,” keeping it white: Race and the demand for queer redress. Canadian Journal of Women and the Law, 30(3), 543-566. doi:10.3138/cjwl.30.3.009
Longobardi, C., & Badenes-Ribera, L. (2017). Intimate partner violence in same-sex relationships and the role of sexual minority stressors: A systemic review of the past 10 years.
Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(8), 2039-2049. doi: 10.1007/s10826-017-0734-4
Lorenzetti, L., Wells, L., Logie, C. H., & Callaghan, T. (2017). Understanding and preventing domestic violence in the lives of gender and sexually diverse person. The Canadian Journal of
Human Sexuality, 26(3), 175-185. doi:10.3138/cjhs.2016-0007

25. MacKinnon, K. V. R. (2011). Thinking about queer theory in social work education: A pedagogical (in)query. Canadian Social Work Review, 28(1), 139-144.
Mathen, C. (2004). Transgender persons and feminist strategy. Canadian Journal of Women & the Law, 16(2), 291-316.
McDonald, C. (2012). The social context of women-to-women intimate partner abuse (WWIPA). Journal of Family Violence, 27(7), 635-645. doi:10.1007/s10896-012-9455-z
McDowell, M. J., White Hughto, J. M., & Reisner, S. L. (2019). Risk and protective factors for mental health morbidity in a community sample of female-to-male trans-masculine adults.
BMC Psychiatry, 19(16), 1-12. doi:10.1186/s12888-018-2008-0
McQueen, P. (2016). Feminist and trans perspectives on identity and the UK Gender Recognition Act. The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 18(3), 671-687.
doi:10.1177/1369148116637998
Morrison, A. M. (2003). Queering domestic violence to straighten out criminal law: What might happen when queer theory and practice meet criminal law’s conventional response to
domestic violence. Review of Law and Women’s Studies, 13(1), 81-160.
Oliffe, J. L., Han, C., Sta. Maria, E., Lohan, M., Howard, T., Stewart, D. E., & MacMillan, M. (2014). Gay men and intimate partner violence: Gender analysis. Sociology of Health & Illness,
36(4), 564-579. doi:10.1111/1467-9566.12099
Peralta, R. L., Stewart, B. C., Steele, J. L., & Wagner, F. A. (2016). Nonmedical use of prescription drugs in emerging adulthood: Differentiating sex from gender. Addiction Research and
Theory, 24(5), 389-397. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/16066359.2016.1140745
Peterson, C. (2013). The lies that bind: Heteronormative constructions of “family” in social work discourse. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 25, 486-508.
doi:10.1080/10538720.2013.829394
Potter, S. J., Fountain, K., & Stapleton, J. G. (2012). Addressing sexual and relationship violence in the LGBT community using a bystander framework. Harvard Review of Psychiatry,
20(4), 201-208. do:10.3109/10673229.2012.712838
Rainbow Health Ontario (2016). Evidence brief: Intimate partner violence in LGBTQ communities. Retrieved from: www.RainbowHealthOntario.ca, February 21, 2020.
Reeves, A., & Stewart, S. (2017). Healing the spirit: Exploring sexualized trauma and recovery among Indigenous men in Toronto. American Indian and Alaskan Native Mental Health
Research, 24(1), 30-60. doi: 10.5820/aian.2401.2017.30.
Register, S. E. (2018). Maybe it’s just different with girls: A social-ecological analysis of intimate partner violence in female-on-female relationships. International Social Science Review,
94(2), 1-27.
Rosa, F. A., Magalhães, M. J., Rodríguez-Castro, Y., & Lopez, R. (2018). Prevention of gender-based violence and working against LGBT prejudices: The intersection between collective
action and institutional dynamics. International Journal of Iberian Studies, 31(1), 45-61. doi:10.1386/ijis.31.1.45_1
Sack, E. (2004). Battered women and the state: The struggle for the future of domestic violence policy. Wisconsin Law Review, 1657-1740.

26. Sprunger, J. G., Schumacher, J. A., Coffey, S. F., & Norris, D. R. (2019). It’s time to ask all patients about intimate partner violence. The Journal of Family Practice, 68(3), 152-161.
Statistics Canada (2016). Census in brief: Same-sex couples in Canada in 2016. Retrieved from: https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/as-sa/98-200-x/2016007/98-
200-x20`6007-eng.cfm, February 21, 2020
Tsui, V. (2014). Male victims of intimate partner abuse: Use and helpfulness of services. Social Work, 59(2), 121-130. doi:10.1093/sw/swu007
Umeed, M. (2013). Understanding domestic abuse in men. Practice Nurse, 43(10), 37-40.
Wall, K. M., Sullivan, P., Kleinbaum, D., & Stephenson, R. (2014). Actor-partner effects associated with experiencing intimate partner violence or coercion among male couples enrolled
in an HIV prevention trial. BMC Public Health, 4(209), 1-24. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-209
Waypoint Centre for Mental Health Care. (2016). The Ontario Domestic Assault Risk Assessment (ODARA). Retrieved from
http://www.waypointcentre.ca/UserFiles/Servers/Server_9960/File/ODARA%20Fact%20sheet%20v0116.pdf
Welles, S. L., Corbin, T. J., Rich, J. A., Reed, E., & Raj, A. (2011). Intimate partner violence among men having sex with men, women, or both: Early-life sexual and physical abuse as
antecedents. Journal of Community Heatlh, 36(3), 477-485. doi:10.1007/s10900-010-9331-9
Whitton, S. W., Newcomb, M. E., Messinger, A. M., Byck, G., & Mustanski, B. (2019). A longitudinal study of IPV victimization among sexual minority youth. Journal of Interpersonal
Violence, 34(5), 912-945. doi:10.1177/0886260516646093edwards
Williams, J. K., Wilton, L., Magnus, M., Wang, L., Penniman Dyer, T., Koblin, B. A., … Cummings, V. (2015). Relation of childhood sexual abuse, intimate partner violence, and depression
to risk factors for HIV among black men who have sex with men in 6 US cities. American Journal of Public Health, 105(12), 2473-2481. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2015.302878
Woodyatt, C. R., & Stephenson, R. (2016). Emotional intimate partner violence experienced by men in same-sex relationships. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 18(10), 1137-1149.
doi:10.1080/13691058.2016.1175027
Yerke, A. F., & DeFoe, J. (2016). Redefining intimate partner violence beyond the binary to include transgender people. Journal of Family Violence, 31(8), 975-979. doi:10.1007/s10896-
016-9887-y