This document outlines a research project focused on the combined effects of pipeline vandalism and oil spills in Nigeria, addressing their significant economic and environmental impacts. It emphasizes the need for improved pipeline management, surveillance, and community involvement to mitigate these issues and sustain national security and prosperity. The project serves as a partial fulfillment for a bachelor's degree in chemical engineering at Ahmadu Bello University Zaria.

1. i
DECLARATION
I AKAU GENESIS KABOSHIO, solemnly declare that this research work is not
a reproduction of another person’s work, it was completely done by me and the
sources of information are duly acknowledged.
AKAU GENESIS AKAU DATE

2. ii
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this Industrial Project meets the partial requirement for the
award of the degree of Bachelor of Engineering (Chemical Engineering) of
Ahmadu Bello University Zaria.
DR. MUKTAR BELLO DATE
Supervisor
DR. I. A. MUHAMMED-DABO DATE
Head of Department

3. iii
DEDICATION
I dedicate this Industrial Project, firstly to God Almighty and also to my late
father Mr. Joseph Akau.

4. iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My profound gratitude goes to the ALMIGHTY GOD, for the gift of life, His
Love, protection and provision.
I also wish to express my sincere gratitude to my mother Mrs Martha Akau, my
roommates and course mates, for their support and encouragement.
My appreciation also goes to my supervisor Dr. Mukhtar Bello for his patience,
help and contribution to this work. Special thanks also go to the Chief
Superintendent of PPMC Zaria Pump Station Mr. Nganjiwa S.S, Mr. Gabriel
Okeme, the Head of Safety Department, Mr John Nwachwuku, the Head of the
Maintenance Department, and all the I.T students and workers of PPMC Zaria
Pump Station. Finally, my appreciation goes to the entire members of staff of this
department for one way or another, they contributed to my training. And to all
those whose names are not mentioned here, who have contributed to the success
of this work, or in one way or another supported and encouraged me, thank you.
God bless you all abundantly. Amen.

5. v
ABSTRACT
This industrial project is aimed at studying the combined effect of Pipeline
vandalism and Oil spillage which is a major national problem, not just in Nigeria
but also in other countries of the world. However, recent events have shown that
the integrity and safety of the pipelines have been compromised by vandals who
tap into them resulting in damage and ruptures. This project therefore assesses
and offers recommendations on the maintenance, security, and environmental
implications of pipeline damage and ruptures.
The drawbacks of pipeline damage and ruptures include high costs of
maintenance and security, reduction in fuel supply for electricity generation,
environmental degradation and pollution of waterways due to oil slippage,
reduction in revenue for the government, and threats to the socio-political
stability of the nation.
Therefore, to sustain and improve the integrity and safety of the pipelines, there is
the need for a complete overhaul of aging pipelines, frequent checks for pipeline
integrity, improved surveillance and introduction of aerial/satellite monitoring of
pipeline installations, quick response to oil spillage and pipeline vandalism,
minimizing restiveness and unemployment through capacity building especially
for the host communities.

6. vi
Table of Contents
DECLARATIO………………………..…………………………………………i
CERTIFICATION………………………………………………………………..ii
DEDICATION……………………………………………………………….…..iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT……………………………….………………………ii
v
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………….……...v
TABLE OF CONTENT.........................................................................................vi
CHAPTER ONE…………………………………………………………………..1
1.0 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………….1
1.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUN…………….…………………………………
CHAPTER TWO……………………………………..……………………………
2.0 SURVEY OF LITERATURE……………………………..…………………..
2.1 OIL EXPLORATION AND EXPLOITATION IN NIGERIA………………...
2.2 OIL AND GAS RESERVES IN NIGERIA COASTAL AREA…..………….
2.3 PIPELINE DAMAGES/SABOTAGE...............................................................
2.3.1 Oil Bunkerin…………………………………………………...……………..
2.3.2 Pipeline Vandalism(Oil Scooping)……………………...................................
2.3.3 Oil Terrorism…………………………………………....................................
2.4 RECORDS OF PETROLEUM PIPELINES VANDALISM IN NIGERIA...
2.5 THE EFFECTS OF PETREOLEUM PIPELINE VANDALIZATION………..
2.5.1 Economic effects of Petroleum Pipeline vandalism on both the Government
and the Oil Company……………………………………………………………….
2.5.1.1 Security Effects of Petroleum Pipeline Vandalism on the
Government…....

7. vii
2.5.1.2 Organizational Productivity Effects on the Oil Company….………………
2.5.1.3 Employee Productivity Effects on the Oil Company……………………..
2.5.2 Environmental Effects of Petroleum Pipelines vandalism…………………..
2.5.2.1 Human Effects of Petroleum Pipeline Vandalism …………….………….
2.5.2.2 Socio-cultural Effect………………………………………………………
2.6 STEPS TOWARDS IMPROVING THE INTEGRITY AND SAFETY OF
PIPELINES ………………………………………………………………………..
2.6.1 STEPS TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT………………………………...
2.6.1.1 Minimizing Restiveness and Unemployment through capacity building for
the Host Communities……………………………………………………………..
2.6.1.2 Introduction of Aerial/Satellite Monitoring of Pipeline Installations……...
2.6.1.3 Effective Tracking by the Naval Force of the Inflow of Arms Combating
and Oil Bunkering and Sea Piracy… ………………………………………………
2.6.2 STEPS TAKEN BY OIL COMPANIES……………………………………
2.6.2.1 Frequent Checks for Pipeline Integrity and Complete Overhaul of Aging
Pipelines by the Oil Company……………………………………………..
2.6.2.2 Quick response to Oil spillage and pipeline vandalism……………………
2.6.3 STEPS TAKEN BY COMMUNITY………………………………………..
2.6.3.1 Improved Surveillance by the Community………………………………...
2.7 OIL SPILLAGE………………………………………………………………..
2.7.1 Causes of Oil Spillage………………………………………………………..
2.7.2 Oil Spill Incidents in Nigeria...........................................................................
2.7.3 IMPACTS OF OIL SPILLAGE............................………………………….
2.7.3.1 Impacts of Oil spill on the Environment…………………………………..
2.7.3.1.1 Wildlife and Habitat…………………………………………………….

8. viii
2.7.3.1.2 Oil spills damage Beaches, Marshlands and Fragile Marine
Ecosystem…………………..……………………………………………
2.7.3.1.3 Oil Spills Kill Birds …………………………...……………………….
2.7.3.1.4 Oil Spills kill Marine MammalsPressure Gauge / Manometer…………..
2.7.3.1.5 Oil spill kill fish………………………………………………………….
2.7.3.1.6 Oil Spills Destroy Wildlife Habitat and Breeding Grounds……….……
2.8 MANAGEMENT OF OIL SPILL IN NIGERIA ……………………………
2.8.1 GOVERNMENT CONTRIBUTION TO THE REMEDY OF OIL
SPILL IN NIGERIA ………………………………………………………..
2.8.1.1 Oil Pollution Act (OPA) of 1990…………………………………………..
2.8.1.2 National Oil spill Detection and Response Agency (NOSDRA)………….
2.8.1.3 Petroleum Related Laws and Regulations………………………………...
2.8.1.4 The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) decree No 86 of 1992……
2.8.1.5 Federal and State Agencies ……………………………………………….
2.8.1.6 Nigerian Sat 1……………………………………………………………...
2.8.2 EFFORTS OF OIL COMPANIES AND NON-GOVERNMENTAL
AGENCIES………………………………………………………………….
2.8.2.1 The Clean Nigeria Associates (C.N.A)……………………………………
2.8.2.2 Bioremediation…………………………………………………………….
2.8.2.4 Geographic Information System for Managing Oil Spill Incidents…........
2.8.2.5 Environmental Sensitive Index (ESI) Mapping……………………..........
2.8.3 International Co-operation………………….…………….………………....

9. ix
CHAPTER THREE……………………..…………..............................................
3.0 INSTRUMENTATION AND EQUIPMENT………………………………..
3.1 INSTRUMENTATION AND EQUIPMENT FOR PIPELINE
VANDALISM………………………………………………………………
3.1.1Consumables…..….…………………………………………………………
3.1.2 Equipment for Welding……………………………………………….........
3.1.3 Safety Department equipment………………………………………………
3.2 INSTRUMENTATION AND EQUIPMENT OF OIL SPILL
SIMULATION……………………………………………………………….
CHAPTER FOUR…………………………………………………………….....
4.0 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE…………………………………………..
4.1 Procedure for Petroleum Pipeline Vandalism………………………………...
4.2 Experimental Procedure for a simple test on Oil simulation……………….....
CHAPTER FIVE………………….……………………………………………...
5.0 RESULTS…………………………………………………………………
CHAPTER SIX…………………………………………………………………….
6.0 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS…………………………………………………
CHAPTER SEVEN………………………………………………………………..
7.0 CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………..
CHAPTER EIGHT…………………………………………………………………
8.0 RECOMMENDATIONS………………………………………………………
LIST OF REFERENCES…………………………………………………………..

10. x

11. 1
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Nigeria is not only the most populous country in Africa, with a population
approaching 170 million citizens, but it is African’s largest oil producer, ranking
tenth in the world in oil and gas reserves. Nigeria is a major supplier of petroleum
to the United States and European markets and the sixth biggest exporter in the
world (Global Trade Negotiation web page). The mainstay of Nigeria’s economy
is the Petroleum sector, contributing about 90% of the nation’s foreign exchange
earnings and about 25% of the Gross Domestic Products (GDP). Most of the oil
and gas are produced in the Niger Delta region; a region measuring about 70,000
sq. km in geographical area and lying in the southern-most part of Nigeria [1].
A significant proportion of the Nation’s oil is produced onshore and is
subsequently transported by pipeline; the major means of transporting either the
crude oil, or the refined petroleum products, although recently oil production has
witnessed increased activities in the offshore is through pipeline systems. But due
to the problem of poverty in the nation, and the greed of men, people who are
known to be ‘Vandal’, have devised means of stealing these petroleum products.
This process of theft is called Vandalization.
Vandalization or simply Vandalism is a destructive action, which involves the
malicious and deliberate defacement or destruction of somebody else's property
(according to the Encarta Dictionary). It depicts the destruction of vital national
assets in the communication and energy sectors. Considering vandalization in this

12. 2
context, we also see it as a forceful and illegal way of obtaining petroleum
products by creating holes along the transporting pipelines. Over the years, the
amount of oil produced and transported between points of production, processing
and distribution or export terminals has greatly increased as the demand of and
dependence on oil increased.
Although this increase in oil production level contributes to the national
economic growth, it also presents increased potential for environmental pollution
and degradation. Experience has shown that oil spill into the environment holds
negative consequences. Apart from the problem of air pollution and vegetation
loss, there is reduction in the use of aquatic resources and soil degradation. There
are complex and extensive systems of pipelines across the country, which is the
hub of oil exploration and production in Nigeria. It has been observed that
thousands of barrels of oil have been spilled into the environment through oil
pipelines and storage facilities failure in Nigeria. The causes of pipeline damage
and leakage can differ greatly ranging from material defects and pipe corrosion to
ground erosion, tectonic movements on the sea bottom and contact with ship
anchors and bottom trawls particularly in the offshore operations while vandalism
is observed as the substantial cause of pipeline damage onshore in Nigeria [1]
1.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The Pipelines and Products Marketing Company (P.P.M.C) was set up as a
subsidiary and strategic business unit of the Nigerian National Petroleum
Corporation (NNPC). PPMC is run in conformity with the management culture of
total quality in pursuant to the directive of the parent corporation the Nigerian
National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC).

13. 3
Figure 1.1 pipeline system
Its mission is; to ensure security of supply of petroleum products to the domestic
market at low operating costs, market special products competitively in the
domestic and international markets, provide excellent customer service by
effectively and efficiently transporting crude oil to the refineries and moving
petroleum products to the market.
Structure for Operation
PPMC is structured to operate under a Board of Directors headed by a non
executive Chairman. The Company is daily managed by a Chief Executive
Officer, the Managing Director who is assisted by four Executive Directors
namely; Executive Director Operations, Executive Director Services, Executive
Director Commercial and Executive Director Finance and Accounts.
Mode of Operation
PPMC receives crude oil from the NNPC Corporate Services Unit called
National Petroleum Investments Management Services (NAPIMS). PPMC then
supplies the crude oil to the NNPC local refineries. However, petroleum products
are sometimes imported to supplement local production when the local refineries
are unable to process enough for the country’s needs. Petroleum products which

14. 4
are either imported or refined locally are received by PPMC through import
jetties or refinery depots and distributed through pipelines to depots strategically
located all over the country from where petroleum tankers lift the products to
designated retail outlets (Filling stations).

15. 5
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
The Webster dictionary defines a Vandal as “Someone who wantonly or
ignorantly destroys or disfigures natural or human works of beauty. Vandalism is
the wanton destruction or spoiling of what should be preserved”. Therefore,
Vandalism can be defined as an act of wantonly or ignorantly destroying or
disfiguring things aesthetically designed for environmental beauty e.g. street
lights for the protection of lives and property like the bridge railings, pipelines for
the delivery of petroleum products to specific places, transformers and cables for
the distribution and transmission of energy or sound [2].
The utterly immoral activities of vandals have caused pains and death of innocent
citizens and the vandals themselves. It has also led to the disruption of delivery of
social services to the citizenry. Vandalism has become a phenomenon, which
recurs in our daily socio-economic dictionary [3]. Therefore for the purpose of
this project, as we focus on Oil pipeline vandalization which is a criminal act of
destroying oil pipelines, in an attempt to illegally tap oil and other petroleum
products. Before we consider the major causes, effects or implications and
solutions of oil pipeline vandalization, let us briefly look into exploration,
distillation and types of oil.
2.1 OIL EXPLORATION AND EXPLOITATION IN NIGERIA
In 1956, the Royal Dutch Shell (formally Shell British Petroleum) discovered
crude oil at Oloibiri, a village in the Niger Delta, but the commercial production
of the crude oil began in 1958. Today, there are 606 oil fields in the Niger Delta,

16. 6
of which 360 are on-shore and 246 off-shores. [4]. Nigeria is now the largest oil
producer in Africa and the sixth largest in the world, averaging 2.7 million barrels
per day (bbl/d) in 2006. The oil sector is the most integral sector to the economy
of Nigeria. It provides 20% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 95% of foreign
exchange earnings, and about 65% of budgetary revenues [5].
According to the World Markets Research Center, the combined capacity of
Nigeria's state-held refineries (Port Harcourt I and II, Warri, and Kaduna) is
438,750 bbl/d, the reasons for this are sabotage/vandalism of pipelines, fire
outbreak, poor management and lack of regular or poor maintenance results to a
low unexpected current capacity of around 214,000 bbl/d. Plans for several small,
independently owned refineries are also being developed, with the Nigerian
government planning for three new refineries to come onstream by 2008[6].
2.2 OIL AND GAS RESERVES IN NIGERIA COASTAL AREA
It is estimated Nigeria's proven oil reserved at 35.2 billion barrels [7]. The
Nigerian government plans to expand its proven reserves to 40 billion barrels by
2010. In February 2005, Nigeria announced the award of five oil blocks in the
Joint Development Zone (JDZ), shared by Nigeria and neighboring Sao Tome
and Principe (STP). The JDZ reportedly holds reserves of 11 billion barrels and
could potentially yield up to 3 million bbl per day in the next 2-3 years.
Development is also occurring in the waters surrounding the JDZ. Oil and Gas
Journal (2005) further stated that Nigeria has an estimated 176 trillion cubic feet
(Tcf) of proven natural gas reserves, giving the country one of the top ten natural
gas endowments in the world and the largest endowment in Africa [8].

17. 7
2.3 PIPELINE DAMAGES/SABOTAGE
By investigation and experience, it has been known and proven that the
unwholesome acts of vandalism are majorly carried out by [1]:
i. Those who are allegedly angry that so much has been taken from the Niger Delta
without a commensurate return to mitigate the effects of oil exploration and
exploitation activities taking place in the region. This group specializes in
blowing up crude lines to sabotage the production process. For instance in 2004
and 2006, the Chanomi creek pipeline feeding Warri and Kaduna Refineries were
blown up with dynamite (powerful explosives). Until some negotiations and
settlement agreement/dialogue is reached, the youths from the immediate
community will usually deter one another and refuse any intervention. That of
2004 took about one year for the repairs to be completed. Repairs for the blown
pipeline of 2006 started after the oil companies agreed to provide the
communities with some amenities and the involvement in indigenous contractors
in the repair work. It is expected that this vital pipeline will be available for
product transportation in February 2008, for the period of this disruption, the
Government had to rely on massive importation of products to meet local needs.
Recent developments have shown that pipelines vandalism is majorly
masterminded by illegal bunkerers and criminals who have nothing to do with the
genuine agitation of Niger Delta people. The vandalism of the condensate
pipeline along Utorogu-Ughelli axis has greatly hampered the distribution of
products from Shell pipeline to Nigerian gas Company, which in turn has
hampered supply of gas to PHCN for the generation of electricity.
ii. Those who steal crude and finished products from vandalized pipelines. It is
speculated that about 15% of Nigeria’s 2.6 million barrels per day (bpd) which is

18. 8
about 390,000 bpd crude, is stolen daily and unquantifiable amount of refined
products are lost daily to this menace. In Nigeria, interfering with oil pipelines
and installations has assumed huge dimensions and a variety of forms. There are
three major identifiable forms namely; oil bunkering, oil pipeline
vandalization/fuel scooping, and oil terrorism. Compared to oil bunkering and
pipeline vandalism, oil terrorism is a new vocabulary introduced by security
analysts and scholar to describe the deliberate attack on pipeline systems in Iraq
and elsewhere in the world by militias, freedom fighters, and insurgents.
2.3.1 OIL BUNKERING
Nigeria’s most profitable illegal private business in the petroleum industry is
oil bunkering. “Bunkering” is a term used to describe the process of filling a ship
with oil (or coal). Illegal oil bunkering is therefore, a less direct word, substituted
for the theft of oil [12], which involves tapping crude oil directly from the
pipelines. Illegal oil bunkering is a dangerous process that persists in the creeks of
the Niger Delta where oil pipelines form a grid. Stealing oil from pipelines in the
creeks involves building a temporary enclosure around a small portion of
underwater pipe, pumping out water from the enclosure, drilling a hole into the
steel casing of the pipe through which the crude passes, and fitting the hole with a
pipe and control valve. The creek water is the allowed to flow back and fill the
enclosure so that the set-up is underwater and therefore hidden from oil company
inspectors [13].
When crude oil is being pumped through the pipelines, sometimes at a pressure of
600 psi, the thieves are able to fill up to a 1,000 metric tonne barge in a matter of

19. 9
hours. The barge is then moved offshore to a transport ship and the oil is sold on
the high seas [14]
Oil bunkering was also reported to involve tapping directly into pipelines at a site
removed from oil company facilities, and connect the pipes to barges that are
hidden in small creeks under cover of mangrove forests [12]. It is estimated that
over 10 per cent of the oil exported from Nigeria every year has actually been
bunkered. Oil bunkering is now an activity that does not necessarily require the
assistance of oil company staff to operate equipment at wellheads or allow access
(though there are reports of conspiracy from company staff).
2.3.2 Pipeline Vandalism (Oil Scooping)
In the 1990s, vandals, mainly unemployed youths operating in remote areas and
communities through which oil pipeline pass, punctured the pipes or took
advantage of ruptured or leaking pipes to siphon fuel or other petroleum products
into drums, plastic containers or storage cans for sale on the black market. The
technology employed was quite rudimentary, involving the use of funnels,
drilling tools and plastic hoses to siphon the products. Also, only few cases of
vandalism occurred. For instance, in 1995 there were only 7 reported cases of
vandalism and in the next three years 33, 34, and 57 cases were recorded [15].
Towards the end of the military rule in Nigeria, the vandalism of oil pipelines,
especially the pipelines for premium motor spirit (PMS), came into the limelight.
But in recent times it has assumed an alarming rate, because of the increase in the
frequency of attacks on these pipelines, increased sophistication in the technology
used, and concentration on the three axes that are crucial to petroleum products
distribution in the country [16].

20. 10
2.3.3 Oil Terrorism
In Nigeria, oil terrorism includes such acts as the blowing up of oil pipelines,
installations, and platforms with explosives, and the seizure of oil barges, oil
wells, flow stations, support vessels, and other oil facilities in order to prevent the
exploitation and/or distribution of crude oil or its refined products. It also
involves the taking of employees of the oil companies (most especially the top
ranking employees) and also the close relatives of very influential citizens such as
politicians and governmental officials.
The first act of oil terrorism in Nigeria can be traced to December 2005, when the
Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) blew up Shell’s
Opobo Pipeline in Delta State [17]. The leader of the Niger Delta People’s
Volunteer Force (who is widely regarded as a leader of the Ijaw nation) Alhaji
Asari Dokubo, after his arrest in September 2005, militant groups in the Delta
region instructed all multinational oil companies to leave the region, as they were
preparing for a war with the Nigerian government. Since then militants in the
region, seeking to control a greater share of the Nation’s oil wealth, have adopted
a terrorist to lessen the quality or effectiveness of the petroleum industries to
export crude oil. By doing so, they hope that the federal government will lose the
substantial revenue needed to support the interconnected series or processes
devised by the government, and so be forced to their political, economic, and
environment demands [18].
Some of the reported cases of the militants‟ attacks include the following [14]:
I. On January 16th, 2005, a major pipeline supplying crude to the Forcados export
terminal was blown up, cutting supplies by about 100,000 barrels per day.

21. 11
II. On March 18th, 2005, militants blew up an oil pipeline operated by an Italian
company, reducing flow by 75,000 barrels per day.
III. On October 3rd, 2006, militants struck at an oil vessel at Cawthorowe Channels,
killing five soldiers who were escorting the vessel, and later sinking the vessel.
IV. On May 8th, 2007, MEND attacked three oil pipelines; two of these pipelines
were in the territory of Akassa and the third in Twon-Brass.
These acts showed that the militants have developed both the tactics and
weaponry that have enabled them to launch devastating attacks on onshore oil
installations and near offshore rigs
Other cause of line breaks and spills (although which is not illegal), is “Pipeline
Rupture”, this is due to diminished integrity and aging process of the pipes.
2.4 RECORDS OF PETROLEUM PIPELINES VANDALISM IN NIGERIA
From records it is very limpid and quite obvious that Pipelines vandalism
seems to be continuing as forceful as before. In 2000, the number of vandalized
pipelines stood at 137 and 2,237 in 2005. The increase observed in the half year
of 2006 was 144.88% higher than what was observed in the same period of 2005.
Pipelines vandalism has continued to be more prominent in areas like port-
Harcourt, Warri and Mosimi axis. In 1996, there were 33 cases of vandalized
pipelines and 16 ruptures as against 1,170 within the first half of 2006. Product
losses incurred through vandalism in 2000 was 397,600 Metric Tonnes or 10.121
billion Naira and 647,632 or 42.102 billion naira in 2005. In the first half of 2006,
there were 2059 cases of vandalism.
There have been series of fire outbreaks and massive deaths as a result of
pipelines vandalism. There were 46 fire incidents in 2000 and 117 in 2005. In

22. 12
times past, vandalism was predominantly carried out in the south but has taken a
worrisome dimension because it is now carried out all over the country. [15]
2.5 THE EFFECTS OF PETREOLEUM PIPELINE VANDALIZATION
Despite the efforts and awareness campaigns of the government, oil companies,
the communities and some individuals (N.G.Os), aimed at controlling the menace
of petroleum pipeline vandalism, it has remained an incomplete and unsolvable
problem by all the above listed parties. Some of the factors attributable to the
menace are the Niger-Delta struggles for emancipation, unemployment,
corruption and wide spread of poverty. The implications of petroleum pipeline
vandalism are reflected on humans, animals (both terrestrial and aquatic),
economy and the environment.
Below are some of the life threatening conditions that petroleum pipeline
vandalization can cause us all in this our great country Nigeria. For better
comprehension, the effects of oil pipeline vandalization will all be basically
categorised into:
a. Economic effects on both the Government and the Oil Companies; and
b. Environmental effects.
2.5.1 Economic effects of Petroleum Pipeline vandalism on both the
Government and the Oil Company
The protective majors and maintenance done which includes; improving the
integrity and safety of pipelines and the environment by overhauling aging
pipelines, frequently checking pipeline integrity on the pipeline networks,
involves the expenditure of huge capital by both the oil companies and the federal
government (e.g., using cathodic protection devices to monitor steel pipes for

23. 13
corrosion) and others. And so, when petroleum pipelines are being vandalized in
whatsoever form, there is an urgent need to properly repair and maintain the
pipeline network regularly and also keep the environment clean from any oil spill.
On the part of the oil companies, the money that could have been spent on other
areas of oil exploration and production are used for the repairs of vandalized
pipelines and cleaning oil spills.
This could be one of the major reasons for the high selling price of petroleum
products in the country. Since most oil companies operate on joint venture
contractual agreements (and of recent production sharing contracts), the Federal
Government also bears part of this burden because of the negative impact the
government to render diverse socio-economical responsibilities to the people. [1]
The following are specific factual records of the effects of oil pipeline vandalism:
[19].
i. Stealing of crude, white products from vandalized and ruptured pipelines, illegal
bunkering and smuggling of petroleum products is causing so much damage to
the country’s economy. Except something is done urgently, we may bequeath to
our future generation a downstream sector that is import dependent and dollar
driven. Nigeria loses billions of naira to these private pockets. In 2000 the loss
was calculated to be N10.121 billion while the losses stood at N42.102 in 2005.
ii. On 3rd June 2002, NNPC shut its crude pipeline from Escravos terminal to Warri
and Kaduna shutting 120,000bpd to Warri and 110,000 bpd to Kaduna
iii. Blowing up Chanomi creek pipeline stopped crude supply to the Warri and
Kaduna Refineries. This only encourages massive importation of petroleum
products causing:

24. 14
 Petroleum products’ scarcity with the attendant hardship suffered by Nigerians
 Un-official Increases in pump prices of petroleum products putting more financial
burden on Nigerians.
 Enriching foreign economies at the detriment of Nigerian economy because we
virtually import all we consume. On April 19, 2002, NNPC was said to have
incurred losses of about N91.6 Billion importing fuel in 2001.
 Increased costs of goods and services.
iv. December 24, 2006 SHELL vandalized Pipeline was on fire at Agba Okwan
Asarama in Andoni Local Government Area of Rivers State. Production was
slashed by 170,000bpd
v. The costs of repairs of vandalized pipelines further reduce the amount of money
accruable to Federal Government for other developmental purposes.
vi. Using FOREX that would have been used by other productive sectors in the
importation or petroleum products
vii. Stalling developmental processes as contractors are scared of doing business in
the region
viii. Increased overhead costs, which ultimately is passed on to Nigerians who are the
end users.
ix. Trucking of products by. Some of the trucks do not get to their destinations
because of auto crashes due to bad roads; robberies thereby wasting the products,
tankers and at times the lives of the drivers.
x. Harsh investment environment.
2.5.1.1 Security Effects of Petroleum Pipeline Vandalism on the Government
For developing countries all over the world like Nigeria, the Government have
observed that the sources of threats to the national security of the nation are much

25. 15
more from internal than external. And these threats are of different forms with
respect to the country. Oil pipelines and facilities are sensitive strategic assets that
must be protected at all times In terms of strictly national security considerations
seeing their high cost of maintenance and replacement. Oil pipeline vandalism,
regardless of whether it is executed by nationals, foreigners, or terrorist groups, is
a serious threat to national security, particularly for a country that depends
heavily on oil exports for survival. This is essential because in a situation of war
with another country, pipelines are usually one of the first targets of an enemy
and preserving them could be the difference between victory and defeat [20].
Therefore, because of this security problem, it has become the obligation of the
government to spend great amount of finances and material resources on
safeguarding the integrity of the oil pipelines. Given that Nigerian economy
depends on oil exports for survival, oil pipelines and installations are the
networking channels through which Nigeria’s number one economic wealth that
is crude oil and its refined products, are transported to various parts of the
country. It follows that attacks on them, both in peace and war situations, could
suffocate the Nigerian state and render it incapable of defending itself against
internal activities or external aggression. More so, in view of the strategic
position these facilities occupy in the political economy with regards to security
and development in Nigeria, there is no doubt that Nigeria’s oil pipeline network
and facilities still remain vulnerable to both militants and terrorist attacks.
Another major implication of oil pipeline sabotage for national security is the
huge loss of government revenue. Oil pipeline sabotage undermines the capacity
of the government to generate resources needed to fulfil its responsibilities, of
which the security of its citizens is a primary consideration. In February 2007, for

26. 16
instance, the NNPC estimated that the nation lost about 10 billion Naira (includes
losses incurred because of damage to equipment and losses of products and
equipment) to pipeline vandalism. [22] Such funds represent lost opportunities for
funding initiatives to provide basic and quality services to citizens, better equip
the security forces to ensure the security of life and property, strengthen
institutions that promote human rights, and undertake infrastructural
development, among others.
In addition, oil pipeline vandalism in the form of illegal bunkering is one of
the factors such as poverty and unemployment that adds to criminality, cult
clashes, communal violence, proliferation of small arms, and political instability
in the region. In Nigeria, the sabotage of pipelines conveying crude oil or gas to
power plants has resulted in power cuts. Reliable electricity supply is critical for
national development, and by extension, national security.
2.5.1.2 Organizational Productivity Effects on the Oil Company
i. Low capacity utilization
ii. Increased cost of production
iii. Downsizing to reduce overhead costs causing Union/Management friction
iv. Decreased productivity
2.5.1.3 Employee Productivity Effects on the Oil Company
i. Increased workplace stressors
ii. Heightened tension, anxiety and fear of retrenchment by workers
iii. Reduced motivation Man hour losses to strikes and lockouts
iv. Decreased productivity.

27. 17
2.5.2 Environmental Effects of Petroleum Pipelines vandalism
Degradation of the environment is one of the worst disasters that have befallen
the areas where pipelines have been vandalized. Raging fires have destroyed
farmlands and forests thereby reducing arable land for farming. Spills into
waterways destroy marine and aquatic life, flora, fauna, resort centres, and result
in the pollution of potable water. Pipeline vandalism compounds oil spillages
from other sources and exacerbates the problems of environmental degradation
and pollution of waterways. [23]
Oil spill effects are so alarming that an oil spill is considered to be serious
environmental catastrophe. Annually, millions of gallons of oil are discharged
into the oceans due to careless handling, offshore oil drilling, and terrorist
activities. In addition to having disastrous effects on the environment, an oil spill
is often deadly or harmful to wildlife. Short term oil spill effects include tarred
coastlines and seashores, dead or injured plants and animals (especially aquatic),
and contaminated water. With the passage of time, the surrounding ecosystem
could be endangered and even ultimately destroyed, if oil spills that are not
cleaned.
Leakage of oil into a body of water, like a river or stream, has very unpleasant
complicating results. The surface of the water becomes coated with very thick
layers of crude oil, preventing oxygen from getting to the fish and other marine
life in the water. Also, aquatic wildlife and their habitats are affected by oil spills
by means of physical contact, ingestion, absorption, and inhalation. The oil spill
causes damage to the entire aquatic food chain. Plankton, algae, larvae, and fish
eggs which are consumed by small fish species are contaminated. This
contamination is then passed on to larger fish, aquatic birds, and even humans.

28. 18
The growth and germination of marine plants are affected by oil spills as well.
The source of all these problems is due to the effects of petroleum pipeline
vandalization.
2.5.2.1 Human Effects of Petroleum Pipeline Vandalism
Oil pipeline vandalism also affects humans which is the most critical, because
other subjects of the Oil pipeline Vandalism could be replaced or guarded, but for
the human life, it is a different case entirely.
The following are lists of how humans are affected by oil pipeline vandalism.
[19]
i. Lack of portable drinking water
ii. Depleted arable land for farming
iii. Polluted water, endangering aquatic life and loss of income through fishing
iv. Increased poverty
v. Hidden health costs
vi. Downsizing of employees involved in the chain of oil production thereby
increasing the incidence of unemployment
vii. Loss of lives through explosions while scooping fuel from vandalized pipelines
 October 1998, more than 1,000 persons died in an explosion in Jesse, Delta State.
 March 2000, more than 50 persons died in Osisioma Local Government Area of
Abia State
 July 16, 2000, more than 100 persons died in Warri area
 November 30, 2000; about 60 persons died from explosions in Ebute
 2001, more than 500 persons died in Atlas Cove Takwa Bay explosions
 June 2003, over 200 persons died in OnichaAmiyi-Uhura, Isikwuato Local
government area of Abia State

29. 19
 September 17, 2004 more than 50 persons died from explosions in Lagos area
 December 21, 2005 five persons died at Ehor
 May 2006, a gasoline pipeline explosion killed about 200 persons at Inagbe in the
eastern part of Lagos
Other effects, caused by the petroleum pipeline vandalism are given below.
2.5.2.2 Socio-cultural Effects.
i. Inter-intra tribal and inter communal strife
ii. Increased crime rate and insecurity
iii. The erosion of values and traditions
iv. Collapse of communal life
Aside the above given effects of Oil pipeline vandalism, there are factors that
exacerbate these effects. In other words, these factors make the already
problematic effects worse. They are:
a. Poverty Corruption
b. Underdevelopment
c. Unemployment
d. Collision of security agents and elites
e. Smuggling. [19]
2.6 STEPS TOWARDS IMPROVING THE INTEGRITY AND SAFETY OF
PIPELINES
In order to improve the integrity and safety of Oil pipelines, the steps taken
involves the combine contribution of the Oil companies, Government,
Communities and Non-Governmental Organizations (N.G.Os) of which they form

30. 20
the vital Agents of the solutions to the problems caused by Oil pipeline
vandalization.
2.6.1 Steps taken by the Government
The following are the contributions made by the Government, to enhance the
improvement and safety of the oil pipelines in Nigeria.
2.6.1.1 Minimizing Restiveness and Unemployment through Capacity
Building for the Host Communities
The Niger Delta crisis is a culmination and expression of built-up anger and
frustration by a people from whose lands and rivers the bulk of Nigeria’s revenue
is exhumed in the form of oil and gas, which translates to billions of dollars
yearly, but with the people of the area left in squalor, neglect, abject poverty, and
in a general state of underdevelopment. Therefore, to address the issue of
restiveness and unemployment in the host communities where oil and gas
exploration and exploitation take place, capacity building through provision of
education, small and medium scale enterprises should be put in place.
Also, the host communities should be developed into satellite towns using the
sustainable community development (SCD) option as proffered by the Nigerian
National Petroleum Corporation. There should also be provision of welfare
facilities and access to health care. There should be provision of cheap source of
energy to stimulate industrial and technological development in the region. The
Niger Delta Development Corporation (NNDC) should be adequately funded to
enhance performance towards developing the Niger Delta region. There should
also be an increased enlightenment on the adverse consequences of vandalism on

31. 21
our economy, environment and the disaster of fire outbreaks when scooping fuel
from vandalized pipelines.
2.6.1.2 Introduction of Aerial/Satellite Monitoring of Pipeline Installations
Pipelines play a critical role in the world economy, therefore, the integrity and
efficiency of pipeline systems should be given serious consideration. Pipelines
and pipeline transport must be designed and monitored in real time using Global
Positioning System (GPS) communications. Figure 2.1 shows an example of an
satellite that is used to monitor oil pipelines after it has been installed.
Figure 2.1 A surveillance satellite for monitoring pipelines etc
(www.wikipedia.com)
Oil and gas pipeline projects in Nigeria should be granted only when pipeline
construction companies can assure pipelines have efficient reporting systems on
the integrity of its operations.
The threats from a poorly monitored, inspected, and maintained pipeline can
result in legal action, financial losses, and bad publicity that can cause
cancellation of future projects. Therefore, it is essential that pipeline management

32. 22
firms have the very best software applications and upgrade modules to perform
the best pipeline inspections.
2.6.1.3 Effective Tracking by the Naval Force of the Inflow of Arms and
Combating Oil Bunkering and Sea Piracy
Despite the advances in global maritime security, attacks by pirates have been on
the increase. Reported maritime terrorist attacks are rare by comparison, although
they may well be contributing to the increase in piracy. A maritime attack on the
Northern Arabian Gulf Oil Terminal (NAGOT) in April 2004 was thwarted
because of the vigilance of U.S. Naval and Coast Guard units monitoring vessel
traffic in the restricted areas surrounding the facility [24].
In the Niger Delta, sea piracy has become a major threat and creates fear among
travelers along the various waterways that cascade the region. Vessels are equally
not spared, as most often the unescorted ones are hijacked; the items therein are
vandalized and at times ran aground. The situation is further compounded by the
terrain and thousands of creeks, which not only makes effective policing difficult
but also provides safe havens for the criminals. Therefore, to effectively track the
inflow of arms and combat oil bunkering and sea piracy in the Niger Delta region,
the Federal Government must equip the Nigeria Navy and make them battle ready
for the security of the coastline.
2.6.2 Steps taken by the Oil Company
Aside the Government’s efforts to enhance the improvement and safety of the oil
pipelines in Nigeria, the Oil companies which are the major beneficiaries of the
profit made from the exploration and exploitation of the crude oil and the refined
products and also on the receiving side of some losses made and effects of the oil

33. 23
pipeline vandalization, have an obligation to also providing some solutions to the
effects of oil pipeline vandalization. The following are the major contributions
provided by the Oil Companies.
2.6.2.1 Frequent Checks for Pipeline Integrity and Complete Overhaul of
Aging Pipelines by the Oil Company
There should be frequent checks for pipeline integrity in the Niger Delta to
prevent pipeline rupture. The goal of any pipeline integrity program is to prevent
structural integrity problems from having a significant effect on public safety, the
environment, or business operations by identifying and performing the most
effective inspection, monitoring, and repair activities.
Pipeline integrity methods include visual inspection, depth of cover survey,
external non-destructive testing (NDT), cathodic protection monitoring, coating
disbondment and damage survey, hydrostatic testing, geometry in-line inspection
(ILI) tools, and ultrasonic in-line inspection tools.
The pipeline network today must be rigorously tested to ensure they meet safety
guidelines. Before they can be put into service, hazardous liquid, oil, and gas
transmission pipelines must be hydrostatically pressure tested. The hydrostatic
pressure test helps to discover any defect that might threaten the pipeline’s ability
to sustain its maximum operating pressure.
Pipelines are designed to have a certain strength based on the appropriate
operating pressure. The hydrostatic pressure test fills the pipeline with water
while increasing the internal pipeline pressure to a specified level above the
intended operating pressure. If there are any critical defects in the system, the
system will leak or fail. When detected, these defects can be repaired. The
pipeline pressure testing is conducted again until it passes the certification.

34. 24
Other testing methods are used to detect pipe and pipe membrane defects. These
procedures help identify specific types of defects, such as:
(i) Corrosion (the wastage or thinning of the pipe wall due to a chemical or
electrochemical attack),
(ii) Gouging (the mechanical removal of metal from a local area on the surface of
the pipe),
(iii) Metallurgical anomalies like hard spots, laminations, slivers, scabs and
inclusions, and
(iv) Cracks due to fatigue stress corrosion and weld defects.
However, hydrostatic testing is the predominant pipeline testing method for
ascertaining the strength and reliability of a pipeline section that may be put into
active service. Aging pipelines are easily amenable to defects; hence, there should
be complete overhaul of aging pipelines both in the downstream and upstream
sections of Nigeria oil industries.
2.6.2.2 Quick Response to Oil Spillage and Pipeline Vandalism
When oil spills after pipeline rupture or damage, there should be a quick and
effective clean up to prevent the oil from being mixed or buried in the sediment.
This can be done with the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS). A quick
and effective response minimizes oil spill damage and institutes effective and
practical plans for all types of oil spills clean up. Hence, a contingency plan for
oil spills clean up must be made. A contingency plan is a strategy that is prepared
in anticipation of an oil spill. A typical contingency plan comprises the following:
a) identification of authority and chain of command, listing of persons and
organizations that must be informed immediately of an oil spill, and recording of
available trained oil spill personnel and spill response equipment,

35. 25
b) listing of jobs to be done in order of priority, organizing a communication
network to coordinate response and identify probable oil movement patterns
under different weather conditions, assessing information sensitive maps and
compiling other technical data, and
c) Knowing important physical and biological resources within or near the region
such as marshes and vital habitat areas required by particular species for
spawning, feeding or migrating, and gathering information about tides, currents
and local climate conditions, weather patterns and shoreline characteristics. [25]
2.6.3 Step taken by the Community
The communities where the oil exploration and exploitation of the crude oil and
refined petroleum products takes place receive some dividends and also they are
more prone to the effects caused by oil pipeline vandalization. They also, just like
the Government and the Oil Companies have their role to play in the
improvement and safety of the oil pipelines which is stated below.
2.6.3.1 Improved Surveillance by the Community
There should be an improved surveillance and introduction of aerial/satellite
monitoring of pipeline installations to prevent and control pipeline vandalism by
responding quickly to any act of oil bunkering, pipeline vandalism/oil scooping
and oil terrorism. Security agencies in collaboration with youth and community
leaders should be deployed to patrol oil and gas pipeline right of way, although it
is sad that some of these security men and trusted allies are also working in
consonance with the vandals.

36. 26
2.7 OIL SPILLAGE
Oil Spill is an accidental release of oil into a body of water, as from a tanker,
offshore drilling ring, or underwater pipeline, often presenting a hazard to marine
life, the land around the area of spill and environment. [26]
Oil spill incidence through vandalism in Nigeria appears to be peculiar and has
been very much frequent in recent times, looking at the data given above from
past records, and if no urgent measure and strategies are placed to curtail this
problematic issue by the relevant Nigerian agencies, then the frequent pipeline
cuts that continue to spill out crude oil or petroleum products for days, weeks and
months has the ability to gradually weaken or diminish the obligated efforts of
government in the management of the spill. Oil pipeline vandalism and disruption
of oil production activities are presently the unfortunate integral part of oil and
gas operations in Nigeria.
Pipeline vandalism compounds oil spillages from other sources and exacerbates
the problems of environmental degradation and pollution of waterways [25]. Oil
spill effects are so alarming that an oil spill is considered to be serious
environmental catastrophe. Annually, millions of gallons of oil are discharged
into the oceans due to careless handling, offshore oil drilling, and terrorist
activities. In addition to having disastrous effects on the environment, an oil spill
is often lethal to wildlife. Short term oil spill effects include tarred coastlines and
seashores, dead or injured flora and fauna, and contaminated water. With the
passage of time, oil spills that are not cleaned can ultimately destroy the
surrounding ecosystem. [1]

37. 27
Before we move on to the causes, effects and other details of oil spill, it is very
essential that we look into a few details about oil or petroleum that we are dealing
with such as: the types of oil and the refining of crude oil.
2.7.1 Causes of Oil Spillage
In Nigeria, fifty percent (50%) of oil spills is due to corrosion, twenty eight
percent (28%) to sabotage and twenty one percent (21%) to oil production
operations. One percent (1%) of oil spills is due to engineering drills, inability to
effectively control oil wells, failure of machines, and inadequate care in loading
and unloading oil vessels. Thousands of barrels of oil have been let loose into the
environment through our oil pipelines and tanks in the country. This loss is as a
result of our lack of regular maintenance of the pipelines and storage tanks. Most
pipelines from the flow stations are obsolete. By international standards, oil pipes
ought to be replaced after 15 to 20 years, but most pipelines in use are 20 to 25
years old, making them subject to corrosion and leakage. Some of these pipes are
laid above ground level without adequate surveillance, exposing them to wear and
tear and other dangers. [27]
About 40,000 barrels of oil spilled into the environment through the offshore
pipeline in Idoho. Sabotage is another major cause of oil spillage in the country.
Some of the citizens of this country in collaboration with people from other
countries engage in oil bunkering. They damage and destroy oil pipelines in their
effort to steal oil from them. Pirates are stealing Nigeria's crude oil at a
phenomenal rate, funneling nearly 300,000 barrels per day from our oil and
selling it illegally on the international trade market. Illegal fuel siphoning as a
result of the thriving black market for fuel products has increased the number of

38. 28
oil pipeline explosions in recent years. In July 2000, a pipeline explosion outside
the city of Warri caused the death of 250 people. An explosion in Lagos in
December 2000 killed at least 60 people. The NNPC reported800 cases of
pipeline vandalization from January through October2000. In January 2001, the
Nigeria lost about $4 billion in oil revenues in 2000 due to the activities of
vandals on our oil installations. Nigeria lost about N7.7 billion in 2002 as a result
of vandalization of pipelines carrying petroleum products. The amount, according
to the PPMC, a subsidiary of NNPC, represents the estimated value of the
products lost in the process.
The Nigerian government and oil companies say up to 15 percent of the country's
two million barrels per day oil production is taken illegally taken from pipelines
in the Niger Delta and smuggled abroad. According to Johnson (2004), the
pipeline explosion has killed hundreds of looters and bystanders. The most recent
of the pipeline explosion in Illadu, Lagos May,2006 led to the incineration of
more than 200 people in the pipeline fire [28]. Several deaths recorded from
pipeline fire in recent time are a few of the horrendous effects of crude oil theft
from oil pipeline, a leading cause of oil spill in Nigeria today.
2.7.2 Oil Spill Incidents in Nigeria
Oil spill incidents have occurred in various parts and at different times along
our coast. Some major spills in the coastal zone are the GOCON’s Escravos spill
in 1978 of about 300,000 barrels, SPDC’s Forcados Terminal tank failure in 1978
of about 580,000 barrels and Texaco Funiwa-5 blowout in 1980 of about 400,000
barrels. Other oil spill incidents are those of the Abudu pipe line in 1982 of about
18,818 barrels. The Jesse Fire Incident which claimed about a thousand lives and

39. 29
the Idoho Oil Spill of January 1998, of about 40,000 barrels. The most publicized
of all oil spills in Nigeria occurred on January 17 1980 when a total of 37.0
million litres of crude oil got spilled into the environment. This spill occurred as a
result of a blow out at Funiwa 5 offshore station. Nigeria's largest spill was an
offshore well-blow out in January 1980 when an estimated 200,000 barrels of oil
(8.4million US gallons) spilled into the Atlantic Ocean from an oil industry
facility and that damaged 340 hectares of mangrove [28].
According to the Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR), between 1976
and 1996 a total of 4647 incidents resulted in the spill of approximately 2,369,470
barrels of oil into the environment. Of this quantity, an estimated 1,820,410.5
barrels (77%) were lost to the environment. A total of 549,060 barrels of oil
representing 23.17% of the total oil spilt into the environment was recovered. The
heaviest recorded spill so far occurred in 1979 and 1980 with a net volume of
694,117.13 barrels and 600,511.02 barrels respectively. Available records for the
period of 1976 to 1996 indicate that approximately 6%, 25%, and 69%
respectively, of total oil spilled in the Niger Delta area, were in land, swamp and
offshore environments. Also, between 1997 and 2001, Nigeria recorded a total
number of 2,097 oil spill incidents. [28]
Thousands of barrels of oil have been spilt into the environment through our
oil pipelines and tanks in the country. This spillage is as a result of our lack of
regular maintenance of the pipelines and storage tanks. Some of these facilities
have been in use for decades without replacement. About 40,000 barrels of oil
spilled into the environment through the offshore pipeline in Idoho. Sabotage is
another major cause of oil spillage in the country. Some of the citizens of this
country in collaboration with people from other countries engage in oil

40. 30
bunkering. They damage and destroy oil pipelines in their effort to steal oil from
them. SPDC claimed in 1996 that sabotage accounted for more than 60 percent of
all oil spilled at its facilities in Nigeria, stating that the percentage has increased
over the years both because the number of sabotage incidents has increased and
because spills due to corrosion have decreased with programs to replace oil
pipelines [30].
Pirates are stealing Nigeria's crude oil at a phenomenal rate, funneling nearly
300,000 barrels per day from our oil and selling it illegally on the international
trade market. Nigeria lost about N7.7 billion in 2002 as a result of vandalization
of pipelines carrying petroleum products. The amount, according to the PPMC, a
subsidiary of NNPC, represents the estimated value of the products lost in the
process. Illegal fuel siphoning as a result of the thriving black market for fuel
products has increased the number of oil pipeline explosions in recent years. In
July 2000, a pipeline explosion outside the city of Warri caused the death of 250
people. An explosion in Lagos in December 2000 killed at least 60 people. The
NNPC reported 800 cases of pipeline vandalization from January through
October 2000. In January 2001, Nigeria lost about $4 billion in oil revenues in
2000 due to the activities of vandals on our oil installations. The government
estimates that as much as 300,000 bbl/d of Nigerian crude is illegally bunkered
(freighted) out of the country.
In Nigeria, fifty percent (50%) of oil spills is due to corrosion, twenty eight
percent (28%) to sabotage and twenty one percent (21%) to oil production
operations. One percent (1%) of oil spills is due to engineering drills, inability to
effectively control oil wells, failure of machines, and inadequate care in loading
and unloading oil vessels.

41. 31
2.7.3 IMPACTS OF OIL SPILLAGE
Ever since the discovery of oil in Nigeria in the 1950s, the Country has been
suffering the negative environmental consequences of oil development. The
growth of the country's oil industry, combined with an intense population growth
and a lack of environmental regulations on the magnitude of crude oil pollution
and damage occasioned by Multi-National Oil Companies operations, has led to
the substantial damage of the Nigeria's environment, especially in the Niger Delta
region, the center of the country's oil industry.
Oil spills pose a major threat to the environment in Nigeria. If not checked or
effectively managed, they could lead to total destruction of the ecosystem,
especially in the Niger Delta where oil spills have become prevalent. Life in this
region I increasingly becoming unbearable due to the ugly effects of oil spill, and
many communities continue to groan under the degrading impact of spills [27].
Oil spills often result in both immediate and long-term environmental damage.
Some of the environmental damage caused by an oil spill can last for decades
after the spill occurs. The following are specific areas that oil spillage impacts or
affects negatively. They are:
2.7.3.1 Impacts of Oil spill on the Environment
The environment consists of all the external factors influencing the life and
activities of people, plants, and animals, and it is also referred to as the natural
world, when it is regarded as being at risk from the harmful influences of human
activities [31]

42. 32
Therefore, anything that affects the environment (negative or positive), affects all
that the environment influences. The following are the effects of oil spill on the
environment:
Figure 2.2 Sea birds affected by the Exxon Valdez oil spill. [32]
2.7.3.1.1 Wildlife and Habitat
We have all seen pictures and videos of wildlife covered in black, sticky oil after
an oil spill. These pictures are usually of oiled birds. Many people are not aware
that it is not just birds that get oiled during a spill. Other marine life such as
marine mammals can also suffer from the effects of an oil spill. Even small spills
can severely affect marine wildlife.

43. 33
Not all oils are the same. There are many different types of oil and this means
that each oil spill is different depending on the type of oil spilt. Each oil spill will
have a different impact on wildlife and the surrounding environment depending
on: the type of oil spilled, the location of the spill, the species of wildlife in the
area, the timing of breeding cycles and seasonal migrations, and even the weather
at sea during the oil spill.
Oil affects wildlife by coating their bodies with a thick layer. Many oils also
become stickier over time (this is called weathering) and so adheres to wildlife
even more. Since most oil floats on the surface of the water it can affect many
marine animals and sea birds. Unfortunately, birds and marine mammals will not
necessarily avoid an oil spill. Some marine mammals, such as seals and dolphins,
have been seen swimming and feeding in or near an oil spill. Some fish are
attracted to oil because it looks like floating food. This endangers sea birds,
which are attracted to schools of fish and may dive through oil slicks to get to the
fish.
Oil does not have to be sticky to endanger wildlife. Both sticky oils such as crude
oil and bunker fuels and non-sticky oils such as refined petroleum products can
affect different wildlife. Oils such as refined petroleum products do not last as
long in the marine environment as crude or bunker fuel. They are not likely to
stick to a bird or animal, but they are much more poisonous than crude oil or
bunker fuel. While some of the following effects on sea birds, marine mammals
and turtles can be caused by crude oil or bunker fuel, they are more commonly
caused by refined oil products.
Oil in the environment or oil that is ingested can cause:

44. 34
i. poisoning of wildlife higher up the food chain if they eat large amounts of other
organisms that have taken oil into their tissues;
ii. interference with breeding by making the animal too ill to breed, interfering with
breeding behaviour such as a bird sitting on their eggs, or by reducing the number
of eggs a bird will lay;
iii. damage to the airways and lungs of marine mammals and turtles, congestion,
pneumonia, emphysema and even death by breathing in droplets of oil, or oil
fumes or gas;
iv. damage to a marine mammal's or turtle's eyes, which can cause ulcers,
conjunctivitis and blindness, making it difficult for them to find food, and
sometimes causing starvation;
v. irritation or ulceration of skin, mouth or nasal cavities;
vi. damage to and suppression of a marine mammal's immune system, sometimes
causing secondary bacterial or fungal infections;
vii. damage to red blood cells;
viii. organ damage and failure such as a bird or marine mammal's liver;
ix. damage to a bird's adrenal tissue which interferes with a bird's ability to maintain
blood pressure, and concentration of fluid in its body;
x. decrease in the thickness of egg shells;
xi. stress;
xii. damage to fish eggs, larvae and young fish;
xiii. contamination of beaches where turtles breed causing contamination of eggs,
adult turtles or newly hatched turtles;
xiv. damage to estuaries, coral reefs, seagrass and mangrove habitats which are the
breeding areas of many fish and crustaceans, interfering with their breeding;

45. 35
xv. tainting of fish, crustaceans, molluscs and algae;
xvi. interference with a baleen whales feeding system by tar-like oil, as this type of
whale feeds by skimming the surface and filtering out the water; and
xvii. poisoning of young through the mother, as a dolphin calf can absorb oil through
its mother’s milk.
Animals covered in oil at the beginning of a spill may be affected differently
from animals encountering the oil later. For example, earlier on, the oil maybe
more poisonous, so the wildlife affected early will take in more of the poison.
The weather conditions can reduce or increase the potential for oil to cause
damage to the environment and wildlife. For example, warm seas and high winds
will encourage lighter oils to form gases, and will reduce the amount of oil that
stays in the water to affect marine life.
The impact of an oil spill on wildlife is also affected by where spilled oil reaches.
For example, fur seal pups are affected more than adults by oil spills because
pups swim in tidal pools and along rocky coasts, whereas the adults swim in open
water where it is less likely for oil to linger. Dugongs als feed on seagrass along
the coast and therefore be more affected by oil spills.
2.7.3.1.2 Oil Spills Damage Beaches, Marshlands and Fragile Marine
Ecosystems
Oil spilled by damaged tankers, pipelines or offshore oil rigs coats everything it
touches and becomes an unwelcome but long-term part of every ecosystem it
enters. When an oil slick from a large oil spill reaches the beach, the oil coats and
clings to every rock and grain of sand. If the oil washes into coastal marshes,
mangrove forests or other wetlands, fibrous plants and grasses absorb the oil,

46. 36
which can damage the plants and make the whole area unsuitable as wildlife
habitat. When some of the oil eventually stops floating on the surface of the water
and begins to sink into the marine environment, it can have the same kind of
damaging effects on fragile underwater ecosystems, killing or contaminating
many fish and smaller organisms that are essential links in the global food chain.
Figure 2.3 Effects of oil spill on marshland and plants. (Exxon Valdez oil spill,
1989)
Despite massive clean-up efforts following the Exxon Valdez oil spill in 1989, for
example, a 2007 study conducted by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) found that 26, 000 gallons of oil from the Exxon Valdez
oil spill was still trapped in the sand along the Alaska shoreline. Scientists
involved in the study determined that this residual oil was declining at a rate of
less than 4 percent annually.

47. 37
2.7.3.1.3 Oil Spills Kill Birds
Oil-covered birds are practically a universal symbol of the environmental
damage wreaked by oil spills. Any oil spill in the ocean is a death sentence for
sea birds. Some species of shore birds may escape by relocating if they sense the
danger in time, but sea birds that swim and dive for their food are sure to be
covered in oil. Oil spills also damage nesting grounds, which can have serious
long-term effects on entire species. The 2010 BP Deepwater Horizon offshore oil
spill in the Gulf of Mexico, for example, occurred during prime mating and
nesting season for many bird and marine species, and the long-term
environmental consequences of that spill won't be known for many years. Oil
spills can even disrupt migratory patterns by contaminating areas where migrating
birds normally stop.
Even a small amount of oil can be deadly to a bird. By coating the feathers, oil
not only makes it impossible for birds to fly but also destroys their natural
waterproofing and insulation, leaving them vulnerable to hypothermia or
overheating. As the birds frantically try to preen their feathers to restore their
natural protections they often swallow some of the oil, which can severely
damage their internal organs and lead to death. The Exxon Valdez oil spill killed
somewhere between 250,000 and 500,000 seabirds, plus a number of shore birds
and bald eagles.
2.7.3.1.4 Oil Spills Kill Marine Mammals
Oil spills frequently kill marine mammals such as whales, dolphins, seals and sea
otters. The deadly damage can take several forms. The oil sometimes clogs the

48. 38
blow holes of whales and dolphins, making it impossible for the animals to
breathe properly and disrupting their ability to communicate. Oil coats the fur of
otters and seals, leaving them vulnerable to hypothermia.
Even when marine mammals escape the immediate effects, an oil spill can
cause damage by contaminating their food supply. Marine mammals that eat fish
or other food that has been exposed to an oil spill may be poisoned by the oil and
die or can experience other problems.
The Exxon Valdez oil spill killed thousands of sea otters, hundreds of harbor
seals, roughly two dozen killer whales and a dozen or more river otters. Even
more troubling in some ways, in the years after the Exxon Valdez oil spill
scientists noted higher death rates among sea otters and some other species
affected by the oil spill, and stunted growth or other damage among other species.
2.7.3.1.5 Oil Spills Kill Fish
Oil spills often take a deadly toll on fish, shellfish and other marine life,
particularly if large numbers of fish eggs or larvae are exposed to the oil. The
shrimp and oyster fisheries along the Louisiana coast were among the first
casualties of the 2010 BP Deepwater Horizon offshore oil spill. Similarly, the
Exxon Valdez oil spill destroyed billions of salmon and herring eggs. Those
fisheries still have not recovered.
2.7.3.1.6 Oil Spills Destroy Wildlife Habitat and Breeding Grounds
The long-term damage to various species, and to the habitat and nesting or
breeding grounds those species depend upon for their survival, is one of the most
far-reaching environmental effects caused by oil spills. Even many species that

49. 39
spend most of their lives at sea—such as various species of sea turtles—must
come ashore to nest. Sea turtles can be harmed by oil they encounter in the water
or on the beach where they lay their eggs, the eggs can be damaged by the oil and
fail to develop properly, and newly hatched young turtles may be oiled as they
scurry toward the ocean across an oily beach.
Ultimately, the severity of environmental damages caused by a particular oil
spill depends on many factors, including the amount of the oil spilled, the type
and weight of the oil, the location of the spill, the species of wildlife in the area,
the timing or breeding cycles and seasonal migrations, and even the weather at
sea during and immediately after the oil spill. But one thing never varies: oil
spills are always bad news for the environment.
2.8 MANAGEMENT OF OIL SPILL IN NIGERIA
Several laws and policies have been taken in managing oil spill incidents at the
international and national levels. These laws and policies are given in the
following sections:
2.8.1 Government contribution to the remedy of Oil spill in Nigeria.
Oil spill is not just a problem that affects the oil companies involved in the
exploration and exploitation. Because it has become a threat to the environment
of people most especially those living in the Niger-Delta, and also to the economy
of the nation, the Government plays a major role in providing solutions to
regulate the problem of Oil spill.

50. 40
The following are laws and contributions of the Government provided for the
management of oil spill in Nigeria:
2.8.1.1 Oil Pollution Act (OPA) of 1990
The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 1990) is responsible for many of the nation's
improvements in oil spill prevention and response. OPA 1990 provides guidance
for government and industry on oil spill prevention, mitigation, cleanup and
liability. The majority of OPA 1990 provisions were targeted at reducing the
number of spills followed by reducing the quantity of oil spilled. OPA 1990 also
created a comprehensive scheme to ensure that sufficient financial resources are
available to clean up a spill and to compensate persons damaged by a spill. It also
ensures that the federal response system is adequately prepared to manage the
impacts of oil spills that do occur; and mandates that industry implement
prevention and preparedness measures. The OPA also mandates that tankers and
inland oil facilities develop individual response plans. Furthermore the OPA also
mandates enhancements to the national response system, and development of
Area Contingency Plans.
2.8.1.2 National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (NOSDRA)
A National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (NOSDRA) have been
approved by the Federal Executive Council of Nigeria. The Ministry of
Environment, which initiated the Agency, has also forwarded to the Federal
Executive Council for approval, there viewed draft National Oil Spill
Contingency Plan (NOSCP) which the Agency would manage [34].

51. 41
The establishment of the contingency plan and the agency was in compliance
with the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and
Co-operation (OPRC90) to which Nigeria is a signatory. The draft bill on the
NOSDRA has been forwarded to the National Assembly for deliberation and
enactment into law. [34]
Apart from intensifying efforts towards compliance monitoring and enforcement
of oil and gas regulations and standards, the ministry is also mounting pressure on
the oil and gas operators for a gas flare-out. Effort is also being made, according
to the sources, to ensure the use of environmental-friendly drilling fluid and mud
systems. [34]
2.8.1.4 Petroleum Related Laws and Regulations
Part of the means of managing the environment is to have in place the necessary
laws, regulations and guidelines. According to the Federal Environmental
Protection Agency, Lagos Nigeria, the following relevant national laws and
international agreements are in effect: [1]
a. Endangered Species Decree Cap 108 LFN 1990.
b. Federal Environmental protection Agency Act Cap 131 LFN 1990.
c. Harmful Waste Cap 165 LFN 1990.
d. Petroleum (Drilling and Production) Regulations, 1969.
e. Mineral Oil (Safety) Regulations, 1963.
f. International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for
Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage, 1971
g. Convention on the Prevention of Marine pollution Damage, 1972

52. 42
h. African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources,
1968
i. International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for the
Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage, 1971.
2.8.1.5 The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) decree No 86 of 1992
The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) decree No 86 of 1992 was
promulgated to protect and sustain our ecosystem. The law makes the
development of an EIA compulsory for any major project that may have adverse
effects on the environment (Ntukekpo, 1996;Olagoke, 1996). It sought to assess
the likely or potential environmental impacts of proposed activities, including
their direct or indirect, cumulative, short term and long term effects, and to
identify the measures available to mitigate adverse environmental impacts of
proposed activities, and assessment of those measures.(Ozekhome, 2001). The
carrying out of EIAs is policed by the Federal Environmental Protection Agency,
and by state environmental protection agencies.
2.8.1.6 Federal and State Agencies.
A number of Federal and State agencies deal with the problems of oil spill in
Nigeria. The agencies include: the Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR),
the Federal Ministry of Environment, the State Ministries of Environment and the
National Maritime Authority.
2.8.1.7 Nigerian Sat 1.

53. 43
The Nigerian Sat 1 Satellite has joined the Disaster Monitoring Constellation, an
international early-warning satellite network transmitting real-time information
about droughts, earthquakes, deforestation and man-made disasters observable
from space. The Nigeria Sat-1, an Orbit Satellite for geographical mapping,
would also help to check the perennial problem of oil pipeline vandalization, and
assist in combating and managing oilspill incidents. The Nigeria Sat-1, would
help in monitoring oil spill by providing the spill position which would serve as
input data into the oil spill model. It would also give the extent of coastal water
and coastal areas polluted. These information are vital for quick clean up of oil
impacted areas.
2.8.2 Efforts of the Oil Companies and Non-Governmental Agencies
Aside the efforts of the Government in resolving the problem of oil spill, the Oil
companies involved in the direct exploration and exploitation of petroleum in
Nigeria, also have their efforts in preventing and controlling oil spills in Nigeria.
The following are a few contributions offered by the Oil companies and Non-
Governmental agencies.
2.8.2.1 The Clean Nigeria Associates (C.N.A.)
Due to increasing awareness in preventing and controlling spills in Nigeria, the
Clean Nigeria Associates (C.N.A.) was formed in November 1981. The C.N.A. is
a consortium of eleven oil companies operating in Nigeria, including Nigeria
National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC). The primary purpose of establishing
the C.N.A is to maintain a capability to combat spills of liquid hydrocarbons or
pollutants in general [29].

54. 44
The combined efforts of both the Oil companies and some Non-Governmental
Agencies also contribute immensely to the control of oil spill. And the following
shows the combined effort of both.
2.8.2.2 Bioremediation
Bioremediation is a technique that may be useful to remove spilled oil under
certain geographic and climatic conditions. Bioremediation is a proven alternative
treatment tool that can be used to treat certain aerobic oil-contaminated
environments. Typically, it is used as a polishing step after conventional
mechanical cleanup options have been applied. It is a relatively slow process,
requiring weeks to months to effect cleanup. If done properly, it can be very cost-
effective, although an in-depth economic analysis has not been conducted to date.
It has the advantage that the toxic hydrocarbon compounds are destroyed rather
than simply moved to another environment. The two main approaches to oil-spill
bioremediation are:
(1) Bioaugmentation, in which oil-degrading bacteria are added to supplement
the existing microbial population, and
(2) Biostimulation, in which nutrients or other growth-limiting co-substrates are
added to stimulate the growth of indigenous oil degraders. [35]
2.8.2.3 Oil Trajectory and Fate Models for Oil Spill Disaster Monitoring
Oil spill simulation model is used in oil response and contingency planning and
as a tool in oilfate and impact assessment [36]. In the event of an oil spill taking
place, predictions of the slick can be supplied, provided that the necessary
meteorological information is available. [36] Oil spillage can also be treated or

55. 45
removed by natural means, mechanical systems, absorbents, burning, gelling,
sinking and dispersion. Oil spillage can be removed by natural means through the
process of evaporation, photochemical oxidation and dispersions [37]
Bioremediation can also be used for managing oil spill problems [38].
2.8.2.4 Geographic Information System for Managing Oil Spill Incidents
A successful combating operation to a marine oil spill is dependent on a rapid
response from the time the oil spill is reported until it has been fully combated. In
order to reduce the response time and improve the decision-making process,
application of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) as an operational tool is
very essential. Information on the exact position and size of the oil spill can be
plotted on maps in a GIS environment. GIS offers opportunities for integration of
oil drift forecast models (prediction of wind and current influence on the oil spill)
in the computer program framework [39]. Required information for oil spill
sensitivity mapping can be depicted on a set of thematic maps using GIS even
though they can in theory be depicted onto a single sheet. With the use of a GIS,
all the relevant information or themes can be stored in the system and produced
onto maps in a format that befits the needs of the day. Alternatively, modeling
exercises using the GIS can be conducted to assess the adequacy of any given oil
spill contingency plan [40].
The creation of regional spill response centers along coastlines will help in
managing oil spill problems [41]. The centres will use oil spill models for
combating oil spill problems. Using data collected with an airborne system to
input one or several new starting point(s) into the model, will improve the
accuracy of the further predictions [42].

56. 46
2.8.2.5 Environmental Sensitive Index (ESI) Mapping
ESI maps are base maps that show the sensitivity of given locations or areas to a
particular stress factor (such as exposure to petroleum products) on a scale of 1 to
10, 10 being most sensitive. The maps may contain physical and geomorphic
features (e.g., shorelines),biological features, and socioeconomic features such as
agricultural fields. Some ESI maps contain features of particular interest to oil
spill planning and response, such as there commended positions of booms or
skimmers. The sensitivity of a given feature to a stress factor may be indicated by
the color given the symbol or pattern used to represent it. Standards for the
development of the environmental sensitivity index maps for the coast of Nigeria
have been developed by the Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI).
These standards are used by all the oil companies to prepare ESI maps for their
areas of operations in Nigeria.
2.8.3 International Co-operation
To shore up the fight against oil smugglers in Nigeria, the US has donated three
56 meters (180ft) refitted World War two-era patrol oats to the navy. United
Nations has also said that United States would donate additional four vessels. The
Pentagon is funding each boat’s refurbishment to the tune of $3.5m. The efforts
of the Federal Government with the assistance of the US are already yielding
fruits. The Nigerian Navy has intercepted several tankers.

57. 47
CHAPTER 3
3.0 INSTRUMENTATION AND EQUIPMENT
The following instruments and equipment are used for the repair of vandalized
petroleum pipelines.
3.1 Instrumentation and equipment of Pipeline vandalism
The following are the instrumentation and equipment used in the repair of
pipeline vandalism.
3.1.1 Consumables.
i. 6 or 10 inch clamps.
ii. Wooden peggs.
iii. Cold weld.
iv. Pair of slippers.

58. 48
v. Sachet water.
vi. Ommo detergent.
vii. Cement.
viii. Sand.
ix. Diggers.
x. Shovels.
xi. Trowels.
xii. water.
xiii. Hack saw.
xiv. Hammer(Rubber/mallet).
xv. 24mm/34mm Ring/Flat Spanners.
xvi. Knife.
xvii. Rubber buckets.
xviii. Sand Paper/Energy cloth.
xix. Flat file.
Bolts Nuts washers

59. 49
Clamp Swing Check Valve rising Stem Resilient Seated

60. 50
3.1.2 Equipments for welding
For less volatile Petroleum products e.g Diesel,kerosine etc, the following are the
equipments needed for welding.
i. Welding machine.
ii. welding electrodes.
iii. Electric grinding/cutting machine
iv. Plate(5mm).
v. Anti-rust.
3.1.3 Safety Department equipment.
i. Fire extinguishers.
ii. Foam compound.
iii. Water pump.
iv. water supply fire tank.
3.2 Instrumentation and equipment of Oil Spill simulation
The following are the simple materials used for the simulation of Oil spill.
 Safety goggles
 Three small bowls
 Tablespoon
 Vegetable oil
 Fairy liquid dishwashing detergent
Pick-Up Materials:
 Paper towels

61. 51
 Cotton balls
 Feathers
 Nylon cloth – used nylon stockings

62. 52
CHAPTER 4
4.0 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
4.1 Procedure for petroleum pipeline vandalization.
Whenever a pipeline vadalization is being reported by either security personels,or
individuals or observation of the pressure drop from the readings obtained from
the pressure guages of the inlets and outlets of the pump station,the following
procedures are observed:
i. all department involved are mobilized.They are;the maitenance
department(MTCE),the fire and safety department,and the securities(station’s
mobile police).
ii. After the mobilization of all the deparments involved,they all move to the cite of
the vandalization,but then,an idea of the cite of vandalization i.e the
topography,swampyness etc. This will give them a good idea of the
equipments,tools and all that is needed for the solution of the vandalization of the
petroleum pipeline.
iii. On arrival at the place of vandalization,the first line of action is to properly
ensure that the site is save for all the personels,to proceed on the job.Also a vital
safety measure,is that the fire and safety department must have with them, fire
extinguishers of various forms incase of fire outbreak.
iv. The excarvation process(digging out what is hidden) of the affected area is doneto
expose vividly the points of vandalization on the pipeline,which is carried out by
the maintenance department,as the fire and safety department are ensuring that
the safety measures are observed.

63. 53
v. The next and very important step to take,is to know exactly the points of leakage
and then get rid of the leaking points,by pegging the leaking points or spots with
pegs,which could either be round/sharp pointed (when the pipeline was
puntured).But when it was sawed or cut,the plane pegging sticks are used.The
pegging sticks are being hammered at the points of leakage,and then cut to the
level of the pipeline,which is then smoothened using the sand paper/emery cloth.
vi. After the petroleum pipeline was completely pegged,cold welding(the application
of gum-4mins) is applied on the pegged surface and a pair of slippers are placed
on the cold-welded pegged surface,before Clamping,which is a maintenance
process of shielding petroleum pipelines by holding the two cylidrical halves of
the clamping spade(metallic),firmly together in position with bolts and
nuts,where necessary, which is designed according to the sizes of the petroleum
pipelines i.e cylindrical halves,about 40cm long and a diameter of 6 inch or
10inch,as shown on figure 4.
vii. When the petroleum pipeline is completely clamped,the excarvated area is
completely back-filled with sand.
The kind of repair that is carried out on the petroleum pipeline varies,depending
on the product that is being pumped.For more volatile products like the
petrol(P.M.S),the clamping method is applied.But for less volatile products like
the diesel or kerosine,the welding method is applied.For the welding method,the
needed equipments and tools needed are: the welding machine,welding
electrode,thin metallic plates(5mm),which could be shaped in circular forrms.
The procedure for it is: after the pegging of the affected area on the petroleum
pipeline,the surface is cleaned,and then the shaped metal is placed on the affected
area,and the welding is done round the plate.When the welding is completely

64. 54
done,special anti-rust is applied on the welded area,to avoid rusting.Concrete is
also applied,3ft on the first layer of back-filled sand, and then it is finally filled to
the surface of the earth,in order to avoid further vandalalization at that spot.
The consumables needed are omo detergent(neutralize fire,incase of fire
outbreak), cement, gravels, water etc.
Figure 4.1 The maintenance and Safety department overhauling a vandalilized oil
pipeline.
4.2 Experimental procedure for a simple test on Oil spill simulation
The aim of this simple experiment is to simulate an oil spill and investigate
different techniques to clean-up after an oil spill occurs. The procedure for this
experiment is given below.

65. 55
i. Pour about 1 cup (200ml) of water into two of the bowls. Add one tablespoon
(15ml) of vegetable oil to each bowl and mix well with a spoon. Look at the
bowls carefully and the distribution of the oil is noticed.
ii. Now a few drops of Fairy detergent was added to one of the bowls and mix it
again. The effect of the detergent on the oil and water, was also observed

66. 56
CHAPTER 5
5.0 RESULTS
Table 5.1 Records of Petroleum Pipelines Vandalism in Pipelines Product and
Marketing Company (P.P.M.C), Zaria Pump Station [43]
DATES
OF
REPORT
AXIS DISTANCE
(Km)
MODE OF
ACTIVITY
6TH May
2010
Zaria/
Kano
96/97 Vandalization.
10th May
2010
Zaria/
Kano
91/98 Vandalization.
17th May
2010
Zaria/
kad.
72/73 Vandalization.
17th May
2010
Zaria/
Kano
95.6 Vandalization.
18th May
2010
Zaria/
Kano
95.6 Suspicious
tempering.
24th May
2010
Zaria/
Kad.
68/69 Vandalization.
7th June
2010
Zaria/
Kad.
64/65 Vandalization.
6th July
2010
Zaria/
Kad.
57 Vandalization.

67. 57
28th July
2010
Zaria/
Kano
85 Vandallization.
16thAugust
2010
Zaria/
Kad.
64 Vandalization.
TABLE 5.2 Oil spill data from the Shell development Company.
The table below shows for instance, Shell Petroleum Development Company one
of the major oil operators in Nigeria recorded 2944 oil spill incidents between the
periods of 1995-2005.
YEAR NUMBER OF
SPILLS
VOLUME IN
BARRELS (bbl)
1995 235 31,000
1996 326 39,000
1997 240 80,000
1998 248 50,000
1999 320 20,000
2000 330 30,000
2001 302 76,960
2002 262 19,980
2003 221 9,916
2004 236 8,317
2005 224 11,921
TOTAL 2,944 377,194

68. 58
Figure 5.1 Plot of Volume of oil spill against number of spills
235 326 240 248 320 330 302 262 221 236 224
31000
39000
80000
50000
20000
30100
76960
19980
9916
8317
11921
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
80000
90000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Series1
Series2

69. 59
Figure 5.2 Bar chart of Number of spills against the Years of occurrence
Figure 5.3 Bar Chart of Volumes of oil (in barrels) against Years of occurrence
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Series1
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
80000
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Series1

70. 60
CHAPTER SIX
6.0 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
From the results recorded in table 5.1 obtained from PPMC Zaria Pump Station,
in 2010 the month of May had the highest occurrences of pipeline vandalism. The
data obtained from table 5.2 and shown or expressed by figures 5.1-5.3, it reveals
that in 1995, an obvious increase from 235 oil spill incidents to 330 in 2000. The
least number of oil spill is 224, recorded in 2005. Also, from the simple test
carried out, showing how oil spill could be cleaned from a water body, oil
dropped in a container of water, remains immiscible and floats at the top of the
water, but with the addition of detergent or detergent solution (as dispersant) into
the mixture of water and oil, the oil is readily dispersed .

71. 61
CHAPTER SEVEN
7.0 CONCLUSION
Recent events have shown that the integrity and safety of the pipelines in the
Niger Delta region have been compromised by vandals who tap into them
resulting in damage and ruptures. The maintenance, security, and environmental
implications of pipelines damage and ruptures in the Niger Delta region are
assessed. The drawbacks of pipelines damages and ruptures were found to include
high costs of maintenance and security, reduction in fuel for the national
electricity supply, environmental degradation and pollution of waterways due to
oil slippage, reduction in revenue for the government, and threats to socio-
political stability of the nation.
Also, Oil spill can now be better cleaned or treated through a process called
Bioremediation.

72. 62
CHAPTER EIGHT
8.0 RECOMMENDATIONS
To sustain and improve the integrity and safety of the pipelines, the following are
my recommendations:
 there is a need for the complete overhaul of aging pipelines, frequent
checks for pipeline integrity,
 improved surveillance and introduction of aerial/satellite monitoring of
pipeline installations,
 effective tracking by the Naval force of the inflow of arms and combating
oil bunkering and sea piracy,
 quick response to oil spillage and pipeline vandalism, minimizing the
unwillingness to be guided or controlled and unemployment through
capacity building for the host communities by the provision of education,
 social infrastructures and small/medium scale enterprises, and increased
enlightenment on the adverse consequences of pipeline vandalism,
 improvement in pipeline technology, where computerized detectors are
used to detect any vandalism done on the pipeline system,
 Pipeline Engineering should be introduced into the Nigerian Universities
and schools of Technology.

73. 63
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