General Science notes for css and pms .pptx

Cosmic Rays
Cosmic rays are atom fragments that rain down on the Earth
from outside of the solar system. They blaze at the speed of
light and have been blamed for electronics problems in
satellites and other machinery. Discovered in 1912, many things
about cosmic rays remain a mystery more than a century later.
One prime example is exactly where they are coming from.
Most scientists suspect their origins are related to supernovas
(star explosions), but the challenge is that for many years
cosmic ray origins appeared uniform to observatories
examining the entire sky.A large leap forward in cosmic ray
science came in 2017, when the Pierre Auger Observatory
(which is spread over 3,000 square kilometers, or 1,160 square
miles, in western Argentina)
studied the arrival trajectories of 30,000 cosmic particles. It
concluded that there is a difference in how frequently these
cosmic rays arrive, depending on where you look.

Condensation
Condensation is the change of water from its gaseous
form (water vapor) into liquid water. Condensation
generally occurs in the atmosphere when warm air
rises, cools and looses its capacity to hold water
vapor. As a result, excess water vapor condenses to
form cloud droplets. The upward motions that
generate clouds can be produced by convection in
unstable air,convergence associated with cyclones,
lifting of air by fronts and lifting over elevated
topography such as mountains.

Biological evolution
Biological evolution is the process through which the
characteristics of organisms change over successive
generations, by means of genetic variationand
natural selection. It is most commonly defined as "changes in
genefrequencies in populations."[1]
The result of the process
may be minimal or substantial; it embraces everything from
slight changes within a species, to the successive alterations
that lead to the diversification of an organism into countless
unique species.
Creation scientists accept the observable quantity of change
taking place within living organisms - often
called microevolution, but contest the assertion by Darwinists
that this process has led to the existence of all life on Earth.

Microcontroller
A microcontroller is a compact integrated circuit designed to
govern a specific operation in an embedded system. processor
will vary by application. Options range from the simple 4-bit,
8-bit or 16-bit processors to more complex 32-bit or 64-bit
processors. In terms of memory, microcontrollers can use
random access memory, microcontrollers are designed to be
readily usable without additional computing components
because they are designed with sufficient onboard memory
as well as offering pins for general I/O operations, so they can
directly interface with sensors and other components.
Microcontroller architecture can be based on the Harvard
architecture or von Neumann architecture, both offering
different methods of exchanging data between the processor
and memory. With a Harvard architecture, the data bus and
instruction are separate, allowing for simultaneous transfers.

What is Mirage
• effect that is sometimes seen at sea, in the desert, or over a
hot pavement, that may have the appearance of a pool of
water or a mirror in which distant objects are seen inverted,
and that is caused by the bending or reflection of rays of
light by a layer of heated air of varying density
something illusory and unattainable like a mirage A mirage is
a sort of optical illusion, a reflection of light that can trick
the mind into interpreting the sight as an apparently solid
thing. It makes sense, therefore, that the word mirage has
its roots in the concept of vision. Mirage was borrowed into
English at the dawn of the 19th century from the French
verb mirer ("to look at"), which also gave us the word mirror

Why do we perspire before it rain
just before it rains the atmosphere gets
saturated with water vapor. The perspiration
exuded by us, therefore it does not evaporate
quickly but remains on the surface of the skin.
Hence, we feel the perspiration at that time.

Microwave oven Cook
"A microwave oven cooks food because the water molecules
inside it absorb the microwave radiation and thereby heat up
and heat the surrounding food. Microwave radiation will
similarly heat up skin and other body parts. In fact, people
stationed at big microwave towers in cold climates used to
stand in front of the microwave generators in order to warm
themselves. The radiation is harmful mostly to the parts of the
body that cannot conduct the heat away very effectively---the
eyes especially. I think that heat transfer could explain why
one sometimes hears about people (fast-food workers, for
instance) getting headaches when exposed to leaking
microwave ovens."

1.NATURE OF SCIENCE:
Science can be defined as study
"mainly concerned with the phenomenan of physical universe
any or all of natural sciences or biological sciences."
or Science as the "the field of study which attempts to describe
and understand the nature of the universe in whole or part."
Science is the faculty to reason out the how and why of the
things as they occur in the phenomenal world or the objective
world..Basically science is the study of laws of nature and man
has developed science by observing.Infact this subject has
completely transformed our power over nature and the world
outlook.Development of the modern technology is directly the
outcome of the development of modern science.Without the
scientific revolution the industrial revolution would not have
been possible.

2.CONTRIBUTIONS OF MUSLIM SCIENTISTS:
MUHAMMAD BIN MUSA AL KHWARZIMI:
Made lasting contributions in the fields of
Mathematics,Astronomy,Music,Geography and History.He
composed the oldest works on Arithmetic and on Algebra.The
oldest Mathematic book composed by him is "Kitab ul jama
wat tafriq"He is the first person who used zero and
wrote"Hisab ul jabr Wal Muqabla" which is conceived to be an
outstanding work on the subject which included analytical
solutions of linear and quadratic equations.
In the field of Astronomy he compiled his own tables which
formed the basis of later astronomical pursuits in both East and
West.He also contributed in the field of geographical science by
writing a noteworthy book KItab ul surat al ard. in Arabic.
His book " kitab al Tarik" is also a memorable work regarding
history.

AL BERUNI: Born in Afghanistan Beruni made original an
important contributions to science.He is conceived to be the
most prominent scientists of the Islamic world who wrote
around 150 books on various signifiacnt subjects concerning
human existence.These subjects include
Mathematics,History,Archeology,Biology,Geology,Che m
istry ,Religion etc.He discussed the behaviour of
earth,moon,and planets in his book "Qanoon Almasudi" which
is also considered as an outstanding astronimical
encyclopedia.He also discovered seven differnt ways of finding
the directions of north and south and discovered mathematical
technques to determine exactly the beginnig of the seasons.
Another noteable discovery he made was that the speed of
light is faster than sound .His wide range of scientific
knowledge is also revealed through his books" kitab al saidana"
and "kitab al jawahar" dealing with medicine and the types of
gems their gravity respectively.

AL RAZI:
The famous philosopher and a noteable surgeon of the Muslim
world,Zakriya Al Razi was born in Ray near modern Theran
Iran.His eagerness for knowledge lead him to the study of
Alchemyand Chemistry,philosophy,logic ,Mathematics and
Physics.He was a pioneer in many areas of medicine and
treatment of health sciences in general,and in particular he
worked alot in the fields of paeditrics,obsterics and
opthalmology.
Al razi was the first person to introduce the use of Alcohal for
medical purposes and opium for the objective of giving
anaethseia to his patients.
In the field of opthalmology too Al razi gave an account of the
operation for the extraction of the catract and also the first
scientist to discover the effect of the intensity of light on the
eye.The modern studies confirm his understanding on the
subject thus making him a great physician of all the times.

-4.UNIVERSE:
The BIG BANG THEORY about the universe is the most
widely acceptable theories with regard to the origin of the
universe. According to the big bang, the universe was
created sometime between 10 billion and 20 billion years
ago from a cosmic explosion that hurled matter and in all
directions.All the glaxies were formed from this matter .
Observations of these glaxies show that they are still
moving apart from each other .The universe is expanding
Some scientists have suggested another theory as "steady
theory:" to explain the process of the evolution of the
universe.However the general notion on which all scientists
agree is the theory of Big Bang.

5.GALAXY:
Galaxy is a huge number of stars grouped together.The term
galaxy can also be described as a collection of dust ,gas and
stars measuring thousands of parsecs across.Galzxy contains
10000million stars and looks like a disc with a fat centre and
spiral arms.From the front it looks like a convex lens.s
Classes of galaxy:
Two broad classes of galaxy are there.
1.Ellipitical
2.Spiral
The spiral galaxies are further sub divided into normal which
constitutes of majority of spirals and barred spirals.Barred
spirals have their centre in the form of the bar .
The ellipitical galaxies range from E 0 to E 7 from an almost
spherical shape to a flattened disc.

Milky way:
Our galaxy is a spiral galaxy about 30,000 parsecs
across.There are more than 200 billion stars in the
galaxy.Its disc appears as a faint white band that is
responsible for dividing the white sky at the night into
two.The name of our galaxy is mily way.
The galaxy has three spiral arms called the
Orion,Perseus,and sagittarius arms and the whole
system is rotating in space.The sun revolves around teh
nucleus of teh galaxy once in 225 million years.This
duration is also called the cosmic year

SOLAR SYSTEM:
The solar system includes nine planets and sun being at the
centre.All the planets revlove around teh sun .The solar
system also includes the asteroids,meteors and numerous
comets.All of these travel around the sun in a particular
orbit .The planets which are the significant part of the solar
system namely,Mercury,venus,earth,mars,Jupiter,Saturn<ur
anus,neptune and the pluto.
All the theories about teh formation of teh solar system
agree on two facts.One is that the age of solar system is
4.5billion years and secondly the planets were formed from
the gas and dust within the vicinity of the sun.The gas and
dust condensed into tiny bodies which eventually built up
the present day planetary system.

MOTION OF THE PLANETS
The planets perform two types of motions.
1,rotation at tehir axisis
2.revolution or the orbital motion along their orbits
around the sun. MOTION OF THE PLANETS
THE AGE OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM:
Meteoric evidence suggests that the solar system is
4530+20 million years old.and that was formed in less
than 25 million years.
The solar system is believd to be formed from a globe
of gas and dust that consisted mainly of hydrogen

THE SUN
The sun is the most significant star for the existence and life of
living beings on earth.The whole life on earth depends on this
brightest object in the sky.The living things get their energy
from sun and the appropriate distance of earth from sun
maintains an appropriate temeprature which is ideal for the
survival of all the life present on earth.The sun is the principle
source of energy for all the planets of the solar
systems .Through a constant stream of particles that flow
outward from the sun ,heat,radiation,light and UV rays are
emitted.the UV rays that reach the earth from sun are
considered to be the most harmful ones.Most of the UV and
other high energy radiation are absorbed by the Ozone layer
and the atmosphere of the earth.This stream of particles is
called solar wind. STRUCTURE OF THE SUN:
The visible surface of the sun is called photosphere which is a
turbulent region and is 570 kilometere deep.

.EARTH:
The third farthest planet from the sun is earth.The
earth rotates on its axis in about 24 hours.The
diametre of earth is 12756 km.The earth
completes its rotation along its axis in 23.9 hour
and one tip along its orbit in 365 days,6 hours and
9 minutes and 9.4 seconds.The orbit of the earth is
not a circle but a ellipse .STRUCTURE OF THE
EARTH:The earth has four major structural
components.1.The Crust2.The Mantle3.The Outer
core4.The Inner Core.

ATMOSPHERE OF THE EARTH:
The chief gases in the atmosphere of the earth are,
Nitrogen 78.09% Oxygen 20.95% Argon 0.93%
The remaining 0.03% is made of carbon dioxide,small quantities
of neon,helium,ozone and hydrogen and minute traces of
krypton,methane,xenon and other gases.
Another important constituent of the atmosphere is water
vapour which makes up 4 percent by volume and 3 percent by
weight.Life is not possible without the atmosphere of the earth
Oxygen present in the atmosphere is necessary for both animals
and plants for respiration.Carbon dioxide is needed by teh plants
which use this gas in the process of photosynthesis.Water
vapours present in the earth are necessary for the process of rain
and otehr percipitation.
The atmosphere is a valuable natural source of many gases that
are widely needed in industry,argon for the purpose of welding
and oxygen is required for hospitals and other metal industries.

MINERALS
A mineral is an inorganic substance formed naturally.They are
infact building blocks from which rocks are made and they may
form crystals.Minerals are produced by the physical force of the
earth.They are the basic units of rocks .Every rock can be
considered as the accumulation of minerals.geologists classify
rock principally according to the way which they are formed ,not
according to their composition as most rocks consists of two or
more than two different minerals.As rocks are formed by
minerals,therefore there are three kinds of rocks
igneous,sedimentary and metamorphic.The igneous rocks are
formed when the molten magma cools and solidifies .
The sedimentary rocks originate from the deposits of material
worn away from the plants and animals and also by the pre
existing rocks.Metamorphic rocks are formed by the alteration of
pre existing rocks by great heat or pressure.

ECLIPSE:
An eclipse is a New or Full Moon that occurs near the Moon's
Nodes. Because the Moon and Sun are so close to the Nodes,
they are aligned perfectly enough with the Earth to cast a
shadow.SOLAR ECLIPSE:The solar eclipse takes place when the
light of the sun is partially or totally cut off from the earth by the
moon which comes in between both these celestial bodies.i.e.,
sun and the earth.However the solar eclipse occurs only at new
moon.As moon is of the similar size to that of the sun,therefore
when it passes directly between the earth and the sun it
obscures it completely.LUNAR ECLIPSE:The passing of earth
directly between the moon and the sun results in a lunar eclipse.
Like the solar eclipse the lunar eclipse also has three different
types.A total lunar eclipse occurs when when the whole moon
passes through the umbra.In case of partial eclipse the entire
moon passes through the penumbra and only part of it passes
through the umbra. and in a penumbral eclipse the moon passes
through only the penumbra.

DAY AND NIGHT AND THEIR VARIATION:
The rotation of the earth is responsible for the day
and night varaitions.While rotating the half of the
earth faces the sunlight while the other half faces
away from the sun.The hemisphere of the earth
that faces the sun has day time while the
hemisphere that faces away from the sun has night
time.
Earth completes its rotation in 24 hours and during
this 24 hour duration the variation between day
and night occurs.

CONVENTIONAL AND NON CONVENTIONAL SOURCES
OF ENERGY:
The sources of energy that are used for the
objective of power generation are called
conventional sources of energy.whereas the sources
that are not utilized for the factor of electricity
generation are included in the category of non
conventional sources.However these categories
change with time like once the nuclear energy was
considered under a non conventional source of
energy but with the modern discoveries now it is
considered to be an important source of energy.

FORMS OF ENERGY:
COAL: Coal is considered to be an important source of
energy .Almost 30 % of worlds power production is dependent on
this form.It is a fosil fuel .The organic matter of plants is buried in
rocks and soils.The pressure and heat changed this organic
material to peat,lignite and then coal.PETROLEUM:Another
essential form of enrgy is the use of petroleum.It is also a fosil
fuel and a crude oil.Through the process of fractional
distillation,the constituients of petroleum are seperated .Major
oil producin countries are USA,SAUDI ARABIA,ALGERIA and
IRAN ,KUWAIT.NATURAL GAS:Gas is a cheap source of energy and
is an organic matter .It is also used for power generation and its
major constituent elements are methane,ethane,propane and
other hydrocarbons.the natural gas is abundntly used in Pakistan
especailly.HYDROELECTRIC POWER GENERATION:Falling water in
the mountanious areas is used as a source of mecahnical energy
to rotate turbines and generate electricity.The process of
electromagnetic induction is used for this purpose.

ENERGY CONSERVATION:
By energy conservation it is meant that energy can neither be
created nor destroyed but only converted into other forms. This
principle infact, is also known as the "law of conservation of
energy".
For instance a pendulum that moves to and fro with the bob
changing its speed from maximum to teh lowest.In this process the
kinetic energy is greatest at the lowest point of teh swing and zero
at teh highet.howver the potential energy is maximum at the
highest point and is zero at teh lowest.This shows that kinetic
energy changes to another form of energy .i.,e potential energy.
Similarly in every production of work all forms of energy generate
in this manner.Heat energy is converted to light energy in some
cases whereas in some the chemical energy is changed to the
potential energy

CERAMICS:
Ceramics include a vast variety of inorganic ,non mettalic materials
which require high temperature heating for preparation.The most
famous forms of ceramic are pottery,bricks,tiles and sanitary
ware.Infact the ceramics have a wide variety of usage in most
sectors especailly in the industrial sector.
RAW MATERIAL:The raw material available for ceramic
preparation is usually the clay which is is found benetah the top
soil .This material is formed through the break down process of
rocks affected from the chemical procees and the weather
conditions.This raw material is very cheap and can be found in
huge quatity.This raw material when mixed with water can be
shaped and moulded in any form according to the requirements
or usage.It becomes hard at heating thus making it more durable
and strong.KINDS:
Three kinds of pottery are in use at the present times.
1.EARTHENWARE2.STONEWARE 3PORCELAIN

SEMI CONDUCTORS:
Semi-conductors are materials with an electrical conductivity that
increases with increasing temperature, a trend that is opposite to
that of metals. Semi-conductors characteristically have a band
gap between the valence and conduction bands that is smaller
than that found in the insulators. The reason the conductivity
increases is because as the temperature increases more electrons
become thermally excited and are able to jump the band gap
between the valence and conduction band.. n-Type Conductivity
When a foreign atom with an excess of electrons is added to a
pure semi-conductor, the result is a n-type semi-conductor, so
named because the charge carriers are negative. This increases
the conductivity because a donor band, which is filled with
electrons, is introduced near to the conduction band in the band
gap. p-Type When foreign atoms with less than 2N
electrons are added, the result is a p-type semi-conductor,
so called because the charge carrier is a positive hole.

RADIO:
Radio is based on the principle that electrical signals have the capacity of
travelling without the wire.Radio signals are carried by electromagnetic
waves which travel through space at a speed of light.
The sound waves enter through a microphone in which a coil ,a metal
ribbon vibrates to change spund in an electric current.This signal of sound
combines with a carrier signal which is at higher radio frequncy.The carrier
is modulated by audio frequency signal.This modulated carrier signal get
transfers to transmitting aerial where radio waves are emitted in all
directions.
The received waves are fed into a radio frequency amplifier to
stengthen,They pass to a detector which seperates the audio frequency
signal from the carrier wave.The currents that are obtained ae identical to
those that left the microphone at the broadcasting station.They are
amplified and fed to the loudspeaker.The loudspeaker acts like a
microphone,similar to the process that produces sounds like the original
sound.

TELEVISION
The tv works through the electromagnetic signals that are
transmitted,received and converted back to original patterns.The
sound transmission is very much similar to radio.In picture
transmission the fundamental component is the camera which is
responsible for changing the image into electrical impulses..The
cathode ray tube at teh other end converts the apttern of
electrical impulses into visible images.Inside the TV camera an
illuminated plate emits electrons.The electrons travel to a plate
which is called a target plate.The electrical pattern that produces
afterwards is transmitted to to the transmitter where the
synchronizing pulses are added.Before the final output is fed to
the transmitting aerials the sound signal is added.For
transmission VHF and UHF frequencies are used .

TELEPHONES
The telephone consists of coils of fine insulated wire
that is wound around a permanent horse shoe
magnet.A soft iron disc diaphragm is held near the end
of the magnet.The magnet lines of force gather in this
disc.When the disc is thrown into vibration by a human
voice,the number of lines of force passing through the
coil changes and a flutuating current is induced.At the
receiving end the terminals over the coil wound over
the oles of another horse shoe magnet produces the
similar vibrations that are produced at the transmitting
end and thus helps in producing the sound.

CAMERA
Equipment for taking photographs which usually consists of a
lightproof box with a lens at one end and light-sensitive film at
the other.Photography is undoubtedly one of the most important
inventions in history -- it has truly transformed how people
conceive of the world. Now we can "see" all sorts of things that
are actually many miles -- and years -- away from us. Photography
lets us capture moments in time and preserve them for years to
come.The basic technology that makes all of this possible is fairly
simple. A still film camera is made of three basic elements: an
optical element (the lens), a chemical element (the film) and a
mechanical element (the camera body itself). As we'll see, the
only trick to photography is calibrating and combining these
elements in such a way that they record a crisp, recognizable
image.

LASER:
Laser light has several features that are significantly different from white
light. To begin with, light from most sources spreads out as it travels, so
that much less light hits a given area as the distance from the light source
increases. Laser light travels as a parallel beam and spreads very little.
Furthermore, laser light is monochromatic and coherent. White light is a
jumble of colored light waves. Each color has a different wavelength. If all
the wavelengths but one are filtered out, the remaining light is
monochromatic. If these waves are all parallel to one another, they are
also coherent: the waves travel in a definite phase relationship with one
another. In the case of laser light, the wave crests coincide and the
troughs coincide. The waves all reinforce one another. It is the
monochromaticity and coherency of laser light that makes it ideal for
recording data on optical media such as a CD as well as use as a light
source for long haul fiber-optic communications.

MICROSCOPE
Microscopes give us a large image of a tiny object. The
microscopes we use in school and at home trace their history
back almost 400 years.The first useful microscope was developed
in the Netherlands between 1590 and 1608. There is almost as
much confusion about the inventor as about the dates. Three
different eyeglass makers have been given credit for the
invention. The possible inventors are Hans Lippershey (who also
developed the first real telescope), Hans Janssen, and his son,
Zacharias.Lens quality in early microscopes was often poor so the
images were not very clear. But even these rather crude
microscopes were a great help in learning more about animals
and plants.The microscope works a lot like a refracting telescope
except that the object is very close to the objective lens.The clips
on the microscope's flat stage hold the slide in place.A mirror at
the bottom of the microscope reflects light rays up to the daphnia
through a hole in the stage.

COMPUTERS:
Computer is an electronic device that can accept data,aaply a series of
logical processess to it and supply the results of tehse processes as
information.Computers are also used to perform a complex series of
mathematical calculations at very great speed which makes them great for
the numerous purposes.
KINDS:
The two main kinds of computers are
1.Analog computer
2.Digital computer.
in analog computer the numbers are represented by magnitudes of physical
quantities as voltage,magnitudes etc.
The digital comouter is in which numbers are expressed directly as digits
usually in the binary notion.The digital computers are howver more useful
and versatile.

What is a satellite ?
An artificial satellite is a man made object placed into orbit around
the Earth for the purpose of scientific research, weather reports, or
military reconnaissance. Scientific satellites are set into orbit to
observe the space environment, the Earth, the Sun, stars and extra
galactic objects. These satellites have retrieved a huge amount of
information helpful to scientific research. Weather satellites are
used every day for meteorological forecasts and in shipping. Also
military satellites play a important role in today's modern military.
Satellites are extremely important today. All artificial satellites have
certain features in common. They all include radar systems, sensors
like optical devices in observation satellites and receivers and
transmitters in communication satellites. Solar cells are used to
generate power for the satellites and in some cases ,nuclear power
is used. All satellites need altitude-control equipment to keep the
satellite in the desired orbit.

ANTIBIOTICS:
A chemical substance derivable from a mold or bacterium that kills
microorganisms and cures infections.
Antibiotics are drugs used to kill or harm specific bacteria. Since their
discovery in the 1930s, antibiotics have made it possible to cure
diseases caused by bacteria such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, and
meningitis - saving the lives of millions of people around the world.
But antibiotics must be used wisely. Because bacteria are living
organisms, they are always changing in an effort to resist the drugs
that can kill them. When antibiotics are used incorrectly, bacteria can
adapt and become resistant. Antibiotics are then no longer useful in
fighting them. Antibiotic resistance is now a major public health
issue. The correct use of these drugs is the best way to ensure that
antibiotics remain useful in treating infections.

VACCINES:
Immunogen consisting of a suspension of weakened or dead
pathogenic cells injected in order to stimulate the production
of antibodies can be defined as vaccines.Disease causing
organisms have at least two distinct effects on the body The
first effect is exhibiting symptoms such as fever, nausea,
vomiting, diarrhea, rash, and many others.the second effect
generally leads to eventual recovery from the infection: the
disease causing organism induces an immune response in the
infected host. As the response increases in strength over time,
the infectious agents are slowly reduced in number until
symptoms disappear and recovery is complete.The disease
causing organisms contain proteins called "antigens" which
stimulate the immune response. The resulting immune
response is multi-fold and includes the synthesis of proteins
called "antibodies

FERTILIZERS:
Any substance such as manure or a mixture of nitrates used to
make soil more fertile are fertilizers.
Fertilizers are plant nutrients. Nutrients exist naturally in the
earth's soil and atmosphere, and in animal manure. However,
naturally occurring nutrients are not always available in the
forms that plants can use. Therefore, man-made fertilizer is vital
to food production. Man-made and natural fertilizers contain the
same ingredients, but man-made fertilizers act more quickly and
are less susceptible to weather changes. Farmers, ranchers and
gardeners add these fertilizers directly to the soil, where they can
be absorbed by plants for healthy growth. Incorporated into a
program of best management practices, which includes soil
testing, man-made fertilizer use leads to higher
crop yields and greater environmental protection.

.PESTICIDES:
A pesticide is any chemical which is used by man to control
pests. The pests may be insects, plant diseases, fungi, weeds,
nematodes, snails, slugs, etc. Therefore, insecticides,
fungicides, herbicides, etc., are all types of pesticides. Some
pesticides must only contact (touch) the pest to be deadly.
Others must be swallowed to be effective. The way that each
pesticide attacks a pest suggests the best way to apply it; to
reach and expose all the pests. For example, a pesticide may be
more effective and less costly as a bait, rather than as a surface
spray. Insecticides.
Insecticides are chemicals used to control insects. Often the word
"insecticide" is confused with the word "pesticide." It is,
however, just one of many types of pesticides. An insecticide
may kill the insect by touching it or it may have to be
swallowed to be effective.

Miticides and Acaricides
Miticides (or Acaricides) are chemicals used to control mites
(tiny Insecticides spider-like animals) and ticks. The chemicals
usually must contact the mites or ticks to be effective. These
animals are so numerous and small, that great care must be
used to completely cover the area on which the mites live.
Miticides are very similar in action to insecticides and often the
same pesticide kills both insects and mites. The terms "broad
spectrum," "short term," and "residual" are also used
Fungicides
Fungicides are chemicals used to control the fungi which cause
molds, rots, and plant diseases. All fungicides work by coming
in contact with the fungus, because fungi do not "swallow" in
the normal sense. Therefore, most fungicides are applied over
a large surface area to try to directly hit every fungus. Some
fungicides may be systemic in that the plant to be protected
may be fed or injected with the chemical.

Herbicides
Herbicides are chemicals used to control unwanted plants.
These chemicals are a bit different from other pesticides
because they are used to kill or slow the growth of some
plants, rather than to protect them. Some herbicides kill every
plant they contact, while others kill only certain plants.
Rodenticides
Rodenticides are chemicals used to control rats, mice, bats and
other rodents. Chemicals which control other mammals, birds,
and fish are also grouped in this category by regulatory
agencies. Most rodenticides are stomach poisons and are often
applied as baits. Even rodenticides which act by contacting the
pest are usually not applied over large surfaces because of the
hazard to domestic animals or desirable wildlife. They are
usually applied in limited areas such as runways, known
feeding places, or as baits.

Nematicides
Nematicides are chemicals used to control
nematodes. Nematodes are tiny hir-like worms,
many of which live in the soil and feed on plant
roots. Very few of these worms live above
ground. Usually, soil fumigants are used to
control nematodes in the soil

Atomic Structure:-
the structure of an atom, theoretically consisting of
a positively charged nucleus surrounded andneutralized
by negatively charged electrons revolving in orbits at var
ying distances from the nucleus, theconstitution of the n
ucleus and the arrangement of the electrons differing wi
th various chemicalelements.

Fission and Fussion:-
fission means "a splitting or breaking up into parts"
(Merriam-Webster Online, www.m-w.com). Nuclear fission
releases heat energy by splitting atoms. The surprising
discovery that it was possible to make a nucleus divide was
based on Albert Einstein’s prediction that mass could be
changed into energy
fusion means "a merging of separate elements into a unified
whole". Nuclear fusion refers to the "union of atomic nuclei
to form heavier nuclei resulting in the release of enormous
amounts of energy" (Merriam-Webster Online, www.m-
w.com). Fusion takes place when two low-mass isotopes,
typically isotopes of hydrogen, unite under conditions of
extreme pressure and temperature.

Fortran:
Fortran, formerly written in all caps (FORTRAN), is a
programming language designed for numeric
computation and scientific computing. First
introduced in 1954, Fortran is the oldest
programming language and is still widely used. Its
applications are found in the scientific fields,
particularly numerical weather prediction,
computational fluid dynamics and computational
physics. Fortran is also quite popular in high-
performance computing and is used in program
benchmarking and ranking the world's fastest
supercomputers

The Green House Effect:
• The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth’s surface.
When the Sun’s energy reaches the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is reflected
back to space and the rest is absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases.
• Greenhouse gases include water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
oxide, ozone and some artificial chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
• Step 1: Solar radiation reaches the Earth's atmosphere - some of this is
reflected back into space.
• Step 2: The rest of the sun's energy is absorbed by the land and the oceans,
heating the Earth.
• Step 3: Heat radiates from Earth towards space.
• Step 4: Some of this heat is trapped by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere,
keeping the Earth warm enough to sustain life.
• Step 5: Human activities such as burning fossil fuels, agriculture and land
clearing are increasing the amount of greenhouse gases released into the
atmosphere.
• Step 6: This is trapping extra heat, and causing the Earth's temperature to rise.

What is Vaccines:
Vaccines are products that protect people against serious and
potentially deadly diseases. Unlike most medicines that treat or
cure diseases, vaccines prevent them. On this site, you can learn
what vaccines are, how they work, and why they are
important.
• You will see the
terms vaccines, vaccinations and immunizations used across
this site. The following is a simple guide to help you remember
their definitions:
• Vaccines are products that produce immunity to a specific
disease. Most vaccines are given by injection (needle) but some
are given orally (by mouth) or nasally (sprayed into the nose).
“Researchers have been working on a new vaccine against Zika
virus.”

• What is a cell?
• Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. The
human body is composed of trillions of cells. They provide
structure for the body, take in nutrients from food, convert
those nutrients into energy, and carry out specialized
functions. Cells also contain the body’s hereditary material
and can make copies of themselves.
• Cells have many parts, each with a different function.
Some of these parts, called organelles, are specialized
structures that perform certain tasks within the cell.
Human cells contain the following major parts, listed in
alphabetical order:

Organic and Organic
Molecules can be either organic or inorganic. No, we are not
talking about pesticide-free, non-genetically modified,
free-range molecules. In chemistry, organic means that a
molecule has a carbon backbone with some hydrogen
thrown in for good measure. Living creatures are made of
various kinds of organic compounds. Inorganic molecules
are composed of other elements. They can contain
hydrogen or carbon, but if they have both, they are
organic. Picky, picky.

What is plant Classification of Plant:-
He biological scientists, in the variety of their disciplines,
reflect the bewildering complexity of their field. The broader
disciplines include, as a few examples, paleontologists, who
study the history of life on earth; ecologists, who study
systems of living organisms; botanists, who study
communities of plants; and zoologists, who study
communities of animals. More narrowly focused disciplines
include, for example, mammalogists, who study mammals;
ornithologists, who study birds; herpetologists, who study
reptiles; ichthyologists, who study fish; entomologists, who
study insects; arachnologists, who study spiders;
parasitologists, who study parasites; and cryptozoologists,
who study animals that are presumed (but not proven) to
exist. It is the taxonomists who classify the organisms,
putting plants and animals in their places.

• What Is Human Physiology?
• Human physiology is the study of human organs and of the cells
that make them up. An understanding of human physiology is
helpful in a variety of fields, such as medicine, fitness, and
biology. Schools offeringAnatomy & Physiology degrees
can also be found in these popular.Many occupations
incorporate human physiology and are listed by the Bureau of
Labor Statistics. They include fitness trainers who work in spas
or gyms where they organize and direct health and fitness
programs. Biological scientists study living organisms and their
relationship to the environment. Physician assistants practice
medicine under supervision of physicians and surgeons and
must understand human physiology to treat patients.
Recreational therapists provide treatment and recreation for
individuals with disabilities. Human physiology is also essential
for those involved in cancer study and research, breathing-
related illnesses, and liver and heart disease.

• Invertebrates and Vertebrate Digestive Systems
Animals have evolved different types of digestive systems to aid in
the digestion of the different foods they consume. The simplest
example is that of a gastrovascular cavity and is found in
organisms with only one opening for digestion. Platyhelminthes
(flatworms), Ctenophora (comb jellies), and Cnidaria (coral, jelly
fish, and sea anemones) use this type of digestion.Gastrovascular
cavities are typically a blind tube or cavity with only one opening,
the “mouth”, which also serves as an “anus”. Ingested material
enters the mouth and passes through a hollow, tubular cavity.
Cells within the cavity secrete digestive enzymes that break down
the food. The food particles are engulfed by the cells lining the
gastrovascular cavity. The alimentary canal, shown in Figure 1b, is
a more advanced system: it consists of one tube with a mouth at
one end and an anus at the other. Earthworms are an example of
an animal with an alimentary canal.

What is Genetics:-
• Genetics is the study of heredity. Heredity is a biological process
where a parent passes certain genes onto their children or
offspring. Every child inherits genes from both of their biological
parents and these genes in turn express specific traits. Some of
these traits may be physical for example hair and eye color and
skin color etc. On the other hand some genes may also carry the
risk of certain diseases and disorders that may pass on from
parents to their offspring.
• What is a gene?
• A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity.
Genes are made up of DNA. Some genes act as instructions to
make molecules called proteins. However, many genes
do not code for proteins. In humans, genes vary in size from a
few hundred DNA bases to more than 2 million bases. The
Human Genome Project estimated that humans have between
20,000 and 25,000 genes.

• What Is Hepatitis?
• Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver. It may be caused
by drugs, alcohol use, or certain medical conditions. But in
most cases, it's caused by a virus. This is known as viral
hepatitis, and the most common forms are hepatitis A, B,
and C.
Sometimes there are no symptoms of hepatitis in the first
weeks after infection -- the acute phase. But when they
happen, the symptoms of types A, B, and C may include
fatigue, nausea, poor appetite, belly pain, a mild fever, or
yellow skin or eyes (jaundice). When hepatitis B and C
become chronic, they may cause no symptoms for years.
By the time there are any warning signs, the liver may
already be damaged

What is Malaria:
Malaria is a life-threatening mosquito-borne blood disease
caused by a Plasmodium parasite.It is transmitted to
humans through the bite of the Anopheles mosquito.
• Once an infected mosquito bites a human, the parasites
multiply in the host's liver before infecting and destroying
red blood cells.
• In some places, malaria can be treated and controlled with
early diagnosis. However, some countries lack the
resources to do this effectively.
• Currently, no vaccine is licensed for use in the United
States or globally, although one is available in Europe.

What is Denque:-
• Dengue (pronounced DENgee) fever is a painful,
debilitating mosquito-borne disease caused by any one of
four closely related dengue viruses. These viruses are
related to the viruses that cause West Nile infection and
yellow fever.An estimated 390 million dengue infections
occur worldwide each year, with about 96 million resulting
in illness

What is Polio
Polio, or poliomyelitis, is a crippling and potentially deadly infectious
disease. It is caused by the poliovirus. The virus spreads from
person to person and can invade an infected person’s brain and
spinal cord, causing paralysis (can’t move parts of the body).
• Symptoms
• Most people who get infected with poliovirus (about 72 out of
100) will not have any visible symptoms.
• About 1 out of 4 people with poliovirus infection will have flu-like
symptoms that may include—
• Sore throat
• Fever
• Tiredness
• Nausea
• Headache
• Stomach pain

What is Fermentation:
Fermentation is a metabolic process that consumes sugar in
the absence of oxygen. The products are organic acids,
gases, or alcohol. It occurs in yeastand bacteria, and also
in oxygen-starved muscle cells, as in the case of
lactic acid fermentation. The science of fermentation is
known as zymology
Fermentation is a process used to produce the finest wine;
many of our basic staples, such as bread and cheese; and
pleasurable delights, including beer, chocolate, coffee and
yogurt. Fermentation is an easy process, enjoyed and done
by anyone and anywhere with the most basic tools.
Cultures around the world have been fermenting longer
than we’ve been cultivating soil or writing books,
benefiting from the countless delicacies as a result.

• fiber optics
Fiber optics, or optical fiber, refers to the medium and the
technology associated with the transmission of information as
light pulses along a glass or plastic strand or fiber. A fiber optic
cable can contain a varying number of these glass fibers -- from
a few up to a couple hundred. Surrounding the glass fiber core is
another glass layer called cladding. A layer known as a buffer
tube protects the cladding, and a jacket layer acts as the final
protective layer for the individual strand. Multimode fiber and
single-mode fiber are the two primary types of fiber optic cable.
Single-mode fiber is used for longer distances due to the smaller
diameter of the glass fiber core, which lessens the possibility for
attenuation -- the reduction in signal strength. The smaller
opening isolates the light into a single beam, which offers a
more direct route and allows the signal to travel a longer
distance. Single-mode fiber also has a considerably higher
bandwidth than multimode fiber.

Centrifugation
• is the process where a mixture is separated through
spinning. It is used to separate skim milk from whole milk,
water from your clothes, and blood cells from your blood
plasma. Although centrifugation is primarily used to
separate mixtures, it is also used to test the effects of
gravity on people and objects. If left alone, the fat (cream)
in whole milk will separate from the liquid on its own, but
centrifugation is often used to speed up the process. As
the milk spins in the centrifuge, the heavier cream spins
further out and is captured in separate containers.
• What about your wet jeans in the washing machine?
When your washing machine is on the spin cycle, it causes
the water droplets to be forced outward into the small
holes in the side of your washing machine.

• What is the ozone layer?
• The ozone layer is a deep layer in the stratosphere, encircling the Earth,
that has large amounts of ozone in it. The layer shields the entire Earth
from much of the harmful ultraviolet radiation that comes from the sun.
Interestingly, it is also this ultraviolet radiation that forms the ozone in
the first place. Ozone is a special form of oxygen, made up of three
oxygen atoms rather than the usual two oxygen atoms. It usually forms
when some type of radiation or electrical discharge separates the two
atoms in an oxygen molecule (O2), which can then individually
recombine with other oxygen molecules to form ozone (O3).
The ozone layer became more widely appreciated by the public when it
was realized that certain chemicals mankind manufactures, called
chloroflurocarbons, find their way up into the stratosphere where,
through a complex series of chemical reactions, they destroy some of
the ozone. As a result of this discovery, an international treaty was
signed in 1973 called the Montreal Protocol, and the manufacture of
these chemicals was greatly reduced.

• What is plasma?
• Plasma is considered the fourth state of matter. The three
other states are solid, liquid, and gas. Plasma is a cloud of
protons, neutrons and electrons where all the electrons
have come loose from their respective molecules and
atoms, giving the plasma the ability to act as a whole
rather than as a bunch of atoms. A plasma is more like a
gas than any of the other states of matter because the
atoms are not in constant contact with each other, but it
behaves differently from a gas. It has what scientists call
collective behavior. This means that the plasma can flow
like a liquid or it can contain areas that are like clumps of
atoms sticking together.

• Antibiotics,
also known as antibacterials, are medications that destroy
or slow down the growth of bacteria.They include a range
of powerful drugs and are used to treat diseases caused by
bacteria.Antibiotics cannot treat viral infections, such as
cold, flu, and most coughs.
• This article will explain what antibiotics are, how they
work, any potential side effects, and antibiotic resistance.
• Fast facts on antibioticsAlexander Fleming discovered
penicillin, the first natural antibiotic, in 1928.
• Antibiotics cannot fight viral infections.
• Fleming predicted the rise of antibiotic resistance.
• Antibiotics either kill or slow the growth of bacteria

CNG and LNG:-
Compressed natural gas (CNG) (methane stored at high
pressure) is a fuel which can be used in place of gasoline
(petrol), diesel fuel and propane/LPG. CNG combustion
produces fewer undesirable gases than the fuels mentioned
above. It is safer than other fuels in the event of a spill,
because natural gas is lighter than air and disperses quickly
when released. Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas
(predominantly methane, CH4, with some mixture of ethane
C2H6) that has been cooled down to liquid form for ease and
safety of non-pressurized storage or transport. It takes up
about 1/600th the volume of natural gas in the gaseous state
(at standard conditions for temperature and pressure). It is
odorless, colorless, non-toxic and non-corrosive

Cholera
is an infectious disease that causes severe watery diarrhea,
which can lead to dehydration and even death if
untreated. It is caused by eating food or drinking water
contaminated with a bacterium called Vibrio cholerae.
The disease is most common in places with poor sanitation,
crowding, war, and famine. Common locations include
parts of Africa, south Asia, and Latin America. If you are
traveling to one of those areas, knowing the following
cholera facts can help protect you and your family.

• Erosion and Corrosion
• Both corrosion and erosion happen due to certain external
actions on a surface. Corrosion means the destruction of
materials through chemical reactions whereas erosion
means the carrying away of the topsoil from the surface of
the earth.
• Corrosion normally happens because of chemical
reactions. Erosion occurs by chemical reactions and by
certain forces of nature. Corrosion also means the loss of
electrons from the metals when it comes in contact with
the moisture and oxygen in the atmosphere. Erosion
happens because of natural forces like water and wind.
Other factors such as acid rain, salt effects and oxidation of
materials are also known to cause erosion.

• AC and DC:
• Both AC and DC describe types of current flow in a circuit.
In direct current (DC), the electric charge (current) only
flows in one direction. Electric charge in alternating
current (AC), on the other hand, changes direction
periodically. The voltage in AC circuits also periodically
reverses because the current changes direction.
• Alternating current describes the flow of charge that
changes direction periodically. As a result, the voltage
level also reverses along with the current. AC is used to
deliver power to houses, office buildings, etc.
• Direct current is a bit easier to understand than
alternating current. Rather than oscillating back and
forth, DC provides a constant voltage or current.

Beneficial Insect
• Beneficial insects are insects that have positive effects on a
garden or landscape, as they aid in pollination and in some
cases serve as natural pesticides.
• Some predatory species of insects are the natural enemies of
many common pest insects that often infest garden areas.
Beneficial insects increase the ecological diversity of garden
areas and defend plants and crops from harmful insect pests.
• Beneficial insects may also be known as beneficial bugs.
• MaximumYield explains Beneficial Insect
• Beneficial insects are predatory and parasitic in nature and
are often used as a pest control mechanism in organic farming
and gardening or in integrated pest management (IPM). Such
insects can be manually introduced into a garden habitat

• Fog and Smog
• Fogs are composed of water droplets, which disperse light and
reduce visibility near the earth’s surface. Fog layers form when
moist air is cooled to its dew point (or saturation point). There
are several different types of fog, which are formed under
varying circutces.Radiation fog typically forms at night when
surface heat is radiated into space. As the earth’s surface cools,
the air reaches complete humidity, which then turns into fog.
Smog forms when organic compounds and nitrogen oxides
chemically react with sunlight to create ozone. These pollutant
compounds often come from automotive exhaust, factories,
power plants and even your hairspray.Smog is linked with
automobile traffic, sunlight and mild winds. Extremely warm
and sunny days expedite smog formation; the longer the warm
air remains stagnant near the surface, the longer the smog is
bound to stay.

• What is Cloning
• Clones are organisms that are exact genetic copies. Every single
bit of their DNA is identical.
• Clones can happen naturally—identical twins are just one of
many examples. Or they can be made in the lab..
• Somatic cell: A somatic cell is any cell in the body other than
sperm and egg, the two types of reproductive cells.
Reproductive cells are also called germ cells. In mammals, every
somatic cell has two complete sets of chromosomes, whereas
the germ cells have only one complete set.
• Nuclear: The nucleus is a compartment that holds the cell's
DNA. The DNA is divided into packages called chromosomes,
and it contains all the information needed to form an organism.
It's small differences in our DNA that make each of us unique.

Deforestation, Aforestation and Refrestation:-
• Deforestation is cutting down of trees and forests. Afforestation
is growing trees or establishment of forests on areas where
there were no forests or trees or greenery, for a long period of
time. Whereas reforestation refers to growing of trees or
forests on that land which had greenery.
• Reforestation is the reestablishment of forest cover, either
naturally or artificially ,Afforestation is the establishment of a
forest or stand of trees in an area where there was no forest.
And Deforestation is the removal of a forest or stand of trees
where the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest
• Afforestation refers to the process of converting a non-forest
land into a forest. Afforestation is highly important to maintain
the biodiversity.Deforestation is the conversion of forested
areas to non-forest land for use such as arable land, pasture,
urban use, logged area, or wasteland. Deforestation

Systolic and Distolic
systolic blood pressure, measures the pressure in your blood
vessels when your heart beats. The second number,
called diastolic blood pressure, measures the pressure in
your blood vessels when your heart rests between beats.
• If the measurement reads 120 systolic and 80 diastolic,
you would say “120 over 80” or write “120/80 mmHg.”
• The chart below shows normal, at-risk, and high blood
pressure levels. A blood pressure less than 120/80 mmHg
is normal. A blood pressure of 140/90 mmHg or more is
too high. People with levels in between 120/80 and
140/90 have a condition called prehypertension, which
means they are at high risk for high blood pressure.

• Uranium
• is a very heavy metal which has been used as an abundant
source of concentrated energy for 60 years.
• Uranium occurs in most rocks in concentrations of 2 to 4 parts
per million and is as common in the Earth's crust as tin,
tungsten and molybdenum. Uranium occurs in seawater, and
can be recovered from the oceans.
• Uranium was discovered in 1789 by Martin Klaproth, a
German chemist, in the mineral called pitchblende. It was
named after the planet Uranus, which had been discovered
eight years earlier.
• Uranium was apparently formed in supernovas about 6.6
billion years ago. While it is not common in the solar system,
today its slow radioactive decay provides the main source of
heat inside the Earth, causing convection and continental
drift.

• White Dwarf Stars
• A white dwarf is what stars like the Sun become after
they have exhausted their nuclear fuel. Near the end of
its nuclear burning stage, this type of star expels most of
its outer material, creating a planetary nebula. Only the
hot core of the star remains. This core becomes a very
hot white dwarf, with a temperature exceeding 100,000
Kelvin. Unless it is accreting matter from a nearby star
(see Cataclysmic Variables), the white dwarf cools down
over the next billion years or so. Many nearby, young
white dwarfs have been detected as sources of soft, or
lower-energy, X-rays. Recently, soft X-ray and extreme
ultraviolet observations have become a powerful tool in
the study the composition and structure of the thin
atmosphere of these stars.

• Acid Rain?
• Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that
includes any form of precipitation with acidic
components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the
ground from the atmosphere in wet or dry forms. This
can include rain, snow, fog, hail or even dust that is
acidic.
• What Causes Acid Rain?
• Acid rain results when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen
oxides (NOX) are emitted into the atmosphere and
transported by wind and air currents. The SO2 and
NOX react with water, oxygen and other chemicals to
form sulfuric and nitric acids. These then mix with water
and other materials before falling to the ground.

• Nucleotide Definition
• A nucleotide is an organic molecule that is the building
block of DNA and RNA. They also have functions related
to cell signaling, metabolism, and enzyme reactions. A
nucleotide is made up of three parts: a phosphate group,
a 5-carbon sugar, and a nitrogenous base. The four
nitrogenous bases in DNA are adenine, cytosine,
guanine, and thymine. RNA contains uracil, instead of
thymine. A nucleotide within a chain makes up the
genetic material of all known living things. They also
serve a number of function outside of genetic
information storage, as messengers and energy moving
molecules.

• semiconductor
A semiconductor is a substance, usually a solid chemical element or
compound, that can conduct electricity under some conditions but
not others, making it a good medium for the control of electrical
current. Its conductance varies depending on the current or
voltageapplied to a control electrode, or on the intensity of
irradiation by infrared (IR), visible light, ultraviolet (UV), or X rays.
• WHAT IS DOPING?
• 'Doping' refers to an athlete's use of prohibited drugs or methods
to improve training and sporting results. Steroids are the drugs
that often come to mind when we talk about doping, but doping
also includes an athlete's use of other forbidden drugs (such as
stimulants, hormones, diuretics, narcotics and marijuana), use of
forbidden methods(such as blood transfusions or gene doping),
and even the refusal to take a drug test or an attempt to tamper
with doping controls

Human vestigiality
human evolution, human vestigiality involves
those traits (such as organs or behaviors)
occurring in humans that have lost all or most of
their original function through evolution.
Although structures called vestigial often appear
functionless, a vestigial structure may retain
lesser functions or develop minor new ones. In
some cases, structures once identified as vestigial
simply had an unrecognized function.

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