CBSE - Class 10 (Class X) - Term II

1. Subhadeep Porel
CLASS: X, SECTION: E | ROLL NO: 39
Gardening Project
THIS PROJECT DEALS WITH VARIOUS TYPES OF
PLANT DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL
MEASURES ALONG WITH COMMON
AGRICULTURAL EQUIPMENTS.

2. TopicsTopicsTopicsTopics covered:covered:covered:covered:
1.1.1.1. Control measure ofControl measure ofControl measure ofControl measure of plantplantplantplant
diseases.diseases.diseases.diseases.
2.2.2.2. Biological control measure.Biological control measure.Biological control measure.Biological control measure.
3.3.3.3. Common insecticides,Common insecticides,Common insecticides,Common insecticides,
fungicides and weedicides.fungicides and weedicides.fungicides and weedicides.fungicides and weedicides.
4.4.4.4. Common agriculturalCommon agriculturalCommon agriculturalCommon agricultural
equipment.equipment.equipment.equipment.

3. CONTROL OF PLANT DISEASESCONTROL OF PLANT DISEASESCONTROL OF PLANT DISEASESCONTROL OF PLANT DISEASES
Types of control measures:
Quarantine:
Wherein a diseased patch of vegetation or
individual plants are isolated from other, healthy
growth. Specimens may be destroyed or relocated
into a greenhouse for treatment/study. Another
option is to avoid introduction of harmful non-
native organisms by controlling all human traffic
and activity (e.g., AQIS) although legislation and
enforcement are key in order to ensure lasting
effectiveness.
Cultural:
Farming in some societies is kept on a small scale,
tended by peoples whose culture includes farming
traditions going back to ancient times. (An example of
such traditions would be lifelong training in
techniques of plot terracing, weather anticipation and
response, fertilization, grafting, seed care, and
dedicated gardening.) Plants that are intently
monitored often benefit from not only active external
protection but also a greater overall vigour. While
primitive in the sense of being the most labour-
intensive solution by far, where practical or necessary
it is more than adequate.
Plant resistance:
Sophisticated agricultural developments now allow
growers to choose from among systematically
cross-bred species to ensure the greatest hardiness
in their crops, as suited for a particular region's
pathological profile. Breeding practices have been
perfected over centuries, but with the advent of
genetic manipulation even finer control of a crop's
immunity traits is possible. The engineering of
food plants may be less rewarding, however, as
higher output is frequently offset by popular
suspicion and negative opinion about this
"tampering" with nature.
Figure 1B
Quarantine control
Small-scale farming
Cross-breeding of species

4. Chemical:
(See: pesticide application) Many natural and synthetic
compounds that could be employed to combat the above
threats exist. This method works by directly eliminating
disease-causing organisms or curbing their spread;
however, it has been shown to have too broad an effect,
typically, to be good for the local ecosystem. From an
economic standpoint, all but the simplest natural additives
may disqualify a product from "organic" status, potentially
reducing the value of the yield.
Biological:
Crop rotation may be an effective means to prevent
a parasitic population from becoming well-
established, as an organism affecting leaves would
be starved when the leafy crop is replaced by a
tuberous type, etc. Other means to undermine
parasites without attacking them directly may exist.
Integrated:
The use of two or more of these methods in combination offers a higher chance of effectiveness.
Biological Pest Control
Biological control is a bio effector-method of controlling
pests (including insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases) using other living organisms. It
relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but typically also
involves an active human management role. It can be an important component of integrated
pest management (IPM) programs. There are three basic types of biological pest control
strategies: importation (sometimes called classical biological control), augmentation and
conservation.
Natural enemies of insect pests, also known as biological control agents, include
predators, parasitoids, and pathogens. Biological control agents of plant diseases are most
often referred to as antagonists. Biological control agents of weeds include seed predators,
herbivores and plant pathogens.
Spraying pesticides
Crop rotation

5. ImportationImportationImportationImportation
Importation (or "classical biological control") involves the introduction of a pest's natural enemies
to a new locale where they do not occur naturally. This is usually done by government
authorities. In many instances the complex of natural enemies associated with a pest may be
inadequate, a situation that can occur when a pest is accidentally introduced into a new
geographic area, without its associated natural enemies. These introduced pests are referred to as
exotic pests and comprise about 40% of the insect pests in the United States.
The process of
importation
involves
determining the
origin of the
introduced pest
and then
collecting
appropriate
natural enemies
associated with
the pest or
closely related
species.
Selected natural enemies are then passed through a rigorous assessment, testing
and quarantine process, to ensure that they will work and that no unwanted organisms (such as
hyperparasitoids) are introduced. If these procedures are passed, the selected natural enemies
are mass-produced and then released. Follow-up studies are conducted to determine if the
natural enemy becomes successfully established at the site of release, and to assess the long-
term benefit of its presence.
To be most effective at controlling a pest, a biological control agent requires a colonizing ability
which will allow it to keep pace with the spatial and temporal disruption of the habitat. Its control
of the pest will also be greatest if it has temporal persistence, so that it can maintain its
population even in the temporary absence
of the target species, and if it is an
opportunistic forager, enabling it to
rapidly exploit a pest
population.[3]
However an agent with such
attributes is likely to be non-host specific,
which is not ideal when considering its
overall ecological impact, as it may have
unintended effects on non-target
organisms.

6. AugmentationAugmentationAugmentationAugmentation
Augmentation involves the supplemental release of natural enemies, boosting the naturally
occurring population. Relatively few natural enemies may be released at a critical time of the
season (inoculative release) or millions may be released (inundative release). An example of
inoculative release occurs in greenhouse production of several crops. Periodic releases of the
parasitoid, Encarsia formosa, are used to
control greenhouse whitefly, and the
predatory mite Phytoseiulus persimilis is
used for control of the two-spotted spider
mite. Lady beetles, lacewings, or
parasitoids such as those from the
genus Trichogramma are frequently
released in large numbers (inundative
release). Recommended release rates for
Trichogramma in vegetable or field crops
range from 5,000 to 200,000 per acre (1 to
50 per square metre) per week depending
on level of pest infestation. Similarly,
entomopathogenic nematodes are
released at rates of millions and even billions per acre for control of certain soil-dwelling insect
pests.
The spraying of octopamine analogues (such as 3-FMC) has been suggested as a way to boost the
effectiveness of augmentation.]
Octopamine, regarded as the invertebrate counterpart
of dopamine plays a role in activating the insects' flight-or-fight response. The idea behind using
octopamine analogues to augment
biological control is that natural
enemies will be more effective in
their eradication of the pest, since
the pest will be behaving in an
unnatural way because its flight-
or-fight mechanism has been
activated. Octopamine analogues
are purported to have two
desirable characteristics for this
type of application:
(1) They affect insects at very low
dosages
(2) They do not have a
physiological effect in humans (or other vertebrates).

7. ConservationConservationConservationConservation
The conservation of existing natural enemies in an environment is the third method of biological
pest control. Natural enemies are already adapted to the habitat and to the target pest, and their
conservation can be simple and cost-effective. Lacewings, lady beetles, hover fly larvae, and
parasitized aphid mummies are almost always present in aphid colonies.
Cropping systems can be modified to favour the natural enemies, a practice sometimes referred
to as habitat manipulation. Providing a suitable habitat, such as a shelterbelt, hedgerow, or beetle
bank where beneficial insects can live and reproduce, can help ensure the survival of populations
of natural enemies. Things as simple as leaving a layer of fallen down leaves or mulch in place
provides a suitable food source for worms and provides a shelter for small insects, in turn also
providing a food source for hedgehogs and shrew mice. Compost pile(s) and containers for
making leaf compost also provide shelter, as
long as they are accessible by the animals (not
fully closed). A stack of wood may provide a
shelter for voles, hedgehogs, shrew mice,
some species of butterflies, ... Long grass
and ponds provide shelters for frogs and
toads (which themselves eat snails). Not
cutting any annual or other non-hardy plants
before winter (but instead in spring) allows
many insects to make use of their hollow
stems during winter. In California prune trees
are sometimes planted in grape vineyards to
provide an improved overwintering habitat or
refuge for a key grape pest parasitoid. The
prune trees harbour an alternate host for the
parasitotic, which could previously overwinter
only at great distances from most vineyards.
The provisioning of artificial shelters in the
form of wooden
caskets, boxes or flowerpots is also sometimes
undertaken, particularly in gardens, to make a
cropped area more attractive to natural
enemies. For example, the stimulation of the natural predator Dermaptera is done in gardens by
hanging upside-down flowerpots filled with straw or wood wool. Green lacewings are given
housing by using plastic bottles with an open bottom and a roll of cardboard inside of
it. Birdhouses provide housing for birds, some of whom eat certain pests. Attracting the most
useful birds can be done by using a correct diameter opening in the birdhouse (just large enough
for the specific species of bird that needs to be attracted to fit through, but not other species of
birds).

8. CommonCommonCommonCommon PesticidesPesticidesPesticidesPesticides, Insecticides and, Insecticides and, Insecticides and, Insecticides and
Weedicides:Weedicides:Weedicides:Weedicides:
1. Organochloride:
These are organic compounds with several atoms of chlorine per molecule.These are organic compounds with several atoms of chlorine per molecule.These are organic compounds with several atoms of chlorine per molecule.These are organic compounds with several atoms of chlorine per molecule.
DDT, BHC,ALDRIN,DIELDRIN and ENDRIN are organo chlorine pesticides.DDT, BHC,ALDRIN,DIELDRIN and ENDRIN are organo chlorine pesticides.DDT, BHC,ALDRIN,DIELDRIN and ENDRIN are organo chlorine pesticides.DDT, BHC,ALDRIN,DIELDRIN and ENDRIN are organo chlorine pesticides.
DDT is the oldest and most popular synthetic pesticide. BHC alone representDDT is the oldest and most popular synthetic pesticide. BHC alone representDDT is the oldest and most popular synthetic pesticide. BHC alone representDDT is the oldest and most popular synthetic pesticide. BHC alone represent
50% of the to50% of the to50% of the to50% of the total pesticide volume of pesticide. Aldrin is used in the foundation oftal pesticide volume of pesticide. Aldrin is used in the foundation oftal pesticide volume of pesticide. Aldrin is used in the foundation oftal pesticide volume of pesticide. Aldrin is used in the foundation of
buildings to prevent attack by termites. All these chemicals are lipophillc and getbuildings to prevent attack by termites. All these chemicals are lipophillc and getbuildings to prevent attack by termites. All these chemicals are lipophillc and getbuildings to prevent attack by termites. All these chemicals are lipophillc and get
bioaccumulated in the fatty tissue of animals.bioaccumulated in the fatty tissue of animals.bioaccumulated in the fatty tissue of animals.bioaccumulated in the fatty tissue of animals.
2. Organophosphate:
In health, agriculture, andIn health, agriculture, andIn health, agriculture, andIn health, agriculture, and government, the word "organophosphates" refers to a groupgovernment, the word "organophosphates" refers to a groupgovernment, the word "organophosphates" refers to a groupgovernment, the word "organophosphates" refers to a group
ofofofof insecticidesinsecticidesinsecticidesinsecticides or nerve agents acting on the enzymeor nerve agents acting on the enzymeor nerve agents acting on the enzymeor nerve agents acting on the enzyme acetylcholinesteraseacetylcholinesteraseacetylcholinesteraseacetylcholinesterase (the pesticide(the pesticide(the pesticide(the pesticide
groupgroupgroupgroup carbamatescarbamatescarbamatescarbamates also act on this enzyme, but through aalso act on this enzyme, but through aalso act on this enzyme, but through aalso act on this enzyme, but through a different mechanism). The term is useddifferent mechanism). The term is useddifferent mechanism). The term is useddifferent mechanism). The term is used
often to describe virtually any organic phosphorus(V)often to describe virtually any organic phosphorus(V)often to describe virtually any organic phosphorus(V)often to describe virtually any organic phosphorus(V)----containing compound, especially whencontaining compound, especially whencontaining compound, especially whencontaining compound, especially when
dealing with neurotoxicdealing with neurotoxicdealing with neurotoxicdealing with neurotoxic
compounds. Many of the socompounds. Many of the socompounds. Many of the socompounds. Many of the so----calledcalledcalledcalled
organophosphates contain Corganophosphates contain Corganophosphates contain Corganophosphates contain C----PPPP
bonds. For instance,bonds. For instance,bonds. For instance,bonds. For instance, sarinsarinsarinsarin isisisis OOOO----
isopropylisopropylisopropylisopropyl
methylphosphonofluoridate, whichmethylphosphonofluoridate, whichmethylphosphonofluoridate, whichmethylphosphonofluoridate, which
is formally derivedis formally derivedis formally derivedis formally derived
fromfromfromfrom phosphorousphosphorousphosphorousphosphorous
acidacidacidacid (HP(O)(OH)(HP(O)(OH)(HP(O)(OH)(HP(O)(OH)2222), not phosphoric), not phosphoric), not phosphoric), not phosphoric
acidacidacidacid (P(O)(OH)(P(O)(OH)(P(O)(OH)(P(O)(OH)3333). Also, many). Also, many). Also, many). Also, many
compounds which are derivativescompounds which are derivativescompounds which are derivativescompounds which are derivatives
ofofofof phosphinic acidphosphinic acidphosphinic acidphosphinic acid are used asare used asare used asare used as
neurotoxic organophosphates.neurotoxic organophosphates.neurotoxic organophosphates.neurotoxic organophosphates.
Organophosphate pesticides (as well as sarin andOrganophosphate pesticides (as well as sarin andOrganophosphate pesticides (as well as sarin andOrganophosphate pesticides (as well as sarin and VXVXVXVX nerve agent) irreversibly inactivatenerve agent) irreversibly inactivatenerve agent) irreversibly inactivatenerve agent) irreversibly inactivate
acetylcholinesterase, which is essential to nerve function in insects, humans, and many otheracetylcholinesterase, which is essential to nerve function in insects, humans, and many otheracetylcholinesterase, which is essential to nerve function in insects, humans, and many otheracetylcholinesterase, which is essential to nerve function in insects, humans, and many other
animals. Organophosphate pesticides affeanimals. Organophosphate pesticides affeanimals. Organophosphate pesticides affeanimals. Organophosphate pesticides affect this enzyme in varied ways, and thus in theirct this enzyme in varied ways, and thus in theirct this enzyme in varied ways, and thus in theirct this enzyme in varied ways, and thus in their
potential for poisoning. For instance,potential for poisoning. For instance,potential for poisoning. For instance,potential for poisoning. For instance, parathionparathionparathionparathion, one of the first OPs commercialized, is many, one of the first OPs commercialized, is many, one of the first OPs commercialized, is many, one of the first OPs commercialized, is many
times more potent thantimes more potent thantimes more potent thantimes more potent than malathionmalathionmalathionmalathion, an insecticide used in combatting the, an insecticide used in combatting the, an insecticide used in combatting the, an insecticide used in combatting the Mediterranean fruitMediterranean fruitMediterranean fruitMediterranean fruit
flyflyflyfly (Med(Med(Med(Med----fly) andfly) andfly) andfly) and West Nile VirusWest Nile VirusWest Nile VirusWest Nile Virus----transmitting mosquitoes.transmitting mosquitoes.transmitting mosquitoes.transmitting mosquitoes.

9. 3. Carbamate:
The soThe soThe soThe so----called carbamate insecticides feature the carbamate ester functional group. Includedcalled carbamate insecticides feature the carbamate ester functional group. Includedcalled carbamate insecticides feature the carbamate ester functional group. Includedcalled carbamate insecticides feature the carbamate ester functional group. Included
in this group are aldicarb (Temik),in this group are aldicarb (Temik),in this group are aldicarb (Temik),in this group are aldicarb (Temik),
carbofuran (Furadan), carbaryl (Sevin),carbofuran (Furadan), carbaryl (Sevin),carbofuran (Furadan), carbaryl (Sevin),carbofuran (Furadan), carbaryl (Sevin),
ethienocarb, fenobucarb, oxamyl andethienocarb, fenobucarb, oxamyl andethienocarb, fenobucarb, oxamyl andethienocarb, fenobucarb, oxamyl and
methomyl. These insecticides kill insects bymethomyl. These insecticides kill insects bymethomyl. These insecticides kill insects bymethomyl. These insecticides kill insects by
reversibly inactivating the enzymereversibly inactivating the enzymereversibly inactivating the enzymereversibly inactivating the enzyme
acetylcholinesterase. The organophosphateacetylcholinesterase. The organophosphateacetylcholinesterase. The organophosphateacetylcholinesterase. The organophosphate
pesticides also inhibit this enzyme, althoughpesticides also inhibit this enzyme, althoughpesticides also inhibit this enzyme, althoughpesticides also inhibit this enzyme, although
irreversiblyirreversiblyirreversiblyirreversibly, and cause a more severe fo, and cause a more severe fo, and cause a more severe fo, and cause a more severe formrmrmrm
of cholinergic poisoning.of cholinergic poisoning.of cholinergic poisoning.of cholinergic poisoning. Fenoxycarb has a carbamate group but acts as a juvenile hormoneFenoxycarb has a carbamate group but acts as a juvenile hormoneFenoxycarb has a carbamate group but acts as a juvenile hormoneFenoxycarb has a carbamate group but acts as a juvenile hormone
mimic, rather than inactimimic, rather than inactimimic, rather than inactimimic, rather than inactivating acetylcholinesterase.vating acetylcholinesterase.vating acetylcholinesterase.vating acetylcholinesterase. The insect repellent icaridin is aThe insect repellent icaridin is aThe insect repellent icaridin is aThe insect repellent icaridin is a
substituted carbamate.substituted carbamate.substituted carbamate.substituted carbamate.
4. Pyrethroid:
Pyrethroid insecticides are a special chemical class of active ingredients found in
many of the modern insecticides found on store shelves and used by pest
management professionals. The name pyrethroid means “pyrethrum-like” and
refers to the origin of this class of
pesticides. Pyrethroids became
popular as consumer insecticides
in the 1990s as replacements for
older pesticides, like diazinon and
Dursban® that were phased out
for environmental and human
health reasons. Some pyrethroid
insecticides last a long time in the environment (days or weeks), especially when
protected from sunlight. Others, such as allethrin and resmethrin, break down
within a few minutes to a few hours after application.

10. 5. MCPA:
MCPA is used as an herbicide, generally as its
salt or esterified forms. Used thus, it controls
broadleaf weeds, including thistle and dock, in
cereal crops and pasture. It is selective for
plants with broad leaves, and this includes
most deciduous trees. Clovers are tolerant at
moderate application levels.
6. 2, 4-D
2, 4-D is primarily used as a selective herbicide which kills many terrestrial and aquatic
broadleaf weeds, but not grasses. It acts by mimicking the action of the plant growth
hormone auxin, which results in
uncontrolled growth and eventually death in
susceptible plants. Because it was discovered
in the 1940s, there is no longer a patent
governing the manufacture and sale of 2,4-D,
and any company is free to produce it. Thus,
it is sold in various formulations under a
wide variety of brand names. 2,4-D can be
found in commercial lawn herbicide
mixtures, which often contain other active
ingredients including mecoprop and dicamba. Over 1,500 herbicide products contain
2,4-D as an active ingredient.

11. COMMON AGRICULTURAL EQUIPMENT:
Tractor
A tractor is a vehicle specifically
designed to deliver a high tractive
effort (or torque) at slow speeds,
for the purposes of hauling
trailer or machinery used in
agriculture or construction. Most
commonly, the term is used to
describe a farm vehicle that
provides the power and traction
to mechanize agricultural tasks,
especially (and originally) tillage,
but nowadays a great variety of
tasks. Agricultural
implements may be towed behind or mounted on the tractor, and the tractor may also
provide a source of power if the implement is mechanised.
Cultivator
A cultivator is any of several types of farm implement used for secondary tillage. One
sense of the name refers to frames with teeth (also called shanks) that pierce the soil
as they are dragged through
it linearly. Another sense refers to
machines that use rotary motion of
disks or teeth to accomplish a
similar result. The rotary tiller is a
principal example.
Cultivators stir and pulverize the
soil, either before planting
(tolerate the soil and prepare a
smooth, loose seedbed) or after the
crop has begun growing (to kill
weeds—controlled disturbance of
the topsoil close to the crop plants
kills the surrounding weeds by uprooting them, burying their leaves to disrupt their
photosynthesis, or a combination of both). Unlike a harrow, which disturbs the entire
surface of the soil, cultivators are designed to disturb the soil in careful patterns,
sparing the crop plants but disrupting the weeds.

12. Plough
A plough is a tool (or machine) used in farming for initial cultivation of soil in
preparation for sowing seed or planting
to loosen or turn the soil. Ploughs are
traditionally drawn by working
animals such as horses or cattle, but in
modern times may be drawn by tractors.
A plough may be made of wood, iron, or
steel frame with an attached blade or
stick used to cut the earth. It has been a
basic instrument for most of recorded
history, although written references to
the plough do not appear in English until
1100 CE at which point it is referenced frequently. The plough represents one of the
major advances in agriculture.
Planter
Like a grain drill a planter is an
agricultural farm implement towed
behind a tractor, used for sowing crops
through a field.[1] It is connected to the
tractor with a draw-bar, or a three-
point hitch. Planters lay the seeds
down in precise manner along rows.
Seeds are distributed through devices
called row units. The row units are
spaced evenly along the
planter. Planters vary greatly in size,
from 1 row to 48.

13. Drip irrigation
Drip irrigation, is an irrigation
method that saves water and fertilizer
by allowing water to drip slowly to
the roots of plants, either onto
the soil surface or directly onto
the root zone, through a network
of valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters.
It is done through narrow tubes that
deliver water directly to the base of
the plant.