Forensic anthropology is the application of biological anthropology methods to legal processes, focusing on the recovery and analysis of human remains to assist in identifying victims and determining the cause of death. This course will provide knowledge about the human skeleton, decomposition, retrieval methods, and the role of forensic anthropologists in legal investigations. Key topics include the history of forensic anthropology, challenges in human identification, and methodologies for analyzing skeletal remains.

1. FORENSIC
ANTHROPOLOGY

2. What will you get out of this
course?
• Knowledge of the Human Skeleton
• Understanding of the Process of
Decomposition
• Understand the Processes of Taphonomy
• Knowledge of Proper retrieval methods
• Understand the Role the Forensic
Anthropologist plays in the Legal Process

3. What is Forensic
Anthropology?
“anthropology” = the study of
humans
“forensic” = argument to a
court during a trial.

4. What is Forensic Anthrology?
• Applied Anthropology – Biological Anthropology
• Application of
– Human Osteology
- Archaeological Field Method
to the LEGAL process
These methods aid law
enforcement in the collection
& analysis of the human
remains to establish the
biological profile & cause or death
Detail from Albinus, 1747

5. Forensic
anthropologists
recover & analyze
human remains for
the police &
coroners.

6. FORENSIC SCIENCES
• The fields of study in medicine &
jurisprudence that deal with legal issues:
criminal & civil
• Specialists have evolved to focus on the
specific aspects of their disciplines most
useful to the courts
• A Forensic Scientist comes from a
scientific discipline, such as: Chemistry,
Biology, Medicine, Anthropology

7. WHY Forensic Anthropology?
• A Biological Anthropologist,
usually specializing in
Osteology/Bioarchaeology can be a
Forensic Anthropologist when asked
to assist in a legal investigation
involving the decomposed or
skeletonized human remains when the
identity of the individual(s) is unknown
or the cause/manner of death
unknown.

8. Individual skeletal remains &…

9. when decomposition of the body
inhibits an identification of the
individual.
Jon Jefferson

10. When the remains still have flesh, but it
is difficult to determine age or trauma
that may have impacted the skeleton

11. When the remains have been
cremated

12. When there is a mass disaster
(911, plane crash)
Members of the Joint
POW/MIA Accounting
Command and local villagers
work together excavating a
crash site in Dong Hoi,
Vietnam, July 16, 2006. A 15-
member JPAC team including
a forensic anthropologist, ….
will be working in Vietnam for
a month attempting to
recover the remains of pilots
that crashed in the area
during the Vietnam War.
(U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Derrick C. Goode)

13. Or when there are International Human
Rights Cases (East Timor, Guatemala,
Argentina, Rwanda……)
El Salvador, 1992.
An Argentine forensic
anthropology team worker helps
excavate the site of the El Mozote
massacre, where a Salvadoran
army battalion killed about 800
villagers, almost half of them
children.
Credit: Daniel Muzio

14. Historic Cases
• Francisco Pizarro
• The Romanov’s
• The “Ice Man”

15. FA GENERALLY CANNOT DO
• autopsies
• make the final determination of cause or
manner of death (this is the job of the
pathologist,coroner, or medical examiner);
• make final positive identifications on the
basis of dental or medical x-rays (a
forensic odontologist or radiologist is best
trained to do this).

16. • Are the remains human?Depending on the level of decomposition, animal remains
are often mistaken for human remains. Common techniques employed are skeletal
morphology, radiography, and histology.
• When did the individual die?
Pinpointing time of death is critical evidence for crime scene investigators. Methods
vary depending on whether the remains are prehistoric, historic, or recent. For recent
remains, techniques vary based on the condition of the remains: fresh, decomposed,
mummified, or skeletalized. Procedures include analysis using chemical tests,
entomology, and investigation of context / associated artifacts.
• Who is the individual?
Remains are often delivered with no idea as to their identity. Discovery of sex, age,
ancestry, height, and individuating characteristics are used to help determine
identity.
• What was the manner of death?
Detailed investigation as to the exact cause of death often answers many other
questions. For decomposed remains, more common methods involve the analysis of
skeletal trauma and bone fracture.
• What happened to the individual after death?
Remains can be altered by humans attempting to destroy evidence, animals, insects
and many other factors.
Challenges

17. THE DEAD CAN TALK
Detail from Cheselden, 1741
• The identification of the dead is most
important.
• The first step in a homicide investigation
is to identify the victim.
• This concerns relatives of the deceased
& judicial authorities who need to know
about someone’s death to process wills,
estate settlements, and so forth.

18. Who are the Unidentified?
• Any unidentified body/remains as a result of:
• Homicide
• Accident in remote area
• Suicide
• Genocide
• Mass disaster
• MIA – war dead

19. Why is Identification Important?
• Locate a missing person
• Identify the cause & manner of
death
• Identify the perpetrator, if a homicide
• Prosecute the murderer in a court of
law

20. Not Just For Legal Matters
• Those who have ‘disappeared’ leave
behind loved ones wondering what
happened: Still alive? Dead? Where?
Why?
• There is a sense of relief & closure for
families when the bodies of loved ones are
found
• As well as empowerment through the
process of funeral rights

21. The Unidentified
A poster encourages relatives
of Srebrenica massacre
victims to give a blood
sample at the International
Commission on Missing
Persons' (ICMP) Podrinje
Identification Project Center
2005, in Bosnia Herzegovina.
(Photo by Marco Di Lauro/Getty Images)
Unidentified remains of 7
Georgian soldiers killed in
the S. Ossetian conflict
zone. Tbilisi, 2008.

22. HISTORY OF F. A.
• Forensic Anthropology did not start out as
a discipline, but rather the application of
Anthropological theory & methods to the
legal process.
• It is not a discipline that one can graduate
from, however, there has been much
research in developing techniques and
acquiring information to make the tasks
more precise, informative and efficient

23. Father of Forensic Anthropology
• Thomas Dwight (Harvard)-
– Wrote articles & essays (from 1878) of the
subject of identification from the human
skeleton
– Also gave lectures on the subject
– He researched methods for:
• determining age , height & sex from the
sternum
• Estimating stature without the long bones
• Determining age at death from the suture
closures
• & estimating sex from the long bone joints

24. Formative Period:
Early 1800s-1938
In the Beginnings:
• First date for the use of skeletal
information in a court of law:
– 1850 Webster/Parkman Trial
• A Harvard Chemistry Professor was charged with
killing Dr. Parkman, a missing physician
• 2 Harvard anatomists, Oliver Holmes & Jeffries
Wyman, were called in to examine the remains
believed to be those of Dr. Parkman found in
Webster’s residence
• The 2 testified the remains were indeed those of
Dr. Parkman and Webster was hanged

25. Leutgert Case of 1897 - Chicago
• Adolph Leutgert was accused of killing his wife,
then placing her body in a vat of potash in his
sausage factory
• The body dissolved leaving behind a greasy
jelly, four small pieces of bone and Mrs.
Leutgert’s rings in the sausage-rendering vat
• Anthropologist George Dorsey was called upon
to identify the bones.
• Dorsey was able to determine that the fragments
were indeed human (and not pig) and were
fragments of a hand, foot & rib
• This evidence was added to other evidence the
prosecution had and resulted in a murder
conviction of Leutgert

26. Human Identification
• Wilder & Wentworth published a book (1932) on
the aspect of human identification looking at
dermatoglyphics & the reproduction of the face
from the skull
– This method is still used by forensic anthropologists
today
• Paul Stevenson wrote articles (1920-50) on
human skeletal identification,
– One on determining age from the epiphyseal union of
the long bones
– Another on the stature of Chinese from long bone
measurements
– The underlying theory of these methods is still used
today

27. • Several anthropologists worked on
forensic cases involving human skeletal
identification, however nothing was ever
published (1920-40s)
– Include:
–Alex Hrdlicka of the Smithsonian
–Earnest Hooton, Anthropology Professor
at Harvard

28. T. Wingate Todd
• Cleveland Physician Todd started what has
become known as the Hamann-Todd collection
of human skeletal remains (as well as non-
human primate skeletons)
• Todd acquired about 2600 persons from 1912-
1938
• What is so important of this collection is that the
demographics of most of the individuals is know
allowing for the development of standards for
determining ancestry, sex, age & stature

29. Robert Terry & Mildred Trotter
• In St. Louis, between 1914-1965 Terry &
Trotter (Terry’s successor) collected 1636
human skeletons from dissecting cadavers
• For most of these cadavers the ancestry,
age, sex & stature was known
• The ‘Terry Collection’ is housed in the
Smithsonian and is still used for human
skeletal research

30. End of the Formative Period
• Ruxton murder case, Great Britian, 1930’s
– Murder of 2 women: Isabella Van Ess & Mary Rogerson, Mrs.
Van Ess’s personal maid
– Mrs. Van Ess’s husband was physician Buck Ruston
– The two women disappeared the same time foul odors were
described coming from the Ruxton residence
– The decomposed, dismembered, mutilated bodies of 2 persons
were found from a gully in Scotland
– The 2 principal investigators, Glaister & Brash (not
anthropologists), reassembled the body parts & placed them in
positions similar to those of photographs of the 2 women when
alive.
– The comparison of the antemortem & postmortem images
showed the similarity between the bodies & the photographs of
the 2 women.
– This was added to other evidence and Dr. Ruxton was found
guilty of the 2 murders. He was hanged in 1936

31. Consolidation Period: 1939-1971
• Wilton M. Krogman published, in 1939:
– Guide to Identification of Human Skeletal Material
– Was written fro the FBI & summarized all that was
known about the human skeleton
– In 1962 he expanded this work into:
• The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine (2nd
ed
in 1986 with co-author M.Y. Iscan)
• This was the 1st
work to be devoted to the
applicatin of the study of human bone to forensics

32. US War Dead During 1940s & 50s
• WW II – CILHI – Central Identification Lab,
Hawaii was created in order to deal with the
bodies of killed servicemen in the Pacific
• Charles E. Snow was the 1st
Director, then
Mildred Trotter took over
• Trotter worked on improving ways of
determining stature from long bone length using
the servicemen skeletons & records of their
heights
• She established formulas that are still used
today for determining stature

33. Korean War, 1950s
• U.S. Army established an identification lab in
Japan in efforts to identify killed servicemen.
• T. Dale Stewart was the director
• Under Stewart, McKern undertook a study of
determining age from aspects of the
servicemen skeletons
• They published, 1957:
– Skeletal Age Changes in Young American Males
• This is still used today

34. T. Dale Stewart
• Worked at the Smithsonian Institute
• In 1970 he edited:
–Personal Identification in Mass Disasters
In 1979 he wrote:
–Essentials of Forensic Anthropology
He also contributed to the development of the discipline by
organizing seminars on skeletal identification
In 1971 William Bass wrote:
Human Osteology: A Laboratory & Field Manual

35. William M. Bass
• In 1971 wrote:
– Human Osteology: A Laboratory & Field
Manual

36. Modern Period: 1972 - Present
• This period began when Physical Anthropologist in the
American Academy of Forensic Science (AAFS) met for
the first time in 1972
• This was organized by E.R. Kerley & Cyde C. Snow
• In 1977 the American Board of Forensic Anthropology
(ABFA) was created
• It was to ensure the competence of persons who
practice forensic anthropology in the U.S. & Canada
• The ABFA currently there are 62 Diplomates (board
certified forensic anthropologists)
• The Physical Anthropology section of the AAFS has
about 300 members

37. Forensic Anthropology Data Bank
• Located at University of Tennessee, Knoxville
• Started in 1986 & continues today collecting
info on documented forensic cases so that new
standard for determining demographic & other
characteristics from the human skeleton can be
continuously updated
• Why?
– Because it was realized that contemporary people
were deviating from the norms established by the
Terry & Todd collections, as well as the WWII &
Korean War dead.

38. Also at UT Knoxville
• “The Body Farm” at the Anthropology Research
Facility was established by Bill Bass in 1981
• People donate their bodies to the farm (thus the
demographics of the individuals are known)
• Decomposition is studied
• After the skeletons are removed and added to
the University’s skeletal collection
– There are at least 2 other ‘body farms’ in the US:
Texas State University, San Marcos & Western
Carolina University, Cullowhee, N. Carolina

39. OBJECTIVES OF F.A.
• Are the remains human?
– Important to be able to tell the difference between human
and non-human skeletal remains
• Are the remains recent or historical/archaeological?
– Important if the recovery scene is to be deemed a crime
scene
• Location & recovery of the buried or surface remains
– Important to be familiar with archaeological field methods
• When did the person die; is the location primary or
secondary; reburial?
– Important to be familiar with rates of decomposition;
taphonomic processes; are there any skeletal parts missing
to indicate a secondary burial?

40. Objectives Continued
• Is it a single individual or several?
– Need to get an MNI (important to be at the recovery scene)
• Biological Profile: ancestry, age, sex, stature, physique &
handedness
– Important in trying to find the identification of the individual(s)
• Identification – is it possible from the skeletal traits/anomalies
to get a positive ID?
– Look for signs of old disease & injuries or surgeries, dental
work, etc
• If signs of trauma are present, may be able to find cause &
manner of death?
– Manner: natural; accidental; suicidal; homicidal;
undetermined
– Cause: disease or heart attack; drowning; hanging; gunshot
wound
• Look for signs of a struggle (broken bones) or gunshot wounds

41. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• A body is found that is only partially
skeletonized. Under what circumstances
would it be appropriate to call in a forensic
anthropologist, and why?

42. • Suppose that a forensic pathologist, in
attendance when the body in above
question is brought in, says that she could
not perform an autopsy. Would it be
appropriate now to call in a forensic
anthropologist?

43. • The skeleton of Jesse James has been
examined on several occasions in the past
to determine the aspects surrounding his
death. Since little or no soft tissue ws left,
a forensic anthropologist (Michael
Finnegan) has done much of this analysis.
Why do you suppose a forensic
anthropologist, who is normally interested
in bodies of medicolegal significance
would get involved in such work?

44. • In an attempt to determine whether they
were victims of cannibalism, the skeletons
of the companions of explorer Alferd
Packer, the “Colorado cannibal”, were
examined by a team of forensic
anthropologists. Why was it more
appropriate for this work to be done by
these specialist as opposed to a forensic
pathologist?

45. • Detail from a copperplate engraving with etching by
Govard Bidloo (anatomist), and Gérard de Lairesse
(artist), Amsterdam, 1690. National Library of Medicine