Foot binding was a practice in pre-industrial China that involved tightly binding young girls' feet to prevent further growth. This caused lifelong immobility but was seen as enhancing marriage prospects. Confucian ideals of female subservience helped promote foot binding. Girls were told binding would help them marry, while the economic value of commodities women produced at home incentivized mothers to bind daughters' feet. Studies found foot binding declined with industrialization as women's domestic labor became less important to the economy.
Menyusun indikator mutu rumah sakit adalah tugas yang gampang-gampang susah. Gampang karena bentuknya pecahan sederhana. Susah karena konsekuensinya besar. Berikut saya menyumbangkan pemikiran untuk menyusun indikator mutu dengan bekal latihan selama kuliah dan pengamatan selama proses akreditasi. Tulisan ini pernah dimuat di Web Mutu Pelayanan Kesehatan dengan tautan: http://www.mutupelayanankesehatan.net/index.php/component/content/article/1986
Semoga bermanfaat, salam!
Kode INA-CBGS digunakan dalam sistem pembayaran klaim BPJS rumah sakit. Terdiri dari 1.079 kelompok tarif rawat inap dan rawat jalan menggunakan ICD-10 untuk diagnosis dan ICD-9-CM untuk prosedur. Struktur kode terdiri atas kode CMG (case main groups), kode kelompok kasus, kode tipe kasus, dan tingkat keparahan. Terdapat 29 CMG penyakit dan 6 CMG khusus.
Ringkasan dokumen tersebut adalah:
1) Dokumen tersebut membahas penjaminan mutu dalam pelayanan kesehatan yang meliputi pendekatan, langkah, dan aspek penilaian mutu pelayanan kesehatan.
2) Terdapat tiga pendekatan utama penilaian mutu yaitu struktur, proses, dan hasil (outcome).
3) Siklus penjaminan mutu meliputi perencanaan, pengukuran, identifikasi masalah, dan peningkatan mutu secara ber
Menyusun indikator mutu rumah sakit adalah tugas yang gampang-gampang susah. Gampang karena bentuknya pecahan sederhana. Susah karena konsekuensinya besar. Berikut saya menyumbangkan pemikiran untuk menyusun indikator mutu dengan bekal latihan selama kuliah dan pengamatan selama proses akreditasi. Tulisan ini pernah dimuat di Web Mutu Pelayanan Kesehatan dengan tautan: http://www.mutupelayanankesehatan.net/index.php/component/content/article/1986
Semoga bermanfaat, salam!
Kode INA-CBGS digunakan dalam sistem pembayaran klaim BPJS rumah sakit. Terdiri dari 1.079 kelompok tarif rawat inap dan rawat jalan menggunakan ICD-10 untuk diagnosis dan ICD-9-CM untuk prosedur. Struktur kode terdiri atas kode CMG (case main groups), kode kelompok kasus, kode tipe kasus, dan tingkat keparahan. Terdapat 29 CMG penyakit dan 6 CMG khusus.
Ringkasan dokumen tersebut adalah:
1) Dokumen tersebut membahas penjaminan mutu dalam pelayanan kesehatan yang meliputi pendekatan, langkah, dan aspek penilaian mutu pelayanan kesehatan.
2) Terdapat tiga pendekatan utama penilaian mutu yaitu struktur, proses, dan hasil (outcome).
3) Siklus penjaminan mutu meliputi perencanaan, pengukuran, identifikasi masalah, dan peningkatan mutu secara ber
1. Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang dasar-dasar sistem kontrol, meliputi konsep sistem terkendali, masalah kontrol, transformasi Laplace, model sistem dalam bentuk persamaan diferensial dan fungsi transfer, serta tanggapan sistem terhadap berbagai masukan seperti impulse dan step.
Dokumen ini merupakan rencana pembangunan jangka panjang bidang kesehatan provinsi DIY untuk periode 2005-2025. Rencana ini membahas visi, misi, tujuan, strategi, dan target pembangunan kesehatan untuk empat periode lima tahun. Tujuannya adalah meningkatkan kualitas hidup masyarakat DIY dengan peningkatan ketersediaan layanan kesehatan yang merata, bermutu, dan terjangkau.
Peran Perawat Pada Perawatan Paliatif.pptssuserbb0b09
Ringkasan dari dokumen tersebut adalah:
(1) Dokumen tersebut membahas peran dan fungsi perawat dalam perawatan holistik pada pasien paliatif;
(2) Perawatan paliatif bertujuan untuk meningkatkan kualitas hidup pasien dengan mengurangi nyeri dan gejala lainnya serta memberikan dukungan psikososial dan spiritual;
(3) Peran penting perawat paliatif adalah memberikan asuhan keperawatan secara holist
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang kode-kode genetik yang menentukan warna, pola, dan ciri fisik pada kucing. Terdapat berbagai gen seperti A, B, C, D, I, L, O, S, T, W yang dapat berpasangan atau berkombinasi untuk menghasilkan fenotip yang beragam pada kucing. Dokumen juga menjelaskan perbedaan antara genotip dan fenotip serta urutan dominasi beberapa gen.
Playbook Resume Medis Rawat Jalan - v2.1.pdfakulima
Buku panduan ini memberikan panduan lengkap tentang integrasi dengan SATUSEHAT, platform pertukaran data kesehatan nasional Indonesia. Buku panduan ini menjelaskan tentang pengenalan SATUSEHAT, layanan yang tersedia, standar interoperabilitas berbasis FHIR, dan tahapan integrasi mulai dari autentikasi, registrasi organisasi dan lokasi, hingga contoh alur integrasi untuk berbagai jenis data kesehatan seperti pasien, kunjungan, diagnosis, dan tindakan medis.
Teknis Koding ICD 10 & Diagnosis_ Training/BimTek "SISTEM CASEMIX"Kanaidi ken
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang teknik koding diagnosa menggunakan sistem ICD-10, termasuk definisi kaidah koding, tujuan dan manfaat kode ICD-10, cara penggunaan ICD-10, dan langkah-langkah menentukan kode diagnosa.
Petugas PIPP bertugas memberikan informasi kepada pengunjung, mencarikan informasi tempat kamar dan jadwal dokter, serta menangani pengaduan di rumah sakit. Tugas lainnya meliputi menyiapkan konter, menyapa pengunjung, dan membantu proses pendaftaran serta pelayanan di bagian administrasi. Petugas PIPP juga bertanggung jawab meningkatkan layanan dan citra positif rumah sakit.
EKG digunakan untuk merekam aktivitas listrik jantung. Kertas EKG menggunakan garis horisontal dan vertikal untuk menggambarkan waktu dan voltase. Sadapan EKG digunakan untuk merekam aktivitas listrik dari berbagai bidang jantung. Gelombang P, QRS, dan T merekam proses depolarisasi dan repolarisasi atrium dan ventrikel. Interpretasi EKG meliputi pengukuran frekuensi jantung, irama, aksis, dan pencarian
Buku ajar ini membahas metode-metode numerik untuk menyelesaikan berbagai masalah matematika. Pembahasan dimulai dari pengertian metode numerik, bilangan dan angka signifikan, konsep dasar kalkulus seperti nilai antara dan deret Taylor, hingga pembahasan metode-metode numerik seperti interpolasi, diferensiasi dan integrasi numerik, pengaturan kurva, dan solusi masalah nilai awal. Buku ini diharapkan dapat membantu mempelaj
Foot binding was a practice in pre-industrial China that involved tightly binding young girls' feet to prevent further growth. It originated as a symbol of elite status but became widely practiced. Girls' feet were bound between ages 4-9 to form lotus feet, crippling them but allowing them to do housework like weaving that produced goods for income. As China industrialized and demand for handmade goods fell, the incentive for foot binding declined as it no longer boosted the economy or family income through women's labor.
Ancient Chinese society held strict patriarchal Confucian ideals that defined women's roles. Women were expected to be submissive to their fathers, husbands, and sons, focusing on domestic duties like cooking, cleaning, and child-rearing. They had little education or independence. However, some documents also note that women played important roles as mothers and wives, and a few texts argue they had virtues and potential beyond the domestic sphere. Competition among imperial consorts and empresses was intense and sometimes deadly as they vied for power and position. Footbinding was a practice that modified women's figures and movement from a young age to conform to ideals of femininity, status, and ethnicity, though it caused great pain.
1. Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang dasar-dasar sistem kontrol, meliputi konsep sistem terkendali, masalah kontrol, transformasi Laplace, model sistem dalam bentuk persamaan diferensial dan fungsi transfer, serta tanggapan sistem terhadap berbagai masukan seperti impulse dan step.
Dokumen ini merupakan rencana pembangunan jangka panjang bidang kesehatan provinsi DIY untuk periode 2005-2025. Rencana ini membahas visi, misi, tujuan, strategi, dan target pembangunan kesehatan untuk empat periode lima tahun. Tujuannya adalah meningkatkan kualitas hidup masyarakat DIY dengan peningkatan ketersediaan layanan kesehatan yang merata, bermutu, dan terjangkau.
Peran Perawat Pada Perawatan Paliatif.pptssuserbb0b09
Ringkasan dari dokumen tersebut adalah:
(1) Dokumen tersebut membahas peran dan fungsi perawat dalam perawatan holistik pada pasien paliatif;
(2) Perawatan paliatif bertujuan untuk meningkatkan kualitas hidup pasien dengan mengurangi nyeri dan gejala lainnya serta memberikan dukungan psikososial dan spiritual;
(3) Peran penting perawat paliatif adalah memberikan asuhan keperawatan secara holist
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang kode-kode genetik yang menentukan warna, pola, dan ciri fisik pada kucing. Terdapat berbagai gen seperti A, B, C, D, I, L, O, S, T, W yang dapat berpasangan atau berkombinasi untuk menghasilkan fenotip yang beragam pada kucing. Dokumen juga menjelaskan perbedaan antara genotip dan fenotip serta urutan dominasi beberapa gen.
Playbook Resume Medis Rawat Jalan - v2.1.pdfakulima
Buku panduan ini memberikan panduan lengkap tentang integrasi dengan SATUSEHAT, platform pertukaran data kesehatan nasional Indonesia. Buku panduan ini menjelaskan tentang pengenalan SATUSEHAT, layanan yang tersedia, standar interoperabilitas berbasis FHIR, dan tahapan integrasi mulai dari autentikasi, registrasi organisasi dan lokasi, hingga contoh alur integrasi untuk berbagai jenis data kesehatan seperti pasien, kunjungan, diagnosis, dan tindakan medis.
Teknis Koding ICD 10 & Diagnosis_ Training/BimTek "SISTEM CASEMIX"Kanaidi ken
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang teknik koding diagnosa menggunakan sistem ICD-10, termasuk definisi kaidah koding, tujuan dan manfaat kode ICD-10, cara penggunaan ICD-10, dan langkah-langkah menentukan kode diagnosa.
Petugas PIPP bertugas memberikan informasi kepada pengunjung, mencarikan informasi tempat kamar dan jadwal dokter, serta menangani pengaduan di rumah sakit. Tugas lainnya meliputi menyiapkan konter, menyapa pengunjung, dan membantu proses pendaftaran serta pelayanan di bagian administrasi. Petugas PIPP juga bertanggung jawab meningkatkan layanan dan citra positif rumah sakit.
EKG digunakan untuk merekam aktivitas listrik jantung. Kertas EKG menggunakan garis horisontal dan vertikal untuk menggambarkan waktu dan voltase. Sadapan EKG digunakan untuk merekam aktivitas listrik dari berbagai bidang jantung. Gelombang P, QRS, dan T merekam proses depolarisasi dan repolarisasi atrium dan ventrikel. Interpretasi EKG meliputi pengukuran frekuensi jantung, irama, aksis, dan pencarian
Buku ajar ini membahas metode-metode numerik untuk menyelesaikan berbagai masalah matematika. Pembahasan dimulai dari pengertian metode numerik, bilangan dan angka signifikan, konsep dasar kalkulus seperti nilai antara dan deret Taylor, hingga pembahasan metode-metode numerik seperti interpolasi, diferensiasi dan integrasi numerik, pengaturan kurva, dan solusi masalah nilai awal. Buku ini diharapkan dapat membantu mempelaj
Foot binding was a practice in pre-industrial China that involved tightly binding young girls' feet to prevent further growth. It originated as a symbol of elite status but became widely practiced. Girls' feet were bound between ages 4-9 to form lotus feet, crippling them but allowing them to do housework like weaving that produced goods for income. As China industrialized and demand for handmade goods fell, the incentive for foot binding declined as it no longer boosted the economy or family income through women's labor.
Ancient Chinese society held strict patriarchal Confucian ideals that defined women's roles. Women were expected to be submissive to their fathers, husbands, and sons, focusing on domestic duties like cooking, cleaning, and child-rearing. They had little education or independence. However, some documents also note that women played important roles as mothers and wives, and a few texts argue they had virtues and potential beyond the domestic sphere. Competition among imperial consorts and empresses was intense and sometimes deadly as they vied for power and position. Footbinding was a practice that modified women's figures and movement from a young age to conform to ideals of femininity, status, and ethnicity, though it caused great pain.
The documents provide information about traditional Chinese attitudes towards women's roles from ancient times through the 20th century. Document 1 discusses how Confucian texts emphasized women's subordination and obedience. Document 2 notes that while customs restricted women, they still had influence as mothers and wives. Document 3 explains that footbinding was meant to enhance femininity and status, not cripple women. Document 4 outlines how Confucian ideology confined women domestically and they became more educated in later centuries.
From antiquity, footwear became an important status symbol jealously guarded by the ‘well heeled,’ and through to modern history; protected by Sumptuary Laws to prevent upward mobility.
Article on Feminism; Feminists before PartitionSaniaSindhu
The document summarizes the experiences of early feminist activists in India before the country's partition. It discusses Lakshmibai Tilak, one of the first Indian women to write an autobiography, who advocated for women's financial independence. It also describes the case of Rakhmabai Raut, who refused an arranged marriage and won her case in court. These cases sparked public debates around issues like child marriage, abuse, and women's rights. The document argues that while Indian society was patriarchal, these early feminists fought to advocate for women's issues and rights.
In a series of 9 slides, I have presented and disproved several myths and misconceptions about Medieval-age women living in Japan.
The basis for my misconceptions were the words of my classmates. I took their notions of Japanese women and found out the truth.
The document discusses the yolk sac and its evolutionary origins and effects on human bodies. It notes that 375 million years ago, fish-like creatures began crawling onto land, giving rise to amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and humans. As early reptiles adapted to new environments, they developed features to aid survival, like the yolk sac seen in reptile eggs and human embryos, which provided nutrients to developing embryos and protected them from drying out. While humans no longer need yolk to feed embryos, remnants of the yolk gene remain in the human genome as evidence of the shared evolutionary ancestry between reptiles and humans.
The document discusses how women's roles have changed significantly since the 19th century. In the 19th century, women had no legal rights and were seen as property under male authority. The women's rights movement began fighting for economic, political, and social equality. A major milestone was women gaining the right to vote in 1920. Women also began serving in the military during WWII and pursuing higher education. While progress has been made, women still face challenges in achieving full equality.
The tradition of foot binding in China involved binding young girls' feet tightly starting at age 6 to prevent normal growth, breaking and deforming them to remain only 4-6 inches long. This was initially practiced by wealthy families to suggest beauty and marriageability, becoming popular across social classes except peasants. While banned in the early 1900s, some continued in secret. Survivors today suffer disability and pain from their small, dysfunctional feet.
In medieval China, people generally wore tunics and sometimes jackets. The poor could only wear certain colors while the rich wore silk. Women's feet were bound from a young age to be seen as beautiful. Inventions like gunpowder, the compass, paper, and printing advanced China. The architecture followed principles of balance and floating roofs. Family and education were highly valued in Chinese culture.
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This document summarizes key topics from a lecture on gender issues in Singapore, including whether Singapore is a patriarchal or matriarchal society, the role of national service, gender norms around marriage and family, and the importation of foreign female labor through practices like transnational marriage. Gender roles and state policies around areas like parenting obligations, housing, and education are analyzed through both conforming and non-conforming citizen behaviors.
Essay On Cow In English.pdfEssay On Cow In EnglishMelissa Julian
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In the dynamic city of Lucknow, known for its wealthy social legacy and authentic importance, a youthful star has developed, capturing the hearts of numerous with her elegance, insights, and eagerness. Asiya, as of late delegated as the champ from Lucknow for Miss Youngster India 2024 by the DK Pageant, stands as a confirmation of the monstrous ability and potential dwelling inside the youth of India. This exceptional young lady is a signal of excellence and a paragon of devotion and aspiration.
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Biography and career history of Bruno AmezcuaBruno Amezcua
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The Fascinating World of Bats: Unveiling the Secrets of the Nightthomasard1122
The Fascinating World of Bats: Unveiling the Secrets of the Night
Bats, the mysterious creatures of the night, have long been a source of fascination and fear for humans. With their eerie squeaks and fluttering wings, they have captured our imagination and sparked our curiosity. Yet, beyond the myths and legends, bats are fascinating creatures that play a vital role in our ecosystem.
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Amid the constant barrage of distractions and dwindling motivation, self-discipline emerges as the unwavering beacon that guides individuals toward triumph. This vital quality serves as the key to unlocking one’s true potential, whether the aspiration is to attain personal goals, ascend the career ladder, or refine everyday habits.
Understanding Self-Discipline
1. FLICKINGER 1
Autumn Flickinger
Chinese History 415
Kishida
11-4-2019
Foot Binding: A Labour & Economic Crutch in Pre-Industrial China
An Introduction to Foot Binding
In the past, the enfeebling practice of foot binding affected millions of Chinese women
and girls. A part of the custom, young girls were obligated to have their feet compressed tightly
1
with silk binding cloth as a way of deforming the feet to make them have a smaller appearance;
having petite feet became a norm and was expected in girls if they were to marry respectable
suitors. This process would eventually lead to the breaking and crushing of the bones in the feet
2
and would take years for it to complete. When the feet were in their final form, the four toes
3
except for the big toe would be bent and embedded into the sole of the foot and the tendon in the
arch of the foot would be broken. In doing this, the foot would be narrowed to a point, giving it
4
the shape of a lotus flower, which is where the name “lotus feet” came from. When political
5
change required women to remove their bindings and release their feet, it was excruciatingly
painful and required rebinding; the bone structure of the feet had been completely destroyed and
5
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 2.
4
Edward, Debi. Banned Practice of Foot Binding Blighting China's Oldest Women. ITV News, January 3,
2019. https://youtu.be/NuuIoJGPjBA?t=97.
3
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 2.
2
Bossen, Laurel, Wang Xurui, Melissa J. Brown, and Hill Gates. "Feet and Fabrication: Footbinding and
Early Twentieth-Century Rural Women's Labor in Shaanxi." Modern China 37, no. 4 (2011): 347-83.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/23053328. 348.
1
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. Bound Feet, Young Hands: Tracking the Demise of Footbinding in Village
China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2017. 1.
2. FLICKINGER 2
irreversibly damaged. With the amount of damage foot binding caused, women and girls were
6
unable to walk, run, or balance themselves. This gradually growing trend caused lifelong
7
immobility and labour hardship. With women forced to sit and stay inside, producing the most
8
valuable resources was one of the main sources of income for China, making it an economic
source of stability in labour and income before the Chinese Industrialization.
Foot Binding Origins
There are many sources debating the reasons behind foot binding, why it was started, and
why it lasted so long. The confidence in the origin of foot binding is very minimal, but it is said
9
for foot binding to have started around 937-975 CE, during the Tang dynasty. Turkic court
10
dancers were mentioned by Emperor Li Yu and were specifically recognized for having small
feet and “bow-shoes”, which was seen as a striking sign of beauty. With this, elite women in
11
the empire started binding their feet and that eventually led to the spread of foot binding in the
Song dynasty (960-1279 CE) in most provinces of China as a sign of status. In the era of the
12
Song dynasty, a woman's most important job was birthing sons. The immobility caused by foot
13
binding pulled women away from civic responsibilities, which was seen as more socially
acceptable by men; women would not be as politically involved as men and dedicate their time to
13
“Foot-Binding.” ReadWorks. Accessed October 31, 2019.
https://www.readworks.org/article/Foot-Binding/dacbe2e9-c28e-435b-850c-15a32eb20eb1. 2.
12
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. Bound Feet, Young Hands: Tracking the Demise of Footbinding in
Village China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2017.
11
Cartwright, Mark. “Foot-Binding.” Ancient History Encyclopedia.
10
Cartwright, Mark. “Foot-Binding.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient History Encyclopedia,
November 7, 2019. https://www.ancient.eu/Foot-Binding/.
9
Bossen, Laurel, Wang Xurui, Melissa J. Brown, and Hill Gates. 348.
8
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 2.
7
Bossen, Laurel, Wang Xurui, Melissa J. Brown, and Hill Gates. 348.
6
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 2.
3. FLICKINGER 3
housekeeping and child care. The popularity in foot binding really progressed with the push in
14
Confucianism, the hierarchical system of subservience.15
Confucianism & Women: A Woman’s Place in a Confucianist’s Society
Confucian ideals in the era of foot binding were extremely important. Gender was not
16
only a biological piece of someone’s body at this time, but it was also the key determinator in
what kind of life someone was going to experience. A young Chinese girl’s bound feet was
17
more than the physical binding, it was the foundation of the social life they would live. The
18
enforcement of bound feet was a rule of discipline for young girls. Girls with unbound feet
19
were not respected by their families, members of their communities, and had limited marriage
prospects. Confucian thought forced women and girls to be virtuous and industrious while
20
bending to the rules of men in society; men in China were seen as the core of every family.21
Confucianism helped shape the structure of families and a woman’s place in one. Confucian
22
rules stressed the thought that there should be role segregation in every home, inner and outer;
women were to remain on the inner section of the house. Women were not to take part in public
23
23
Ebrey, Patricia. “Women in Traditional China.”
22
Ebrey, Patricia. “Women in Traditional China.”
21
Ebrey, Patricia. “Women in Traditional China.” Asia Society. Accessed October 31, 2019.
https://asiasociety.org/education/women-traditional-china.
20
“Foot-Binding.” ReadWorks. 3.
19
Blake, C. Fred. 680.
18
Blake, C. Fred. 680.
17
Blake, C. Fred. 678.
16
Blake, C. Fred. “Foot-Binding in Neo-Confucian China and the Appropriation of Female Labor.”
Chicago Journals. The University of Chicago Press. Accessed October 31, 2019.
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bed0/2d70344804f0ed91996b604390fedb7daf3e.pdf. 676.
15
“Foot-Binding.” ReadWorks. 2.
14
“Foot-Binding.” ReadWorks. 2.
4. FLICKINGER 4
matters and were to tend to silkworms and weaving. The head of the family was the oldest
24
male, father or husband, and if that male were to die, the son would take over and the woman in
the house would submit to their son. Foot binding was a fundamental piece of the family
25
system that placed them directly in the system of economic production. With the push for
26
women staying in the house, the push for economic commodities was also in the mix.27
The Expectations of Girls & Women
The attraction of small feet was based on size. Bound feet at the size of three inches were
preferred by men as the most suitable brides, and were known as “golden lotuses”. Feet that
28
were four inches, “silver lotuses”, were also esteemed, but bound feet five inches or longer were
known as “iron lotuses” and were usually turned down in marriage. Girls were told often that
having their feet tightly bound would ensure marriage and a good life in their future. This was
29
also to enhance the potential consequence, a wife with unbound feet is not a wife for anyone’s
son. This promoted and mentally trained girls to deal with bound feet as a lower body
30
modification that would prepare them for a future life as a wife and as a daughter-in-law.31
31
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 8.
30
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 8.
29
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 8.
28
Foreman, Amanda. “Why Footbinding Persisted in China for a Millennium.” Smithsonian.com.
Smithsonian Institution, February 1, 2015.
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/why-footbinding-persisted-china-millennium-180953971/.
27
Bossen, Laurel, Wang Xurui, Melissa J. Brown, and Hill Gates. 350.
26
Blake, C. Fred. 678.
25
Ebrey, Patricia. “Women in Traditional China.”
24
Ebrey, Patricia. “Women in Traditional China.”
5. FLICKINGER 5
Meanwhile, labouring for their family would train them in mind and hands so they could not
only provide for their future family, but for their current household.32
Bound Feet & Daily Labour
The imperial aphorism, “men plow, women weave” stood around for hundreds of years
and really laid the foundation of expectations for women and girls cloth production in
pre-industrialized China. Commodity items like silk, cotton, and hemp played a critical part in
33
China. Although the maxim “men plow, women weave” was an expectation based on gender,
34
both jobs eventually were to fall on the backs of women. Young boys did work in the family
35
until a certain age where they could no longer fulfill certain home needs; it is believed girls feet
were bound at a young age to handicap them and discourage play and promote a life of work.36
With painful and freshly bound feet, children remained seated with no option but to obey tasks
that required only the use of hands; these tasks were for more than production of household use,
but for exchange and income as well. Almost all households had a wooden loom. Weavers
37 38
were strictly dependent on the use of female spinners who could start at a young age. Spinning
39
was an everyday objective for old women and young girls who would spin around four ounces of
yarn a day. In one day, nine inch wide and 18 to 20 feet long course yarn would be produced on
40
40
Bossen, Laurel, Wang Xurui, Melissa J. Brown, and Hill Gates. 353.
39
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. Bound Feet, Young Hands: 8.
38
Bossen, Laurel, Wang Xurui, Melissa J. Brown, and Hill Gates. 353.
37
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 8.
36
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 8.
35
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 8.
34
Bossen, Laurel, Wang Xurui, Melissa J. Brown, and Hill Gates. 349.
33
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 8.
32
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 9.
6. FLICKINGER 6
one loom on average. The tasks were to make ropes, mats, straw hats, sacks, nets, and weaved
41
bamboo baskets, and utensils. These things were in high demand and could be exchanged for
42
cash, grain, oil, or other raw materials, like cotton. Many of these handcrafted items were basic
43
for girls and women who would be more experienced with looming would spin for seasonal
clothing, bedding, and cloth shoes.44
Mother’s Reasons Behind Foot Binding
In an excerpt from When I Was a Girl in China by Joseph Rupp, a fourteen year old girl,
Li Xiu-ying, wrote a letter, explaining the reason her mother gave her for binding her feet:
The day my mother started binding my feet, she told me that it had to be done in order for
me to find a husband. I knew that already because every woman I ever saw had bound
feet. Before the Communists came I never even heard of a woman not having bound feet.
Mother also explained to me that the smaller a girl’s feet are, the better a husband she will
get. Ideally, you want the feet to be very short – at most three inches – and very narrow.45
Most times, mother’s reasons behind binding the feet of their daughters would be
excluded because revealing the true motives behind a socially accepted practice would be
uncomfortable. Foot binding was more often than not a mother’s choice and responsibility to
46
bind their daughter’s feet unless the mother died before the child reached the age of binding:
46
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 10.
45
Rupp, Joseph. “Li Xiu-Ying.” In When I Was a Girl in China, n.a., n.d.
44
Bossen, Laurel, Wang Xurui, Melissa J. Brown, and Hill Gates. 353.
43
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. Bound Feet, Young Hands: 11.
42
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. Bound Feet, Young Hands: 11.
41
Bossen, Laurel, Wang Xurui, Melissa J. Brown, and Hill Gates. 353.
7. FLICKINGER 7
between the ages of 5 and 9 years old. Girls who were expected to be married young were often
47
demanded by the mother of the son to have their feet bound or required binding the girl’s feet
themselves. Often, girls' feet were bound young to discourage field work with men and
48
promote aid in the household to ease the workload of the mothers. This would place control
49
over the young girl’s labour in the household and then the bodily harm it caused to the girl could
shift the blame from the mother in the household to their potential mother-in-law who would
punish them if they had unbound feet. Population also played a big part in a mother’s role in
50
binding the feet of her daughter. With demanding daily tasks women were required to endure,
51
they experienced recurrent pregnancies, miscarriages, hemorrhages, and uterine prolapses. The
52
average number of births per woman was around six; the high birth rate was set to compensate
for the high amount of infant mortalities. Mothers who even had a single child faced struggles
53
and the balance between their workload and motherhood; from feeding and supervising a child to
dutiful tasks like grabbing water, cooking food, and weaving, children were extremely distracting
and disruptive to work productivity. The imbalance between these two things led to strong
54
motivation in mothers to constrain their children; binding the feet and putting them to work,
54
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 12.
53
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 11.
52
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 11.
51
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 11.
50
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 10.
49
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 10.
48
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 9.
47
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 9.
8. FLICKINGER 8
making work more efficient and motherhood an easier burden to bear. These mothers would
55
then have more salable items for an increase in potential profit and trade.56
Studies on Foot Binding and Production
Cotton and handmade fabrics were the main commercial products and main source of
income at the time. A chart in the book Feet and Fabrication: Footbinding and Early
57
Twentieth-Century Rural Women's Labor presented a chart with the occupations in China in
1934. Based on the total population, the correlation between women with bound feet and the
sustainability of the economy is present; farming (26%), commerce (5%), soldiers (3%), industry
(1%), students (7%), elderly/disabled (27%), spinning and weaving (30%). Spinning and
58
weaving was the occupation left for women, and at that time, it was still the biggest occupation
for the population, meaning cotton and handspun goods were still providing profit. In a
59
research study done by Laurel Bossen and Hill Gates, they found there was a direct tie between
foot binding and female labour in China; foot binding was used for salable items before the
industrialization of China, so with industrialization moving into China, there was a decrease of
foot binding in rural areas. Furthermore, when the income sustainability from women’s
60
handcrafted materials declined, so did the need to bind a girl's feet at the designated age of
60
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 9.
59
Bossen, Laurel, Wang Xurui, Melissa J. Brown, and Hill Gates. 355.
58
Bossen, Laurel, Wang Xurui, Melissa J. Brown, and Hill Gates. 355.
57
Bossen, Laurel, Wang Xurui, Melissa J. Brown, and Hill Gates. 355.
56
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 11.
55
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 11.
9. FLICKINGER 9
binding. When handcrafting raw materials produced no income, traditional female handcrafts
61
were still taught, but were not enough to incentivize foot binding in young girls.62
Concluding Foot Binding & Textile Labour
Many scholars say that foot binding was a social ploy at increasing attraction in women
that would lead to marriage. Analysis of young girls with bound feet was the significant factor
63
behind why others think it had more to do with labour and income. There was a dismissal of
64
attention to the economic stance women had in China’s society because the generalizations about
foot binding were beauty related. Foot binding was a practice that originally started out with
65
elite women, but spread quickly to remote villages, where children and women were crafting
handmade items. Lack of interaction with women in remote locations led to scholars writing
66
specifically about elite women with bound feet. With this, women in rural areas were not
67
focused on and so their handcrafting abilities were never accounted for when it came to the binds
on their feet. Through intensive examination of labour in remote areas, it shows the amount of
68
reliance China had on the use of family systems. Family systems clearly indicated a strong
69
push in girl’s labour as a backing to household sustainability. Though people assumed that foot
70
70
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 168.
69
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 172.
68
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 175.
67
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 175.
66
Bossen, Laurel, Wang Xurui, Melissa J. Brown, and Hill Gates. 373.
65
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 9.
64
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 175.
63
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 174.
62
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 9.
61
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 9.
10. FLICKINGER 10
binding was a patriarchal move in society, it always started off with the family first; mothers
wrapping their daughter’s feet at binding age. The older women in the household were always
71
in charge of training the spinners and weavers with bound feet, girls and women played a direct
role in sustaining household textile production and girls were the main face of income in each
household. With the industrialization of China progressing gradually, a decrease in footbinding
72
was directly linked; through this, the myths that foot binding was just another beauty standard or
sexual fantasy or symbol of status can be put to rest.
72
Bossen, Laurel, Wang Xurui, Melissa J. Brown, and Hill Gates. 373.
71
Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. 175.
11. FLICKINGER 11
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Chicago Journals. The University of Chicago Press. Accessed October 31, 2019.
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Bossen, Laurel, and Hill Gates. Bound Feet, Young Hands: Tracking the Demise of Footbinding
in Village China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2017.
Cartwright, Mark. “Foot-Binding.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient History
Encyclopedia, November 7, 2019. https://www.ancient.eu/Foot-Binding/.
Ebrey, Patricia. “Women in Traditional China.” Asia Society. Accessed October 31, 2019.
https://asiasociety.org/education/women-traditional-china.
Edward, Debi. Banned Practice of Foot Binding Blighting China's Oldest Women. ITV News,
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“Foot-Binding.” ReadWorks. ReadWorks. Accessed October 31, 2019.
https://www.readworks.org/article/Foot-Binding/dacbe2e9-c28e-435b-850c-15a32eb20e.
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Smithsonian Institution, February 1, 2015.
Rupp, Joseph. “Li Xiu-Ying.” In When I Was a Girl in China, n.a., n.d.