- The study examined the effects of priming different amounts of money (hundred dollar bills, pennies, or jellybeans) on participants' self-efficacy and intended altruistic donations.
- While priming larger amounts of money did not affect intended donations, it did correlate with lower reported self-efficacy among participants. However, self-efficacy did not correlate with intended donation amounts.
- Life satisfaction was positively correlated with both self-efficacy and intended donations, suggesting its role in connecting these variables merits further investigation.
Anonymity Versus Publicity of Answers and Reported Self-EsteemDanielle Hoyt
This study examined how anonymity and publicity impact self-reported self-esteem scores. 60 undergraduate students completed a self-esteem measure either anonymously online, in-person with written responses, or in-person verbally. Results showed the anonymous online scores were significantly lower than the written in-person scores, partially supporting the hypothesis that increased publicity correlates with higher self-esteem scores. However, no other conditions differed significantly. Gender did not impact results. Limitations included a small homogenous sample from one university. Future research could explore how situational factors impact anonymity and publicity effects on self-esteem.
Bullying in childhood can have long lasting negative effects. Victims are more likely to experience mental health issues like depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem that may persist into adulthood. Longitudinal studies show childhood victims are at higher risk as adults for disorders like depression, anxiety, antisocial personality disorder, and suicide attempts. Victims also tend to have poorer social relationships, economic difficulties, and lower quality of life in mid-life compared to non-victims. The effects of bullying can last decades and negatively impact both psychological and physical health.
The document discusses assessing suicide and suicidal behavior. It covers precipitants or stressors that may contribute to suicidal thoughts, assessing a predisposition to suicide including genetic factors, and assessing feelings of hopelessness using scales like the Beck Hopelessness Scale. The conclusion emphasizes that the best tool for assessment is a clinical interview to understand each client's full circumstances.
High Income Improves Evaluation of Life But Not Emotional Well-beingSustainable Brands
- High income is more closely related to life evaluation (satisfaction with one's life) but not emotional well-being (frequency and intensity of daily emotions like joy, stress, sadness), according to an analysis of over 450,000 survey responses.
- Life evaluation rises steadily with log income, but emotional well-being only rises up to an annual income of around $75,000, with no further improvement beyond that.
- Low income exacerbates the emotional pain of negative life events like divorce, illness, or loneliness. The authors conclude that high income buys life satisfaction but not happiness.
This study examined the relationship between non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) and ego identity development in college students. The researcher found that students who engaged in one form of NSSI, such as scratching or cutting, were likely to engage in other forms as well. Further, rates of NSSI were correlated with higher levels of ideological identity achievement. Specifically, students who scratched or bit themselves were more likely to have achieved an overall ego identity. However, students who bit themselves were also more likely to be in an interpersonal identity moratorium stage. The results suggest that while NSSI may be related to identity development, more research is needed to understand the causes and prevention of self-inj
The document discusses research on the relationship between childhood trauma and the development of borderline personality disorder (BPD). It summarizes that research has found childhood trauma, such as abuse, neglect, parental loss or divorce, is very common in those diagnosed with BPD. Events like 9/11 that caused trauma through parental loss could potentially increase BPD diagnoses later in life. The document concludes that childhood trauma interrupts healthy attachment and increases the likelihood of a BPD diagnosis, though more research is still needed.
This document discusses a study examining factors that affect college student happiness. It will examine how involvement in extracurricular activities or Greek life, social support, and relationship status relate to happiness. The study is grounded in Social Penetration Theory and Uncertainty Reduction Theory. Previous research found involvement and social relationships are linked to happiness. Specifically, Greek life is linked to greater involvement and social skills. High social support is also linked to happiness, though it may not eliminate loneliness. Romantic relationships seem to have a larger impact on happiness than friendships. The study aims to understand these links between college experiences and student happiness levels.
Anonymity Versus Publicity of Answers and Reported Self-EsteemDanielle Hoyt
This study examined how anonymity and publicity impact self-reported self-esteem scores. 60 undergraduate students completed a self-esteem measure either anonymously online, in-person with written responses, or in-person verbally. Results showed the anonymous online scores were significantly lower than the written in-person scores, partially supporting the hypothesis that increased publicity correlates with higher self-esteem scores. However, no other conditions differed significantly. Gender did not impact results. Limitations included a small homogenous sample from one university. Future research could explore how situational factors impact anonymity and publicity effects on self-esteem.
Bullying in childhood can have long lasting negative effects. Victims are more likely to experience mental health issues like depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem that may persist into adulthood. Longitudinal studies show childhood victims are at higher risk as adults for disorders like depression, anxiety, antisocial personality disorder, and suicide attempts. Victims also tend to have poorer social relationships, economic difficulties, and lower quality of life in mid-life compared to non-victims. The effects of bullying can last decades and negatively impact both psychological and physical health.
The document discusses assessing suicide and suicidal behavior. It covers precipitants or stressors that may contribute to suicidal thoughts, assessing a predisposition to suicide including genetic factors, and assessing feelings of hopelessness using scales like the Beck Hopelessness Scale. The conclusion emphasizes that the best tool for assessment is a clinical interview to understand each client's full circumstances.
High Income Improves Evaluation of Life But Not Emotional Well-beingSustainable Brands
- High income is more closely related to life evaluation (satisfaction with one's life) but not emotional well-being (frequency and intensity of daily emotions like joy, stress, sadness), according to an analysis of over 450,000 survey responses.
- Life evaluation rises steadily with log income, but emotional well-being only rises up to an annual income of around $75,000, with no further improvement beyond that.
- Low income exacerbates the emotional pain of negative life events like divorce, illness, or loneliness. The authors conclude that high income buys life satisfaction but not happiness.
This study examined the relationship between non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) and ego identity development in college students. The researcher found that students who engaged in one form of NSSI, such as scratching or cutting, were likely to engage in other forms as well. Further, rates of NSSI were correlated with higher levels of ideological identity achievement. Specifically, students who scratched or bit themselves were more likely to have achieved an overall ego identity. However, students who bit themselves were also more likely to be in an interpersonal identity moratorium stage. The results suggest that while NSSI may be related to identity development, more research is needed to understand the causes and prevention of self-inj
The document discusses research on the relationship between childhood trauma and the development of borderline personality disorder (BPD). It summarizes that research has found childhood trauma, such as abuse, neglect, parental loss or divorce, is very common in those diagnosed with BPD. Events like 9/11 that caused trauma through parental loss could potentially increase BPD diagnoses later in life. The document concludes that childhood trauma interrupts healthy attachment and increases the likelihood of a BPD diagnosis, though more research is still needed.
This document discusses a study examining factors that affect college student happiness. It will examine how involvement in extracurricular activities or Greek life, social support, and relationship status relate to happiness. The study is grounded in Social Penetration Theory and Uncertainty Reduction Theory. Previous research found involvement and social relationships are linked to happiness. Specifically, Greek life is linked to greater involvement and social skills. High social support is also linked to happiness, though it may not eliminate loneliness. Romantic relationships seem to have a larger impact on happiness than friendships. The study aims to understand these links between college experiences and student happiness levels.
This study investigated how physical attractiveness, social attractiveness, and self-esteem affect perceptions of desirability and reciprocity in online dating. 80 students viewed one of four fictional dating profiles that varied in physical and social attractiveness of the person depicted. Participants completed self-esteem and desirability/reciprocity measures. Results showed that profiles with high physical or social attractiveness were seen as more desirable. Profiles with both high physical and social attractiveness were seen as most desirable. Contrary to hypotheses, those with low self-esteem perceived higher reciprocity than those with high self-esteem. The study provides insight into how attributes affect perceptions in online dating.
Study Focuses on Sociodemographic Risk and Marital SatisfactionUzi Ben-Ami, Ph.D.
A study by researchers from the University of Georgia and University of Texas examined how socioeconomic status impacts marital satisfaction over time. The study utilized questionnaires completed by 431 couples living in low-income neighborhoods in Los Angeles between 2009 and 2014. The researchers found that 60% of couples with initially high marital satisfaction maintained stable satisfaction levels, while the 10% with initially low satisfaction experienced significant declines. Women at high socioeconomic risk, but not men, were disproportionately represented among the group with low initial and declining satisfaction. More research is needed to understand why socioeconomic risk impacts women's marital satisfaction differently.
The Self Related to Criminal Behavior Rough Draft KATKim Taylor
This document summarizes a research paper on the relationship between self-esteem and criminal behavior. The study examined 100 high school students (75 male, 25 female) who reported engaging in aggression in the past year. It found that those with low self-esteem were more likely to display aggression and engage in criminal acts, especially males who reported physical aggression. Recommendations included counseling, workshops, and extracurricular activities to improve self-esteem and reduce criminal behavior in minors.
This document describes a study that examined how self-monitoring personality types and the presence of friends or strangers affects bystander intervention in emergency situations. The study found:
1) There was a significant interaction between self-monitoring and familiarity that affected bystander intervention. High self-monitors were more likely to intervene with strangers, while low self-monitors were more likely to intervene with friends.
2) Familiarity alone (friends vs strangers) did not significantly impact bystander intervention.
3) Contrary to predictions, high self-monitors did not show higher rates of intervention overall, and low self-monitors did not show lower rates. Medium self-monitors actually had the highest intervention scores
The document discusses several theories related to human reproductive behaviour and relationship formation and development. It describes theories of sexual selection, social penetration theory, physical attractiveness, filter theory, social exchange theory, equity theory, investment model, and relationship dissolution model. Key concepts include anisogamy, inter-sexual selection, intra-sexual selection, self-disclosure, halo effect, matching hypothesis, comparison level, stages of relationship development, intrinsic and extrinsic investments, and the four phases of relationship dissolution. Research supporting and critiquing various aspects of the theories is also reviewed.
Lit review guide to nwriting literature reviewroxcine
The document summarizes five studies that examine the relationship between attachment and adolescent depression. The studies generally find that insecurely attached adolescents (ambivalent or avoidant) have higher levels of depression and lower self-esteem compared to securely attached adolescents. Limitations across the studies include their reliance on self-report measures, focus only on maternal relationships, and lack of longitudinal design. Overall, the literature review supports the hypothesis that attachment plays an important role in adolescent depression.
This study examined the relationship between gender identity and altruistic behavior, as measured by donations to charity. 471 college students completed a survey to determine their gender identity as masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated. They were then given the option to donate a $5 gift card to a food bank or keep it. While gender identity overall did not predict donations, those with a feminine identity donated more than those who were undifferentiated. The results provide partial support for the hypothesis but also indicate limitations in using the outdated measure of gender identity employed. Further research is needed using improved measures and additional variables.
This study examined the relationship between perceived attractiveness and intelligence. The researcher hypothesized that 1) attractive individuals would be perceived as more intelligent and 2) individuals who rate themselves as attractive would also rate themselves as above average in intelligence. Participants rated the attractiveness and perceived intelligence of photos of 23 individuals. While no correlation was found between attractiveness and intelligence ratings of photos, a significant positive correlation was found between self-rated attractiveness and intelligence. So the second hypothesis was supported but not the first. Limitations included using separate samples for attractiveness and intelligence ratings and not controlling for clothing in photos.
Biases are known to be ingrained in the human nature. Ironically, the bias starts reflecting in our approach to an individual’s health, even if the sufferer is a loved one, as we give priority to physical health over mental health. Many of the biases regarding mental health are inbuilt or are passed on from one generation to another.
1. The author participated in an online internship as a listener providing emotional support through conversations on the website 7CupsOfTea. They completed various training courses in counseling skills like active listening.
2. Research on the availability and affordability of mental health services in the US and globally found vast differences in access to quality care. Recommendations included improving access through primary care, community services, education, and increasing the mental health workforce.
3. Statistics show many guests on 7CupsOfTea seek support for school and work stress, and articles discuss the challenges women face balancing multiple responsibilities of work, family, and relationships. The author is awaiting a decision for a summer internship working with children
The document discusses stress, coping, and adjustment frameworks for understanding intercultural contact and transition. It outlines factors that influence the stress experience during cultural transition, including life changes, social support, coping resources, modes of acculturation, cultural distance, and experiences with prejudice and discrimination in the host culture. Psychological adjustment is viewed as a process that varies over time and is impacted by both societal and individual variables.
The document describes a study that aimed to 1) examine the relationships between peer pressure, conformity, and popularity and how they predict risk behaviors, and 2) develop and validate shorter measures of peer pressure and conformity for use in large-scale testing of adolescents. The study developed and validated short 10-item scales of peer pressure and conformity in a sample of 148 adolescent boys and girls. Results showed the new scales had good internal consistency. Peer pressure and conformity were found to be stronger predictors of risk behaviors like substance abuse than measures of popularity or general conformity. The new short scales of peer pressure and conformity were found to be equally or more predictive of risk behaviors than existing longer scales.
Positive Emotions Boost Enthusiastic Responsiveness to Capitalization Attempt...Maciej Behnke
The document describes a study that examined how eliciting positive and negative emotions influences responses to a partner's capitalization attempts. Participants in romantic relationships watched film clips designed to elicit positive, negative, or neutral emotions. They then responded to messages saying their partner had won money. Positive emotions facilitated enthusiastic responses like smiling, while negative emotions inhibited enthusiasm. These effects were mediated by emotional valence and smiling, but not physiological arousal. The results suggest positive emotions fuel enthusiastic support for a partner's accomplishments.
Critical Review of Research Evidence Part 3 FDRobert Cope
This document discusses trauma experienced by children in foster care and the potential for EMDR (eye movement desensitization and reprocessing) therapy to help address it. Children in foster care often experience trauma from being removed from their biological homes as well as potential abuse or neglect. They also face issues from multiple placements and aging out of the system unprepared. EMDR is presented as a promising 8-step therapy that could help youth resolve memories from traumatic experiences. The document examines the scope of problems faced by the foster care population and why addressing trauma is important to help youth as they transition into adulthood.
This presentation discusses empathy research and its applications to technology. It defines empathy as having both cognitive and affective components, including perspective-taking and feeling another's emotions. Studies show empathy increases with familiarity, similarity, learning, past experience, and salience. However, online interventions to increase empathy have mixed results and may paradoxically increase bias when perspective-taking is forced. The presenter's own research found the distraction condition reduced bias most, while empathy interventions increased self-centeredness. Moving forward, the presenter advocates reducing narcissism, strengthening self-esteem, and using collaboration to expand self-interest and create a sense of common humanity when designing empathy interventions online.
Autonomic Nervous System Activity During Positive Emotions: A Meta-Analytic R...Maciej Behnke
Autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity is a fundamental component of emotional responding. It is not clear, however, whether positive emotional states are associated with differential ANS reactivity. To address this issue, we conducted a meta-analytic review of 120 articles (686 effect sizes, total N = 6,546), measuring ANS activity during 11 elicited positive emotions, namely amusement, attachment love, awe, contentment, craving, excitement, gratitude, joy, nurturant love, pride, and sexual desire. We identified a widely dispersed collection of studies. Univariate results indicated that positive emotions produce no or weak and highly variable increases in ANS reactivity. However, the limitations of work to datewhich we discussmean that our conclusions should be treated as empirically grounded hypotheses that future research should validate.
Domestic violence psychologically affects victims and families in several ways. It can cause health issues for victims like depression, substance abuse, and chronic illness. Witnessing domestic violence can negatively impact children's development and behavior, lowering IQs and increasing aggression and emotional problems. Exposure to domestic violence has also been linked to intergenerational cycles of abuse, with children of abuse being more likely to become future victims or abusers themselves. Treatment for abusers and support for victims is important to help break these harmful cycles.
Bullying and suicide are closely related public health issues. Youth involved in bullying in any way, whether as the target, perpetrator, or witness, are at higher risk of negative mental health outcomes like depression and suicidal thoughts. While bullying does not directly cause suicide, it is one risk factor that may contribute to feelings of helplessness and hopelessness. Schools can help address this issue by fostering connectedness, teaching coping skills, supporting all students involved in bullying, empowering bystanders, and adopting comprehensive anti-bullying policies and programs. Ongoing research seeks to better understand these complex issues to guide prevention efforts.
This document discusses theories of addiction and how choice theory can be applied to addiction treatment in social work practice. It defines addiction according to the American Society of Addiction Medicine and outlines key concepts of choice theory such as basic human needs, the quality world, perceived world, and total behavior. The document argues that choice theory encourages empowerment of clients and self-determination, which aligns well with social work ethics. It also explores how choice theory can be used in various treatment settings and integrated with other social work skills and interventions.
The document summarizes a study examining how external incentives and intrinsic costs influence altruistic behaviors. The study manipulated the incentive (extra credit vs no extra credit) and cost (3 hours vs 15 minutes) of volunteer tasks. Participants rated their willingness to volunteer in each condition. Results showed participants were more willing to volunteer when incentive was high and cost was low, supporting the hypothesis that external factors have a greater influence than internal motivations. However, no interaction between incentive and cost was found, possibly due to low sample size. The study provides implications for using rewards to foster prosocial behaviors from a young age.
1) The document discusses how environmental cues like the color of plates food is served on can influence people's perceptions of the food's taste, with salty popcorn tasting sweeter from a blue or red bowl compared to a white bowl.
2) It describes a study showing that completing a physical act of closure, like closing a menu, can increase satisfaction with choices even when the options were undesirable.
3) A field experiment found that giving people a tangible coin with weekly savings goals scratched off was more effective at encouraging savings than financial incentives or reminder text messages alone.
This study examined the effects of pride for self versus pride for team on pro-social behavior, specifically charitable donations. 60 college students were randomly assigned to write about a time they felt proud of themselves or their team. They were then given $4 and the option to donate to a charity. While pride condition alone did not impact donations, an interaction was found - international students in the team pride condition donated more, while domestic students in the self pride condition donated more. The results suggest the type of pride induced can differentially influence pro-social behavior based on individuals' backgrounds.
This study investigated how physical attractiveness, social attractiveness, and self-esteem affect perceptions of desirability and reciprocity in online dating. 80 students viewed one of four fictional dating profiles that varied in physical and social attractiveness of the person depicted. Participants completed self-esteem and desirability/reciprocity measures. Results showed that profiles with high physical or social attractiveness were seen as more desirable. Profiles with both high physical and social attractiveness were seen as most desirable. Contrary to hypotheses, those with low self-esteem perceived higher reciprocity than those with high self-esteem. The study provides insight into how attributes affect perceptions in online dating.
Study Focuses on Sociodemographic Risk and Marital SatisfactionUzi Ben-Ami, Ph.D.
A study by researchers from the University of Georgia and University of Texas examined how socioeconomic status impacts marital satisfaction over time. The study utilized questionnaires completed by 431 couples living in low-income neighborhoods in Los Angeles between 2009 and 2014. The researchers found that 60% of couples with initially high marital satisfaction maintained stable satisfaction levels, while the 10% with initially low satisfaction experienced significant declines. Women at high socioeconomic risk, but not men, were disproportionately represented among the group with low initial and declining satisfaction. More research is needed to understand why socioeconomic risk impacts women's marital satisfaction differently.
The Self Related to Criminal Behavior Rough Draft KATKim Taylor
This document summarizes a research paper on the relationship between self-esteem and criminal behavior. The study examined 100 high school students (75 male, 25 female) who reported engaging in aggression in the past year. It found that those with low self-esteem were more likely to display aggression and engage in criminal acts, especially males who reported physical aggression. Recommendations included counseling, workshops, and extracurricular activities to improve self-esteem and reduce criminal behavior in minors.
This document describes a study that examined how self-monitoring personality types and the presence of friends or strangers affects bystander intervention in emergency situations. The study found:
1) There was a significant interaction between self-monitoring and familiarity that affected bystander intervention. High self-monitors were more likely to intervene with strangers, while low self-monitors were more likely to intervene with friends.
2) Familiarity alone (friends vs strangers) did not significantly impact bystander intervention.
3) Contrary to predictions, high self-monitors did not show higher rates of intervention overall, and low self-monitors did not show lower rates. Medium self-monitors actually had the highest intervention scores
The document discusses several theories related to human reproductive behaviour and relationship formation and development. It describes theories of sexual selection, social penetration theory, physical attractiveness, filter theory, social exchange theory, equity theory, investment model, and relationship dissolution model. Key concepts include anisogamy, inter-sexual selection, intra-sexual selection, self-disclosure, halo effect, matching hypothesis, comparison level, stages of relationship development, intrinsic and extrinsic investments, and the four phases of relationship dissolution. Research supporting and critiquing various aspects of the theories is also reviewed.
Lit review guide to nwriting literature reviewroxcine
The document summarizes five studies that examine the relationship between attachment and adolescent depression. The studies generally find that insecurely attached adolescents (ambivalent or avoidant) have higher levels of depression and lower self-esteem compared to securely attached adolescents. Limitations across the studies include their reliance on self-report measures, focus only on maternal relationships, and lack of longitudinal design. Overall, the literature review supports the hypothesis that attachment plays an important role in adolescent depression.
This study examined the relationship between gender identity and altruistic behavior, as measured by donations to charity. 471 college students completed a survey to determine their gender identity as masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated. They were then given the option to donate a $5 gift card to a food bank or keep it. While gender identity overall did not predict donations, those with a feminine identity donated more than those who were undifferentiated. The results provide partial support for the hypothesis but also indicate limitations in using the outdated measure of gender identity employed. Further research is needed using improved measures and additional variables.
This study examined the relationship between perceived attractiveness and intelligence. The researcher hypothesized that 1) attractive individuals would be perceived as more intelligent and 2) individuals who rate themselves as attractive would also rate themselves as above average in intelligence. Participants rated the attractiveness and perceived intelligence of photos of 23 individuals. While no correlation was found between attractiveness and intelligence ratings of photos, a significant positive correlation was found between self-rated attractiveness and intelligence. So the second hypothesis was supported but not the first. Limitations included using separate samples for attractiveness and intelligence ratings and not controlling for clothing in photos.
Biases are known to be ingrained in the human nature. Ironically, the bias starts reflecting in our approach to an individual’s health, even if the sufferer is a loved one, as we give priority to physical health over mental health. Many of the biases regarding mental health are inbuilt or are passed on from one generation to another.
1. The author participated in an online internship as a listener providing emotional support through conversations on the website 7CupsOfTea. They completed various training courses in counseling skills like active listening.
2. Research on the availability and affordability of mental health services in the US and globally found vast differences in access to quality care. Recommendations included improving access through primary care, community services, education, and increasing the mental health workforce.
3. Statistics show many guests on 7CupsOfTea seek support for school and work stress, and articles discuss the challenges women face balancing multiple responsibilities of work, family, and relationships. The author is awaiting a decision for a summer internship working with children
The document discusses stress, coping, and adjustment frameworks for understanding intercultural contact and transition. It outlines factors that influence the stress experience during cultural transition, including life changes, social support, coping resources, modes of acculturation, cultural distance, and experiences with prejudice and discrimination in the host culture. Psychological adjustment is viewed as a process that varies over time and is impacted by both societal and individual variables.
The document describes a study that aimed to 1) examine the relationships between peer pressure, conformity, and popularity and how they predict risk behaviors, and 2) develop and validate shorter measures of peer pressure and conformity for use in large-scale testing of adolescents. The study developed and validated short 10-item scales of peer pressure and conformity in a sample of 148 adolescent boys and girls. Results showed the new scales had good internal consistency. Peer pressure and conformity were found to be stronger predictors of risk behaviors like substance abuse than measures of popularity or general conformity. The new short scales of peer pressure and conformity were found to be equally or more predictive of risk behaviors than existing longer scales.
Positive Emotions Boost Enthusiastic Responsiveness to Capitalization Attempt...Maciej Behnke
The document describes a study that examined how eliciting positive and negative emotions influences responses to a partner's capitalization attempts. Participants in romantic relationships watched film clips designed to elicit positive, negative, or neutral emotions. They then responded to messages saying their partner had won money. Positive emotions facilitated enthusiastic responses like smiling, while negative emotions inhibited enthusiasm. These effects were mediated by emotional valence and smiling, but not physiological arousal. The results suggest positive emotions fuel enthusiastic support for a partner's accomplishments.
Critical Review of Research Evidence Part 3 FDRobert Cope
This document discusses trauma experienced by children in foster care and the potential for EMDR (eye movement desensitization and reprocessing) therapy to help address it. Children in foster care often experience trauma from being removed from their biological homes as well as potential abuse or neglect. They also face issues from multiple placements and aging out of the system unprepared. EMDR is presented as a promising 8-step therapy that could help youth resolve memories from traumatic experiences. The document examines the scope of problems faced by the foster care population and why addressing trauma is important to help youth as they transition into adulthood.
This presentation discusses empathy research and its applications to technology. It defines empathy as having both cognitive and affective components, including perspective-taking and feeling another's emotions. Studies show empathy increases with familiarity, similarity, learning, past experience, and salience. However, online interventions to increase empathy have mixed results and may paradoxically increase bias when perspective-taking is forced. The presenter's own research found the distraction condition reduced bias most, while empathy interventions increased self-centeredness. Moving forward, the presenter advocates reducing narcissism, strengthening self-esteem, and using collaboration to expand self-interest and create a sense of common humanity when designing empathy interventions online.
Autonomic Nervous System Activity During Positive Emotions: A Meta-Analytic R...Maciej Behnke
Autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity is a fundamental component of emotional responding. It is not clear, however, whether positive emotional states are associated with differential ANS reactivity. To address this issue, we conducted a meta-analytic review of 120 articles (686 effect sizes, total N = 6,546), measuring ANS activity during 11 elicited positive emotions, namely amusement, attachment love, awe, contentment, craving, excitement, gratitude, joy, nurturant love, pride, and sexual desire. We identified a widely dispersed collection of studies. Univariate results indicated that positive emotions produce no or weak and highly variable increases in ANS reactivity. However, the limitations of work to datewhich we discussmean that our conclusions should be treated as empirically grounded hypotheses that future research should validate.
Domestic violence psychologically affects victims and families in several ways. It can cause health issues for victims like depression, substance abuse, and chronic illness. Witnessing domestic violence can negatively impact children's development and behavior, lowering IQs and increasing aggression and emotional problems. Exposure to domestic violence has also been linked to intergenerational cycles of abuse, with children of abuse being more likely to become future victims or abusers themselves. Treatment for abusers and support for victims is important to help break these harmful cycles.
Bullying and suicide are closely related public health issues. Youth involved in bullying in any way, whether as the target, perpetrator, or witness, are at higher risk of negative mental health outcomes like depression and suicidal thoughts. While bullying does not directly cause suicide, it is one risk factor that may contribute to feelings of helplessness and hopelessness. Schools can help address this issue by fostering connectedness, teaching coping skills, supporting all students involved in bullying, empowering bystanders, and adopting comprehensive anti-bullying policies and programs. Ongoing research seeks to better understand these complex issues to guide prevention efforts.
This document discusses theories of addiction and how choice theory can be applied to addiction treatment in social work practice. It defines addiction according to the American Society of Addiction Medicine and outlines key concepts of choice theory such as basic human needs, the quality world, perceived world, and total behavior. The document argues that choice theory encourages empowerment of clients and self-determination, which aligns well with social work ethics. It also explores how choice theory can be used in various treatment settings and integrated with other social work skills and interventions.
The document summarizes a study examining how external incentives and intrinsic costs influence altruistic behaviors. The study manipulated the incentive (extra credit vs no extra credit) and cost (3 hours vs 15 minutes) of volunteer tasks. Participants rated their willingness to volunteer in each condition. Results showed participants were more willing to volunteer when incentive was high and cost was low, supporting the hypothesis that external factors have a greater influence than internal motivations. However, no interaction between incentive and cost was found, possibly due to low sample size. The study provides implications for using rewards to foster prosocial behaviors from a young age.
1) The document discusses how environmental cues like the color of plates food is served on can influence people's perceptions of the food's taste, with salty popcorn tasting sweeter from a blue or red bowl compared to a white bowl.
2) It describes a study showing that completing a physical act of closure, like closing a menu, can increase satisfaction with choices even when the options were undesirable.
3) A field experiment found that giving people a tangible coin with weekly savings goals scratched off was more effective at encouraging savings than financial incentives or reminder text messages alone.
This study examined the effects of pride for self versus pride for team on pro-social behavior, specifically charitable donations. 60 college students were randomly assigned to write about a time they felt proud of themselves or their team. They were then given $4 and the option to donate to a charity. While pride condition alone did not impact donations, an interaction was found - international students in the team pride condition donated more, while domestic students in the self pride condition donated more. The results suggest the type of pride induced can differentially influence pro-social behavior based on individuals' backgrounds.
Both these ideas were based on the underage consumption of alcohol.docxAASTHA76
Both these ideas were based on the underage consumption of alcohol lading to illegal behavior that is common in the college going students. Attachment theory stands on the concept that human beings have a natural desire and innate requirement of being appreciated and accepted by others. Survey then led to the confirmatory analysis which enforced two-factor of attachment theory, comprising parental affection or attachment and peer attachment, both these types of accessories represent trust, non-estrangement, and communication, Which means that all the adults or youngsters are emotionally attached to their parents or the people of their group (Foster, Vaughan, Foster, & Califano Jr, 2013).
The results manifested the hypotheses that sheltered peer attachment positively concluded behavioral control and values towards alcohol, but protected maternal affection inversely completed behavioral control and values towards alcohol. Alcohol norms, behavioral control and attitudes individually elaborate alcohol objective, which showed an elevation in this behavior within a month. All these findings reinforce recommendations for agenda created to shorten the risk levels of underage drinking using the idea of Attachment theory and Theory of planned behavior TPB.
I. Social Learning Theory:
This research is associated with the methods of getting alcohol in underage, use of substance, underage drinking and this kind of other deviations, this study consider the application of social learning theory. Youngsters under adulthood age are getting alcohol illegally. Past researches show that young alcohol abusers use other persons for this purpose, and these other individuals include any stranger who is adult enough to drink legally (Miller, Levy, Spicer, & Taylor, 2010).
This procedure of getting alcohol is called black marketing. It has been observed that black market organization was made while taking alcohol illegally in association with the other black market organization, other black market anomaly or global anomaly. For study purpose, use of black market sources defined as the utilization of an unknown person trying to obtain illegal substance like alcohol, drugs, etc. thus sources was labeled black market, if the individual participating was an unknown. The materials under consideration in this study include alcohol and marijuana. The study sample was comprised of undergraduate’s students from the organizational pool from a southeastern university.
The questionnaire was filled through the online survey and analyzed statistically by multivariate statistical techniques (Foster, et al., 2013).Youth alcohol consumption includes a lot of research work. This study covers almost all the aspects from divergence related to underage drinking to the hazardous results it causes on health. A huge part of the sample population is the college students. Binge drinking, underage drinking, and general drinking are considered by average or dominant America ...
This issue of O BEHAVE! provides summaries of recent behavioral science research on various topics:
1) A study found that spending money in ways that match one's personality was linked to higher happiness levels than total income.
2) Research on the hindsight bias and how it can prevent learning from mistakes is discussed.
3) Studies show that attributing success more to external factors like luck increases generosity, while internal attributes decrease support for redistributive policies.
4) Research demonstrated that hospital patients recovering from surgery had better outcomes if they had a view of trees rather than a brick wall from their window.
5) A study found that simply repeating key points in a discussion could change people
1) Research found that placing healthy foods to the left of unhealthy foods on menus and shelves can nudge people towards choosing healthier options by taking advantage of how the brain mentally maps magnitudes from left to right.
2) A study examined the neural correlates of altruism motivated by either compassion or reciprocity and found both activated similar brain regions but with different communication patterns between areas.
3) Additional research showed that a simple thank you can be more effective at making customers feel appreciated than minor financial rewards, which can undermine genuine gratitude by making it seem transactional.
The document summarizes a research study that investigated the relationship between perceptions of organizational politics and unethical behavior. The study found that:
1) Perceptions of politics were positively related to moral disengagement, which in turn was positively related to unethical pro-organizational behavior.
2) Prevention-focused individuals engaged in more moral disengagement when exposed to perceptions of politics, leading to increased unethical behavior.
3) The indirect effect of perceptions of politics on unethical behavior through moral disengagement was stronger for individuals with a prevention focus.
CheckPointGoal SelectionUsing the information presented in Ch. 7.docxbissacr
This document summarizes a chapter about personal goals and well-being. It discusses how goals provide purpose and direction for behavior. Well-defined, attainable goals are linked to well-being, while unrealistic or conflicting goals can cause distress. The chapter examines what goals are, how they are measured and organized, and how they relate to needs, values and culture. It explores how intrinsic and extrinsic goals may differently impact well-being. The "matching hypothesis" proposes that goals most contribute to well-being when a person's resources and strengths align with and support their goals. In short, this chapter analyzes how and why personal goals influence happiness and life satisfaction.
This document provides an overview and introduction to several research articles on emotions and consumer behavior that will be featured in the Journal of Consumer Research. It summarizes key findings and insights from the articles, which examine how different perspectives and cognitive processes can influence emotional experiences, the relationship between loneliness and different types of materialism, the impact of nostalgia on prosocial behaviors, how the meaning of happiness varies based on temporal focus, and how consumers regulate arousal in their emotions and consumption choices.
Running Head LITERATURE REVIEW1LITERATURE REVIEW6.docxwlynn1
Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW 1
LITERATURE REVIEW 6
Literature review
Literature review
The literature review aims to examine and evaluate the opinions, suggestions and assertions of different scholars about the overspending and overconsuming nature of millennials on materialistic items. The review takes a multi-disciplinary approach where the contribution of economics, psychology and adolescence studies are put into perspective. Moreover, the review seeks to examine and evaluate how the scholars relate to culture and area of origin of the millennials with their characteristics of overspending and overconsuming the materialistic items which they feel are necessary, but they are not required for survival.
Tania Modesto Veludo-de-Oliveira, Marcelo Augusto Falciano and Renato Villas-Boas Perito (2014) through a research study assessed the mediating and moderating roles of the credit card usage comparing the compulsive buying behaviour in relation to anxiety and distrust, retention-time and power-prestige. They found that the millennials with high levels of anxiety showed increased compulsive buying and hence misuse of credit cards. Tania Modesto Veludo-de-Oliveira, Marcelo Augusto Falciano and Renato Villas-Boas Perito (2014) notes that the finding of their research indicated non-significant mediation of credit card usage with regard to distrust effects on compulsive buying behaviour. Additionally, the levels of credit card usage did not reduce as a result of the price sensitivity of the millennials. The price sensitivity showed an over-spending effect when related to power-prestige and retention time.
Elkins (2017) examines how millennials spend their money in comparison with their parents. In support of a report from Charles Schwab, Elkins (2017) notes that the millennials spending is triggered by conveniences and comforts which makes them spend more than other generations. The study outlines pricey coffee, dining out and taxis as some of the comforts and conveniences on which the millennials overspend. In continuity, the study notes that approximately 60% of millennials spend money on purchasing clothes which they don’t necessarily require. Despite the over-spending and the over-consuming characteristics, the Charles Schwab report found out that the millennials are more planning-oriented than other generation groups including their parents. This note is in contradiction with the Elkins (2017) views that the millennials are falling short on savings due to the influence of over-spending.
Life’s core attitudes are largely influenced and locked in by the age of 5. This is an agreement brought forward by psychologists starting from the era of Sigmund feud going forward. In addition to contending with the agreement, Mauldin (2016) notes the historical living of the childhood influences the conclusion made by Neil Howe and William Strauss that a person's attitudes form in early childhood and the shaping of those attitudes. T.
Ogilvy Change is celebrating its 4th birthday after launching on a non-standard calendar date to encourage event attendance. The newsletter discusses behavioral experiments conducted by Ogilvy Change, how to effectively change minds on controversial issues, and research on how giving people the option to do nothing can increase engagement when they choose to continue with a task.
Journal Entries & T-AccountsACT300 Principles of Accounting IModul.docxchristiandean12115
Journal Entries & T-AccountsACT300 Principles of Accounting IModule 2: Critical Thinking Template Option #1Journal EntriesDateAccount NameT-AccountsJanuaryDebitCredit1CashCapital Stock23BalanceBalance4Accounts ReceivableAccounts Payable5BalanceBalance6Equipment7BalanceSupplies8BalanceRevenueBalanceRent ExpenseBalanceUnadjusted Trial BalanceAccount NameDebitCreditCash- 0Accounts receivable- 0Equipment- 0Supplies- 0Accounts payable- 0Capital stock- 0Revenue- 0Rent expense- 0 Total- 0- 0
Unadjusted Trial BalanceACT300 Principles of Accounting IModule 2: Critical Thinking Template Option #1Unadjusted Trial Balance[NAME OF COMPANY]Unadjusted Trial Balance[DATE]Account balancesAccountDebitCreditCashAccounts receivableEquipmentSuppliesAccounts payableCapital stockRevenueRent expense Totals$ -$ -
Bethany Fulcher
Professor Custer
Sociology 101
7/22/2018
Summary of an Academic Journal Article
The journal that I have decided to research served to answer the question of, to what extent are young adults engaging in “Relationship Work” with a partner and with a friend?”. These researchers focused on the differences that these behaviors caused within creating a functioning relationship that lasts within young couples. They decided to focus on dating couples because of a previous article about married couples that stated that relationships are greatly affected by outside factors like friends and family because they can influence the individual to believe that their status is either good or bad, (Proulx, Helms & Payne). This made the researchers believe there was still a piece missing in the study and that piece was young and fresh relationships. They wanted to know how this relationship work could change the overall wellbeing of that couple and how happy the two individuals were within it.
Before they surveyed the individuals, the authors came up with a few hypotheses. The first hypothesis that they explored was that females would be more willing to talk to their friends about relationship problems than their partners and that males would be the exact opposite, talking to their significant others more than their friends. The second hypothesis that they believed would be true is that unlike the study that observed older couples, younger relationships would struggle greatly if they were talking to their friends more than each other. This was assumed because the artists realized that older people tend to pick friends that would be more supportive of their relationships while younger people choose friends that trend to have information that can be “incorrect, misleading, and unsupportive.”(Jensen & Rauer).
The main factor that they were testing, or the dependent variable, was a combination of three different areas: happiness, commitment, and relationship quality. They used the quantitative method of surveying to sample individuals that both volunteered and were convenient to the authors. In other words, the researchers put out a questionnaire as ext.
Gender inequality persists in the workplace. While women now make up around half the workforce, they remain underrepresented in leadership positions and continue to earn less than men for similar work. This pay gap can be partially explained by women more often taking on lower-paying jobs and prioritizing family responsibilities over career advancement. However, gender biases and stereotypes also contribute significantly to inequality. Studies show women are judged more harshly than men and face barriers when breaking from traditional gender norms. Overcoming inequality will require addressing its deep-seated structural and societal causes, not just individual factors.
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The document summarizes a study that investigated whether emotional closeness to the target of an upward physical appearance comparison moderates the effectiveness of self-help strategies for reducing body dissatisfaction. Sixty-three female undergraduate students recalled a recent upward appearance comparison and were guided through one of three self-help strategies: cultivating compassion, favorable social comparison, or distraction. Results showed that emotional closeness to the comparison target did not impact the effectiveness of the interventions on subsequent measures of body image and affect. The study contributes to understanding how social relationships influence responses to strategies for managing body dissatisfaction.
The document discusses several explanations for media influences on pro-social and anti-social behaviour. It summarizes research on how viewing pro-social models on TV can increase helpful behaviours in children. It also discusses how viewing violent media can lead to increased aggression through excitation transfer and emotional desensitization. The document also reviews theories of persuasion, celebrity attraction, and extreme fan behaviour.
A Study On Cooperation And Cultural Priming TestedEvelyn Donaldson
The study tested whether priming participants with American or Chinese cultural symbols would influence their tendency towards cooperation or individualism. 171 bi-cultural participants were randomly assigned to be primed with either Chinese symbols, American symbols, or neutral images. They then played a prisoner's dilemma game either alone or with partners. The study measured cooperation levels, expectations of partner cooperation, and motivation to maximize cooperative benefits. The results provided insight into how cultural priming can influence frame-switching behaviors among bi-cultural individuals.
This document analyzes whether education leads to greater sympathy towards income inequality using data from the General Social Survey. The author finds that college-educated respondents were more likely to disagree with the statement that income differences reflect opportunities, indicating they were more sympathetic to inequality. While controlling for gender, race, and age, college education remained positively associated with sympathy. The author concludes that education may foster values like equality that increase concern for less fortunate groups and their access to resources. However, they note more research is needed due to limitations and the relationship between education and affluence.
1) The document summarizes research on mimicry behavior of males in relationships and the presence of attractive female alternatives. It examines past studies on mimicry and its relationship to attraction, and the concepts of self-control and how mindsets shape it.
2) One study found that people in romantic relationships mimicked attractive alternatives of the opposite sex less than those not in relationships. Relationship status influenced mimicry even when relationship status was unknown.
3) Another study showed unconscious mimicry is used as a social distance mechanism, with people increasing mimicry to show interest or decreasing it to show desired distance.
1. Effect of Money Prime on Altruism and Self-Efficacy 1
Does Money Make us Selfish?
The Effect of Priming Money on Altruistic Behavior and Self-Efficacy
Nathaniel Furey
Northwestern University
12/9/13
2. Effect of Money Prime on Altruism and Self-Efficacy 2
Abstract
Money appears to have a complex relationship with human behavior and well-being. While it is
a necessity to obtain basic biological needs such as food, water, and shelter, the pursuit of wealth
has been shown to promote higher levels of antisocial behavior. Namely, previous research has
shown that it increases self-sufficiency and motivation to achieve goals, but decreases the desire
to cooperate socially and help others. In our experiment, we attempted to find a causal
relationship between different amounts of money shown to participants and both their self-
efficacy and altruistic behavior. Participants were shown one of three primes; the experimental
conditions were shown an image of hundred dollar bills or an image of pennies and asked to
estimate the value in dollars, while the control group was shown an image of jellybeans and
asked to estimate the total amount depicted. They were then given a questionnaire that measured
their life satisfaction, self-efficacy, and altruistic intentions for the upcoming year. We
hypothesized that priming larger amounts of money would lead to smaller donation amounts and
that higher levels of individual self-efficacy would lead to larger donation amounts, but our
results did not provide support for either of these conclusions. However, our hypothesis that
priming larger amounts of money would lead to participants reporting lower levels of self-
efficacy was supported in that the average level of self-efficacy for each condition correlated
negatively to the amount of money primed.
3. Effect of Money Prime on Altruism and Self-Efficacy 3
Introduction
There is a nearly endless list of proverbs and adages touting the joys of wealth and
attesting to the destructive nature of greed. Because money can be perceived with such
conflicting attitudes and use of currency has been so deeply ingrained in the social functioning of
humans for thousands of years, it is a topic of great interest to social psychologists. The ways in
which money affect self-perception and behavior have immediate and important implications, as
money is a commodity with which people directly or indirectly come into contact everyday. In
this experiment we focused on self-efficacy as a dimension of self-perception and behavior in the
form of altruistic intent. More specifically, we attempted to find a causal relationship between
an amount of money displayed on a computer screen that varied across experimental conditions
and both altruistic intentions for the upcoming year and perceived self-efficacy. We also
attempted to see if higher levels of self-efficacy would lead to a higher level of intended altruistic
behavior.
In order to donate money to charity, a person must have enough so that they can still meet
their basic needs on top of what they plan to give. A reasonable extension of this idea is that
those with more expendable income will donate more in general. Previous research, however,
provides evidence to the contrary. In one experiment, participants were given two dollars in
quarters that were said to be leftover from an earlier study, primed with money or neutral stimuli
depending on condition, and told that the laboratory was taking donations at the “conclusion” of
the experiment. Even though both conditions had the same amount of unexpected, extra income,
the condition primed with money donated significantly less than the control (Vohs, Mead, &
Goode, 2006). This suggests that when an individual is thinking about money, they are less
4. Effect of Money Prime on Altruism and Self-Efficacy 4
likely to donate money, regardless of his or her wealth. In another experiment participants were
asked how they would respond to a water shortage affecting either “consumers” in the
experimental condition, or “individuals” in the control condition. The participants in the
experimental condition showed significantly lower levels of personal responsibility, trust in
others, and social cooperation (Bauer, Wilkie, Kim, & Bodenhausen, 2012). This further
supports the idea that ones wealth in and of itself does not promote altruistic behavior. It also
suggests that a materialistic mindset will lead to relatively more antisocial behavior. Based on
our belief that priming larger amounts of money would trigger a materialistic state of mind, we
predicted that being primed with larger amounts of money would lead to lower planned donation
amounts.
In the context of this experiment, self-efficacy is defined as ones confidence in his or her
ability to complete tasks and accomplish goals. Past research has demonstrated a causal
relationship between being primed with money and valuing self-sufficiency. In one such
experiment, an experimental condition was primed with money while a control condition was
not, and all participants were given a difficult problem with the option of aid from a confederate.
It was found that individuals primed with money waited significantly longer before they asked
the confederate for help (Vohs, et al, 2006). This can either indicate that priming money
increases self-efficacy and participants work alone because they are more confident in their own
abilities, or that it decreases self-efficacy and participants feel the need to work alone in order to
restore confidence in their own abilities. In one experiment where participants were shown
either luxury goods or neutral stimuli, viewing luxury goods was correlated with negative affect
(Bauer, et al, 2012). Because a materialist mindset is correlated to negative affect, and negative
affect is likely to be linked to low self-confidence, it would follow that the self-sufficiency
5. Effect of Money Prime on Altruism and Self-Efficacy 5
described in Vohs, et al (2006) is the result of lower self-efficacy as opposed to higher self-
efficacy. A more self-efficacious person will by definition feel more in control of his or her
finances, so he or she may feel more capable of giving to charity than a less self-efficacious
person. Due to our sample consisting of college undergraduates who we assumed would not
have much disposable income, and our belief that self-sufficient participants in the study by
Vohs, et al (2006) were less likely to donate money to the laboratory because of low self-
efficacy, we predicted that higher levels of self-efficacy would lead to larger donation amounts.
As previously stated, we believe the self-sufficiency displayed in the experiments of
Vohs, et al (2006) to be the result of a money prime lowering self-efficacy as opposed to raising
it. Namely, it is likely that participants felt the need to be more self-sufficient in order to restore
the self-confidence they lost in thinking about money or wealth. Viewing luxury goods has been
linked to increases in negative affect across dimensions of depression, anxiety, and self-
dissatisfaction (Bauer, et al, 2012). Higher levels of depression, anxiety, and shame would lead
to lower confidence in ones abilities, so it does not make sense for priming money to increase
self-efficacy. Indeed, a correlational study examining the relationship between self-efficacy and
depression among Iranian adolescents found a significant negative correlation between self-
efficacy and depressive symptoms, and integral component of which is negative affect
(Ghofranipour, Saffari, Mahmoudi, & Montazeri, 2013). We believe viewing images of money
will cause people to think either of material items they want but do not have, or more generally
of the financial success they wish to, but have not yet, achieved. Furthermore, given that our
sample is composed of college undergraduates, it is highly unlikely that any have met all of their
professional goals at this point in their lives. Because there is evidence to show that priming
individuals with stimuli related to money leads to increased negative affect and that depressive
6. Effect of Money Prime on Altruism and Self-Efficacy 6
symptoms such as negative affect are negatively correlated with self-efficacy, we predicted that
priming larger amounts of money would lead to lower levels of self-efficacy.
Methods
Participants
99 Northwestern University students (N=95, MAge=20.23, SDAge=1.71; 59 females; 52% White;
24% Asian; 3% Indian; 4% Latino; 8% Multiracial; 8% Black; 1% Middle Eastern) were
recruited by our class for an experiment that consisted of a visual prime followed by a
questionnaire. 4 participants’ data were excluded due to either incorrect answers on questions
intended to gauge an adequate level of attention to the questionnaire or obvious insincerity in
answering the questions.
Procedure
The experiment consisted of a visual prime, which served as the independent variable,
followed by a questionnaire, which measured dependent variables of altruistic behavior, life
satisfaction, and self-efficacy. Consent was obtained from participants via an opening question
that stated all responses to the upcoming survey would remain anonymous and confidential, that
it would take about 10 minutes to complete, and that questions which made the participant feel
uncomfortable could be skipped. The survey commenced if the participant elected to continue.
7. Effect of Money Prime on Altruism and Self-Efficacy 7
Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions, two experimental and
one control, and each condition was shown a different visual prime. The experimental
conditions were shown images of money and asked to estimate the value in dollars, and the
control group was shown an image jellybeans and asked to estimate the total number depicted.
Participants then completed the questionnaire that gauged their altruistic behavior, life
satisfaction, and self-efficacy.
Materials
The visual primes for the two experimental conditions were an image of a stack of one
hundred dollar bills and an image of several stacks of pennies. The visual prime for the control
condition was an image of a jar of jellybeans. As stated before, participants were asked to
estimate the dollar amount or number of jellybeans depending on the condition to which they
were assigned.
The questionnaire consisted of 31 items intended to gauge altruistic behavior, life
satisfaction, self-efficacy, demographic information, and attention to the questions. The first
section asked participants about their altruistic behavior, namely a question the amount they
would donate in 2014, a series of three questions regarding their participation in philanthropic
activities, two questions about the charitable causes and scopes of charitable organizations they
found to be most important, and a question asking whether or not they donated money to aid
typhoon victims in the Philippines and why. Following this line of questioning were the five
questions that compose the Satisfaction with Life scale (Diener, et al, 1985). A series of ten
questions intended to gauge participants’ self-efficacy came next. Finally, demographic
8. Effect of Money Prime on Altruism and Self-Efficacy 8
information in the form of age, gender, region of birth, environment of upbringing, ethnicity, and
class year were obtained. The questionnaire concluded with a question asking the participant
what image he or she saw at the beginning of the survey. The fourth item in the series of
questions regarding participation in philanthropic activities and the tenth item in the series of
questions regarding self-efficacy asked the participant to choose a specific score value in order to
ensure he or she was paying attention to each individual questions of the survey.
For the scales intended to measure life satisfaction and self-efficacy, reliability scores of
.80 and .78 were calculated, respectively. Thus, these scales were averaged into indexes. For the
scale intended to measure altruistic behavior, a reliability score of only .51 was calculated. As a
result, each item in that scale needed to be treated as a separate variable.
Results
The five questions composing Diener’s Satisfaction with Life Scale (1985) were scored
on a seven point Likert scale and the scores were averaged into an index. Values ranged from
2.8-7.0, with higher values reflecting higher life satisfaction (N = 95; M = 5.16, SD = .97). The
self-efficacy scale consisted of ten items scored on a four point Likert scale, of which scores
were also averaged into an index. Values ranged from 2.3-4.0 with higher values representing
higher self-efficacy (N = 95; M = 3.16, SD =.34). Because we could not create an index from the
questions regarding altruistic behavior, we used the amount participants planned on donating in
2014 as a measure of altruism. This question contained eight items, with the first being zero
dollars, the eighth being over $300, and the intermediate six contained varying ranges of money
between one and $299 (N = 95; M = 4.15, SD = 2.052).
9. Effect of Money Prime on Altruism and Self-Efficacy 9
The amount of money primed did not appear to have an effect on the amount of money
participants planned on donating in the upcoming year [F(2,92)=.76, p = .47], disconfirming our
hypothesis that priming larger amounts of money would lead to lower donation amounts for
2014. No significant correlation was found between self-efficacy and the amount to be donated
in 2014 [r(95) = -.046, p < .05], disconfirming our hypothesis that self-efficacy would lead to
larger donation amounts in 2014. Participants primed with hundred dollar bills showed
significantly less self-efficacy than the control group [F(2,92) = 5.14, p = .008]. This confirmed
our hypothesis that priming larger amounts of money would lead to lower levels of self-efficacy.
It is also noteworthy that life satisfaction was positively correlated to both self-efficacy [r(95) =
.242, p < .05] and the amount to be donated in 2014 [r(95) = .355, p < .01].
Figure 1: Effect of Money Prime Amount on Donation Intentions
10. Effect of Money Prime on Altruism and Self-Efficacy 10
Figure 2: Effect of Money Prime on Self-Efficacy
Discussion
Our experiment did not find evidence to support our hypothesis that larger money primes
should lead to lower donation amounts. It is possible that priming money does not have a
significant effect on altruistic behavior, but the results of similar experiments conducted by
Vohs, et al (2006) and Bauer, et al (2012), demonstrate a markedly low propensity to donate to
charity when money is primed and higher levels of selfishness when consumerism is primed.
This would suggest that priming with money should have some kind of effect on altruistic
behavior. The fact that we were unable to create an index out of our scale intended to measure
altruistic behavior throws the construct validity of these measurements into question.
Furthermore, the amount an individual plans to donate as a dependent variable is unusually
susceptible to participant error. For example, if a participant gives $300 to charity per year on
average, and he or she stated an intention to donate $200 the following year after being primed
11. Effect of Money Prime on Altruism and Self-Efficacy 11
with hundred dollar bills, it could indicate an effect of the prime that the experiment cannot
detect. Although it would make the survey more invasive, a question asking participants to enter
the amount they donated to charity over the prior year or over a range of previous years could be
added. If taken directly from tax records, this value would not be susceptible to individual bias
or influence from the money prime. The difference between the donation value or average and
the amount a participant planned on donating in 2014 as a measure of altruism would act as a
normalization of the donation amount values we used and also minimize participant error.
We did not find evidence to support our hypothesis that participants displaying higher
levels of self-efficacy would donate more to charity on average than those with lower levels of
self-efficacy. We predicted that if an individual felt more confident in his abilities to succeed, he
or she would feel more capable to give to charity, and would give more as a result. However, as
the research of Vohs, et al (2006) has shown, ability to give to charity is not the dominant effect
after money is primed, so our results are not entirely surprising. It is worth noting that
significant positive correlations were found between life satisfaction and self-efficacy, as well as
life satisfaction and the amount to be donated. The interconnectedness between these variables
suggests that the relationship between all three merits further investigation. It is likely that self-
efficacy has an indirect effect on altruistic behavior, given its positive correlation to life
satisfaction and life satisfaction’s positive correlation to altruistic behavior. More
comprehensive research on the effect of life satisfaction on altruistic behavior is also warranted,
as our results suggest it is a more significant contributor to altruistic behavior than self-efficacy.
A study consisting of multiple experiments, one or more of which that explore a causal
relationship between life satisfaction and altruistic behavior, and one or more of which that
12. Effect of Money Prime on Altruism and Self-Efficacy 12
explore the possibility of self-efficacy as a mediating variable, could shed more light on the
correlational data we found.
There was support for our hypothesis that priming larger amounts of money would lead
to lower levels of self-efficacy. This was in line with our prediction based on the studies of
Bauer, et al (2012), which found support for a causal relationship between priming luxury goods
and negative affect, and Ghofranipour, et al (2012), which found a negative correlation between
depressive symptoms and self-efficacy. This relationship could exist for a number of reasons, all
of which are worth exploring. Participants primed with money may be reminded of material
goods they want, but cannot afford or they may be reminded of their professional goals that they
have yet to achieve. More specifically, given that our sample consisted of undergraduate college
students who likely cannot pay tuition on their own, priming money may also remind them of
large, impending amounts of student loan debt or the fact that they are incapable of paying for
their own educations; two lines of thinking that could lead to feeling a lack of control over ones
finances.
Because our sample consists only of college undergraduates at an expensive private
university, our results are not very generalizable, but this could be remedied simply by
modifying the sample to include a larger and more varied population. A more general study in
the same format could show whether or not these results are specific to college students. It could
also be modified to test the hypothesis that priming larger amounts of money leads to lower self-
efficacy by reminding participants of what they haven’t achieved; a scale measuring satisfaction
in achieving professional and financial goals could be included, and when participants are with
an image of a large amount of money, it can be determined if those who score highly show
similarly low levels of self-efficacy to those who do not. Even though our study is not highly
13. Effect of Money Prime on Altruism and Self-Efficacy 13
generalizable, the results we obtained from the sample we used suggest unique questions for
further research relevant to college students that would not be obtained from a more
generalizable study. An experiment separating conditions based on student loan debt could be
used to measure self-efficacy as a function of said debt. Also, the effect of tuition cost and a
school’s reputation on both self-efficacy and life satisfaction would be worth exploring.
Separating conditions based on high or low tuition and high or low notoriety, and measuring the
resultant life satisfaction and self-efficacy would accomplish this. Finally, an experiment that
separates participants into conditions of full-time students, part-time students and part-time
workers, full-time students and part-time workers, and full-time workers and full-time students
could be used to measure the relationship between employment and self-efficacy and life
satisfaction. Data from these hypothetical experiments would have valuable applications with
regard to the mental and emotional health of college-aged adults.
The two main limitations of this experiment are most likely the construct validity of the
amount to be donated in 2014 as a measure of altruistic behavior and the relatively small sample
size in conjunction with the haphazard sampling method used to recruit participants. As stated
before, the fact that we could not form an index out of the scale intended to measure altruism
indicates that some, if not all, items in the scale are not ideal representations for the dependent
variable of altruism. Possible solutions to this include running pilot studies until a scale with
high enough reliability to be averaged into an index is determined, or to ask participants to input
the amounts he or she donated in the previous years, average them, and take the difference
between this value and the amount to be donated so as to normalize intent to donate as a variable.
The sample size and method may also have had a confounding effect on our results due to how
susceptible our dependent variable measuring altruistic behavior was to participant error. For
14. Effect of Money Prime on Altruism and Self-Efficacy 14
example, there was no way of controlling for variation in economic background among
participants, a factor that can vary significantly among Northwestern students. While we cannot
say for sure that this would have an effect on altruistic behavior, it cannot be discounted as a
variable given its close relation to money as a general concept.
While the internal validity with regard to our two disconfirmed hypotheses is
questionable, it is much higher with regard to our confirmed hypothesis. This is because
possible confounds that may have affected results relevant to our disconfirmed hypotheses, lack
of reliability in our altruism measure and lack of economic demographic information, should not
significantly affect how participants rate self-efficacy, as confidence in ones ability to succeed is
not inherently connected to socioeconomic background. Furthermore, as Northwestern
University is very selective with regard to admissions, students are more likely to have a
similarly high motivation to succeed than they are to come from the same economic strata.
The results of our experiment disconfirmed two of our hypotheses and confirmed one.
We did not find evidence to support our predictions that priming larger amounts of money would
lead to lower levels of altruistic behavior or that higher levels of self-efficacy would lead to
higher levels of altruistic behavior. It is possible that this is because there is no relationship to be
found, but it is also likely that a lack of construct validity for our measure of altruism and our
sampling method acted to confound our results. Our hypothesis that priming larger amounts of
money would lead to lower feelings of self-efficacy was confirmed. This could be due to
participants being reminded of what they do not have or have not achieved, or it could be an
effect specific to the financial struggles of college undergraduates, of which our sample
consisted. After determining a more reliable scale to altruistic behavior and changing the
sampling method so that socioeconomic background is controlled, the study could be generalized
15. Effect of Money Prime on Altruism and Self-Efficacy 15
by selecting participants from a larger population. It can also be used as a basis to further
explore relationships between self-efficacy, life satisfaction, and finances among college
students.
16. Effect of Money Prime on Altruism and Self-Efficacy 16
References
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Situational Materialism Undermines Personal and Social Well-Being. Psychological
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Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction with Life Scale.
Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71-75.
Ghofranipour, F., Saffari, M., Mahmoudi, M., & Montazeri, A. (2013). Demographical and
Psychological Determinants of Depression, Among a Sample of Iranian Male
Adolescents. International Journal of Preventive Medicine, 4(10), 1217-1223.
Vohs, K. D., Mead, N. L., & Goode, M. R. (2006). The Psychological Consequences of Money.
Science, 314, 1154-1156.