The paper introduces and evaluates six soft approaches used in strategy development and planning. (SWOT analysis, the Future Workshop, the Scenario methodology, Strategic Option Development and Analysis, Strategic Choice Approach and Soft Systems Methodology)
Systems theory provides a framework for viewing organizations as complex systems comprised of interrelated and interdependent parts. It recognizes that organizations are open systems that import and export resources to their environment. An organization can be understood as a dynamic, living organism. The learning organization applies systems theory by emphasizing continual learning, adaptation, and growth through effective communication that allows for more than the sum of individual contributions.
General Systems Theory proposes that organizations can be understood as open systems that import and export resources with their environment. Key concepts of the theory include synergy, interdependence, and interconnections between organizational subsystems and with the external environment. The theory aims to provide a framework for describing and explaining organizational behavior rather than prescribing specific practices. Contingency Theory extended Systems Theory by proposing that there is no single best way to structure an organization and that the appropriate structure depends on environmental factors and conditions.
The document discusses system theory and its application to organizational development. It provides an overview of key aspects of system theory including:
- System theory views organizations as open systems that exchange with their environments.
- Ludwig von Bertalanffy first described general systems theory in 1950 and Kenz & Kahn applied open systems theory to organizations in 1966.
- Organizations can be analyzed using models like the congruence model, which depicts the organization as an input-output system transforming inputs from the environment, resources, and history into outputs like performance.
The document discusses the system theory, which views organizations as sets of interconnected and interdependent parts. It describes system theory's key premises, including that organizational success relies on synergy between subsystems like departments and employees. The document outlines characteristics of system theory like boundaries and goal-directedness. It also discusses advantages like facilitating environmental interaction and disadvantages like impracticality. Finally, it explains how system theory is used in modern organizations to measure performance and interactions between individuals and departments.
General systems theory provides a framework for understanding systems as interconnected and interdependent entities that interact with their environment. Some key aspects of systems theory relevant to information systems design include: conceptualizing the system as a whole prior to examining subsystems; defining the goals, inputs, outputs, and transformation processes of the system; accounting for entropy and feedback mechanisms; recognizing that systems have a hierarchical structure and differentiated parts; and allowing for equifinality in design. Systems theory emphasizes taking a holistic view of the system and understanding the relationships between its components.
Systems theory describes organizations as sets of interconnected subsystems that both affect and are affected by their external environment. An open system organization is responsive to this environment, continually adjusting to maintain balance, with permeable boundaries between internal and external influences. In contrast, a closed system has impermeable boundaries and does not adapt to changes, focusing only on internal goals. For public relations, an open systems approach is preferable, as it allows an organization to proactively monitor, anticipate, and respond to feedback from external publics.
Open Systems Theory (OST) views organizations as open systems that are influenced by and influence their external environments through a process of mutual adaptation. An open system must actively adapt to changing values and expectations in its external environment in order to remain viable over time. OST recognizes that organizations exist within broader social, economic, political, and technological contexts and must respond to changes in these environments to succeed.
Systems theory provides a framework for viewing organizations as complex systems comprised of interrelated and interdependent parts. It recognizes that organizations are open systems that import and export resources to their environment. An organization can be understood as a dynamic, living organism. The learning organization applies systems theory by emphasizing continual learning, adaptation, and growth through effective communication that allows for more than the sum of individual contributions.
General Systems Theory proposes that organizations can be understood as open systems that import and export resources with their environment. Key concepts of the theory include synergy, interdependence, and interconnections between organizational subsystems and with the external environment. The theory aims to provide a framework for describing and explaining organizational behavior rather than prescribing specific practices. Contingency Theory extended Systems Theory by proposing that there is no single best way to structure an organization and that the appropriate structure depends on environmental factors and conditions.
The document discusses system theory and its application to organizational development. It provides an overview of key aspects of system theory including:
- System theory views organizations as open systems that exchange with their environments.
- Ludwig von Bertalanffy first described general systems theory in 1950 and Kenz & Kahn applied open systems theory to organizations in 1966.
- Organizations can be analyzed using models like the congruence model, which depicts the organization as an input-output system transforming inputs from the environment, resources, and history into outputs like performance.
The document discusses the system theory, which views organizations as sets of interconnected and interdependent parts. It describes system theory's key premises, including that organizational success relies on synergy between subsystems like departments and employees. The document outlines characteristics of system theory like boundaries and goal-directedness. It also discusses advantages like facilitating environmental interaction and disadvantages like impracticality. Finally, it explains how system theory is used in modern organizations to measure performance and interactions between individuals and departments.
General systems theory provides a framework for understanding systems as interconnected and interdependent entities that interact with their environment. Some key aspects of systems theory relevant to information systems design include: conceptualizing the system as a whole prior to examining subsystems; defining the goals, inputs, outputs, and transformation processes of the system; accounting for entropy and feedback mechanisms; recognizing that systems have a hierarchical structure and differentiated parts; and allowing for equifinality in design. Systems theory emphasizes taking a holistic view of the system and understanding the relationships between its components.
Systems theory describes organizations as sets of interconnected subsystems that both affect and are affected by their external environment. An open system organization is responsive to this environment, continually adjusting to maintain balance, with permeable boundaries between internal and external influences. In contrast, a closed system has impermeable boundaries and does not adapt to changes, focusing only on internal goals. For public relations, an open systems approach is preferable, as it allows an organization to proactively monitor, anticipate, and respond to feedback from external publics.
Open Systems Theory (OST) views organizations as open systems that are influenced by and influence their external environments through a process of mutual adaptation. An open system must actively adapt to changing values and expectations in its external environment in order to remain viable over time. OST recognizes that organizations exist within broader social, economic, political, and technological contexts and must respond to changes in these environments to succeed.
1. A system is a collection of interconnected elements that work together towards a common goal. A healthcare system can be analyzed using a systems approach that views it as having inputs, processes, outputs, and feedback.
2. Applying a systems approach to healthcare involves analyzing it across four levels - the individual patient, care teams, healthcare organizations, and the broader political/economic environment. This allows understanding how each component interacts and influences outcomes.
3. Adopting a systems approach in Bangladesh's healthcare would help move it from the current disorganized model to one with better coordination and synergies between different entities, leading to improved quality of care.
This document provides an overview of systems theory. It discusses that systems theory views an organization as an organism made up of interconnected subsystems that must work together. Key aspects of systems theory discussed include that it emphasizes communication between subsystems, takes a holistic view of the organization, and recognizes that organizations cannot be separated from their environment. The document also notes some limitations of systems theory in that it is not prescriptive and can be difficult to apply to practical problems.
Systems theory or general systems theory or systemics is an interdisciplinary field which studies systems as a whole.
Systems theory was founded by Ludwig von Bertalanffy, William Ross Ashby and others between the 1940s and the 1970s on principles from physics, biology and engineering and later grew into numerous fields including philosophy, sociology, organizational theory, management, psychotherapy (within family systems therapy) and economics among others.
Elements of system theory
Goal orientation
Subsystem
Synergy
System boundary
Flow
Feedback
Open or closed system
Systems thinking is an approach that views problems as parts of an overall system and considers the relationships and interactions between system components. It emphasizes understanding how various parts of a system influence each other over time and understanding the system's overall behavior. Systems thinking draws from various disciplines like biology, engineering, and sociology and uses concepts like feedback loops, open and closed systems, and emergence to study how systems function and change. It provides a holistic perspective that helps address complex problems more effectively.
This document provides an overview of systems theory as it relates to social work. It defines systems theory as examining how individuals, groups, organizations, and communities interact as interconnected parts of a whole. It discusses key concepts in systems theory including boundaries, interactions, feedback loops, and homeostasis. Examples are given of how systems theory can be applied to understand issues like school refusal from an ecological perspective considering the interactions between family members and other systems. The strengths of systems theory are that it takes a holistic view and allows for an eclectic approach, while weaknesses include a lack of specificity and potentially overemphasizing stability over change.
Systems theory - Organizational Change and Development - Manu Melwin Joymanumelwin
Systems Theory was first introduced by Van Bertalanffy (1950) and was introduced into the organisational setting by Kataz and Khan (1966).
Systems theory is an approach to organizations which likens the enterprise to an organism with interdependent parts, each with its own specific function and interrelated responsibilities.
The document discusses the system approach to viewing organizations. The system approach views an organization as a group of interrelated and independent parts working towards a common goal. An organization is composed of parts that interact and relate to each other, and the activity of any one part can affect other parts. The system approach provides managers a way to view the organization as a unified, goal-oriented system composed of interrelated parts. It considers the basic elements of input, process, output, and feedback and key features like being goal-directed, having sub-systems, and information flows within open or closed systems. The system approach provides an integrated view of organizations and is useful for studying complex systems.
General Systems Theory and Systems AnalysiseKindling.org
This document provides an overview of system analysis and information systems. It defines key concepts such as systems, subsystems, inputs/outputs, feedback, and control. It describes the role of the systems analyst and the skills they require, including technical knowledge, business knowledge, and people skills. The document also outlines different types of information systems such as transaction processing systems, management information systems, and decision support systems.
Systems approach views an organization as a collection of interrelated parts working together to achieve common goals. Ludwig von Bertalanffy is considered the founder of this approach, which sees understanding a system by knowing both its individual parts and how they relate. There are two types of systems - open systems that actively interact with the external environment, and closed systems that ignore outside influences. The systems approach aims to provide a holistic, integrated view of an organization and how it functions within its wider context.
Systems theory views the world as a complex set of relationships between different components. There are two types of systems - open systems that interact with their environment and closed systems that do not. All systems generate feedback that can encourage or discourage change through positive and negative feedback loops. Most systems seek a steady state of equilibrium, but can also experience dynamic equilibrium involving gradual change over time. If too many pressures are placed on a system, it can suddenly tip into a new state of metastable equilibrium through abrupt change.
This document provides an overview of the evolution of organization theory from the late 19th century to present day. It discusses early contributors like Adam Smith, the Industrial Revolution, and classical theorists like Taylor, Fayol, and Weber. It then covers the human relations movement sparked by the Hawthorne Studies, Douglas McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y, and the contingency approach. The document traces how organization theory has shifted from viewing organizations as closed rational systems to more open social systems and discusses the major frameworks and perspectives that have emerged over time to understand organizations.
This document discusses the system approach and its application to management. It defines a system as interrelated parts that form a unified whole. A company is presented as a system with different departments like finance, HR, marketing, and production working towards a common goal. Key features of systems discussed include their arrangement, boundaries, and ability to transform inputs like resources into outputs like products or services. Management is described as an open social system that dynamically interacts with its environment. The four main parts of a system - inputs, transformation process, outputs, and feedback - are also outlined. Advantages of the systems approach include providing managers a holistic view while disadvantages include lack of specific tools and potential impracticality for smaller organizations.
A system is defined as a set of interacting or interdependent components forming an integrated whole. Systems can be open or closed, natural or human-made. Key concepts in systems include boundaries, inputs, outputs, feedback, and subsystems. Fields that study systems properties include systems science, engineering, and complexity. While systems provide benefits like reduced errors and time savings, they also present disadvantages such as dependence, expense, and need for monitoring.
The document discusses the systems approach to management. It describes a system as a set of interrelated parts working towards a common goal. It identifies the key elements of a system as inputs, transformation processes, outputs, and feedback. The systems approach views an organization holistically and emphasizes the interdependence of its various parts and the environment. Managers use this approach to coordinate activities, anticipate consequences, and solve problems comprehensively rather than through a piecemeal process.
The document discusses how an organization's structure is influenced by its environment. It defines the general and specific environments and describes how environmental uncertainty can vary. When uncertainty is high, organizations tend toward organic structures that are flexible and adaptive, while stable environments suit mechanistic structures. Different models of environmental types are presented, from placid to turbulent. Organizational change is described as a three-stage process of variation, selection, and retention. The relationship between environment and an organization's complexity, formalization, and centralization is explained. High uncertainty leads to greater complexity and decentralization, while stability allows for formality and centralization.
Compare and contrast the classical approach and systemLikenzyNelzy
The classical approach views the organization in terms of its structure and management processes. It focuses on specialization, centralized leadership, and high productivity but does not consider worker well-being. The system approach sees the organization as a system of interrelated parts that form a whole unit. It pays attention to the overall effectiveness and interdependencies within the system rather than just production efficiency. While the classical approach provides tools and techniques for managers, the system approach does not but is more applicable to practical problems. Both acknowledge the importance of division of labor and organizational objectives but the system approach focuses more on interrelations within the organization.
The document discusses organizations as systems. It defines an organization as a rational coordination of activities by a group of people to achieve common goals. A system is defined as a set of elements that interact to accomplish goals. The document then discusses how to develop a system using steps like system analysis, survey, feasibility study, design, programming, conversion, production and maintenance. It also discusses different types of systems such as conceptual, empirical, natural, open, closed, permanent, temporary and dynamic systems.
Dr. Nina Aversano earned her doctorate in management from Case Western Reserve University and teaches courses on international business management and organizational behavior as an assistant professor at the College of Mount Saint Vincent in New York. Some key organizational behavior theories that help groups work more efficiently include scientific leadership, which uses time and motion studies to optimize job methods and timeframes, cognitive theories that acknowledge a changing social environment, and the systems approach which considers inputs, outputs, and processes with a feedback loop for modifications.
General systems theory views the whole as more than the sum of its parts. Characteristics of complex systems emerge from interactions between parts and cannot be explained by examining parts alone. Systems are abstract models that explain some aspect of the world and rules for its operation. A system consists of elements, boundaries, relations, causes, and qualities that are properties of the whole.
This document provides an overview of organization theory from a textbook. It defines organization theory as the study of how organizations are structured and designed. Organization theory takes a macro view of organizations, focusing on structure and effectiveness, while organizational behavior takes a micro view of individual and group behavior. The document discusses key concepts in organization theory including structure, systems perspective, life cycles, and open vs. closed systems. It also outlines the typical stages in an organization's life cycle from entrepreneurial to decline.
This document discusses various typologies and models of planning. It begins by defining strategic planning as a process to achieve organizational purposes through establishing steps and activities. It then summarizes several planning models:
1) Hudson's (1974) SITAR typology which includes the Synoptic, Incremental, Transactive, Advocacy and Radical models.
2) Wilson's (1989) addition of the Mixed Scanning, Learning Adaptive and General Systems models.
3) Adams' (1991) classification of typologies into the Rational Interactive and Resource Allocation groups.
It also outlines models for corporate business planning, socioeconomic planning, and educational planning including the Circular and Herman & Herman
1. The document discusses different approaches to strategy and their implications for human resource management (HRM), including classical, evolutionary, processual, and systemic approaches.
2. The classical approach views strategy as rational planning while the evolutionary perspective emphasizes reacting to external forces. The processual approach sees strategy as an emergent process and the systemic perspective stresses adapting strategy to cultural contexts.
3. Effective strategic human resource management (SHRM) requires a two-way relationship where HRM influences and is influenced by organizational strategy. The implications for linking HRM and strategy depend on the strategic approach taken.
1. A system is a collection of interconnected elements that work together towards a common goal. A healthcare system can be analyzed using a systems approach that views it as having inputs, processes, outputs, and feedback.
2. Applying a systems approach to healthcare involves analyzing it across four levels - the individual patient, care teams, healthcare organizations, and the broader political/economic environment. This allows understanding how each component interacts and influences outcomes.
3. Adopting a systems approach in Bangladesh's healthcare would help move it from the current disorganized model to one with better coordination and synergies between different entities, leading to improved quality of care.
This document provides an overview of systems theory. It discusses that systems theory views an organization as an organism made up of interconnected subsystems that must work together. Key aspects of systems theory discussed include that it emphasizes communication between subsystems, takes a holistic view of the organization, and recognizes that organizations cannot be separated from their environment. The document also notes some limitations of systems theory in that it is not prescriptive and can be difficult to apply to practical problems.
Systems theory or general systems theory or systemics is an interdisciplinary field which studies systems as a whole.
Systems theory was founded by Ludwig von Bertalanffy, William Ross Ashby and others between the 1940s and the 1970s on principles from physics, biology and engineering and later grew into numerous fields including philosophy, sociology, organizational theory, management, psychotherapy (within family systems therapy) and economics among others.
Elements of system theory
Goal orientation
Subsystem
Synergy
System boundary
Flow
Feedback
Open or closed system
Systems thinking is an approach that views problems as parts of an overall system and considers the relationships and interactions between system components. It emphasizes understanding how various parts of a system influence each other over time and understanding the system's overall behavior. Systems thinking draws from various disciplines like biology, engineering, and sociology and uses concepts like feedback loops, open and closed systems, and emergence to study how systems function and change. It provides a holistic perspective that helps address complex problems more effectively.
This document provides an overview of systems theory as it relates to social work. It defines systems theory as examining how individuals, groups, organizations, and communities interact as interconnected parts of a whole. It discusses key concepts in systems theory including boundaries, interactions, feedback loops, and homeostasis. Examples are given of how systems theory can be applied to understand issues like school refusal from an ecological perspective considering the interactions between family members and other systems. The strengths of systems theory are that it takes a holistic view and allows for an eclectic approach, while weaknesses include a lack of specificity and potentially overemphasizing stability over change.
Systems theory - Organizational Change and Development - Manu Melwin Joymanumelwin
Systems Theory was first introduced by Van Bertalanffy (1950) and was introduced into the organisational setting by Kataz and Khan (1966).
Systems theory is an approach to organizations which likens the enterprise to an organism with interdependent parts, each with its own specific function and interrelated responsibilities.
The document discusses the system approach to viewing organizations. The system approach views an organization as a group of interrelated and independent parts working towards a common goal. An organization is composed of parts that interact and relate to each other, and the activity of any one part can affect other parts. The system approach provides managers a way to view the organization as a unified, goal-oriented system composed of interrelated parts. It considers the basic elements of input, process, output, and feedback and key features like being goal-directed, having sub-systems, and information flows within open or closed systems. The system approach provides an integrated view of organizations and is useful for studying complex systems.
General Systems Theory and Systems AnalysiseKindling.org
This document provides an overview of system analysis and information systems. It defines key concepts such as systems, subsystems, inputs/outputs, feedback, and control. It describes the role of the systems analyst and the skills they require, including technical knowledge, business knowledge, and people skills. The document also outlines different types of information systems such as transaction processing systems, management information systems, and decision support systems.
Systems approach views an organization as a collection of interrelated parts working together to achieve common goals. Ludwig von Bertalanffy is considered the founder of this approach, which sees understanding a system by knowing both its individual parts and how they relate. There are two types of systems - open systems that actively interact with the external environment, and closed systems that ignore outside influences. The systems approach aims to provide a holistic, integrated view of an organization and how it functions within its wider context.
Systems theory views the world as a complex set of relationships between different components. There are two types of systems - open systems that interact with their environment and closed systems that do not. All systems generate feedback that can encourage or discourage change through positive and negative feedback loops. Most systems seek a steady state of equilibrium, but can also experience dynamic equilibrium involving gradual change over time. If too many pressures are placed on a system, it can suddenly tip into a new state of metastable equilibrium through abrupt change.
This document provides an overview of the evolution of organization theory from the late 19th century to present day. It discusses early contributors like Adam Smith, the Industrial Revolution, and classical theorists like Taylor, Fayol, and Weber. It then covers the human relations movement sparked by the Hawthorne Studies, Douglas McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y, and the contingency approach. The document traces how organization theory has shifted from viewing organizations as closed rational systems to more open social systems and discusses the major frameworks and perspectives that have emerged over time to understand organizations.
This document discusses the system approach and its application to management. It defines a system as interrelated parts that form a unified whole. A company is presented as a system with different departments like finance, HR, marketing, and production working towards a common goal. Key features of systems discussed include their arrangement, boundaries, and ability to transform inputs like resources into outputs like products or services. Management is described as an open social system that dynamically interacts with its environment. The four main parts of a system - inputs, transformation process, outputs, and feedback - are also outlined. Advantages of the systems approach include providing managers a holistic view while disadvantages include lack of specific tools and potential impracticality for smaller organizations.
A system is defined as a set of interacting or interdependent components forming an integrated whole. Systems can be open or closed, natural or human-made. Key concepts in systems include boundaries, inputs, outputs, feedback, and subsystems. Fields that study systems properties include systems science, engineering, and complexity. While systems provide benefits like reduced errors and time savings, they also present disadvantages such as dependence, expense, and need for monitoring.
The document discusses the systems approach to management. It describes a system as a set of interrelated parts working towards a common goal. It identifies the key elements of a system as inputs, transformation processes, outputs, and feedback. The systems approach views an organization holistically and emphasizes the interdependence of its various parts and the environment. Managers use this approach to coordinate activities, anticipate consequences, and solve problems comprehensively rather than through a piecemeal process.
The document discusses how an organization's structure is influenced by its environment. It defines the general and specific environments and describes how environmental uncertainty can vary. When uncertainty is high, organizations tend toward organic structures that are flexible and adaptive, while stable environments suit mechanistic structures. Different models of environmental types are presented, from placid to turbulent. Organizational change is described as a three-stage process of variation, selection, and retention. The relationship between environment and an organization's complexity, formalization, and centralization is explained. High uncertainty leads to greater complexity and decentralization, while stability allows for formality and centralization.
Compare and contrast the classical approach and systemLikenzyNelzy
The classical approach views the organization in terms of its structure and management processes. It focuses on specialization, centralized leadership, and high productivity but does not consider worker well-being. The system approach sees the organization as a system of interrelated parts that form a whole unit. It pays attention to the overall effectiveness and interdependencies within the system rather than just production efficiency. While the classical approach provides tools and techniques for managers, the system approach does not but is more applicable to practical problems. Both acknowledge the importance of division of labor and organizational objectives but the system approach focuses more on interrelations within the organization.
The document discusses organizations as systems. It defines an organization as a rational coordination of activities by a group of people to achieve common goals. A system is defined as a set of elements that interact to accomplish goals. The document then discusses how to develop a system using steps like system analysis, survey, feasibility study, design, programming, conversion, production and maintenance. It also discusses different types of systems such as conceptual, empirical, natural, open, closed, permanent, temporary and dynamic systems.
Dr. Nina Aversano earned her doctorate in management from Case Western Reserve University and teaches courses on international business management and organizational behavior as an assistant professor at the College of Mount Saint Vincent in New York. Some key organizational behavior theories that help groups work more efficiently include scientific leadership, which uses time and motion studies to optimize job methods and timeframes, cognitive theories that acknowledge a changing social environment, and the systems approach which considers inputs, outputs, and processes with a feedback loop for modifications.
General systems theory views the whole as more than the sum of its parts. Characteristics of complex systems emerge from interactions between parts and cannot be explained by examining parts alone. Systems are abstract models that explain some aspect of the world and rules for its operation. A system consists of elements, boundaries, relations, causes, and qualities that are properties of the whole.
This document provides an overview of organization theory from a textbook. It defines organization theory as the study of how organizations are structured and designed. Organization theory takes a macro view of organizations, focusing on structure and effectiveness, while organizational behavior takes a micro view of individual and group behavior. The document discusses key concepts in organization theory including structure, systems perspective, life cycles, and open vs. closed systems. It also outlines the typical stages in an organization's life cycle from entrepreneurial to decline.
This document discusses various typologies and models of planning. It begins by defining strategic planning as a process to achieve organizational purposes through establishing steps and activities. It then summarizes several planning models:
1) Hudson's (1974) SITAR typology which includes the Synoptic, Incremental, Transactive, Advocacy and Radical models.
2) Wilson's (1989) addition of the Mixed Scanning, Learning Adaptive and General Systems models.
3) Adams' (1991) classification of typologies into the Rational Interactive and Resource Allocation groups.
It also outlines models for corporate business planning, socioeconomic planning, and educational planning including the Circular and Herman & Herman
1. The document discusses different approaches to strategy and their implications for human resource management (HRM), including classical, evolutionary, processual, and systemic approaches.
2. The classical approach views strategy as rational planning while the evolutionary perspective emphasizes reacting to external forces. The processual approach sees strategy as an emergent process and the systemic perspective stresses adapting strategy to cultural contexts.
3. Effective strategic human resource management (SHRM) requires a two-way relationship where HRM influences and is influenced by organizational strategy. The implications for linking HRM and strategy depend on the strategic approach taken.
Requirement Elicitation Model (REM) in the Context of Global Software Develop...IJAAS Team
Contxext:Requirement elicitation is difficult and critical phase of requirement engineering and the case is worst in global software development (GSD). The study is about requirement elicitation in the context of GSD. Objective: Development of requirement elicitation model (REM) which can address the factors that have positive impact and the factors that have negative impact during elicitation in GSD. The propose model will give solutions and practices to the challenges during elicitation. Method: Systematic literature review (SLR) and empirical research study will be used for achieving the goals and objectives. Expected outcomes: The expected results of this study will be REM that will help vendor organizations for better elicitation during GSD.
There are three main approaches to monitoring and evaluation: result-oriented, constructivist, and reflexive. The result-oriented approach focuses on measuring outcomes and impacts, using tools like logic models. The constructivist approach emphasizes collective learning and exchange of perspectives. The reflexive approach builds on constructivism but also examines underlying assumptions, values, and the institutional context with the goal of stimulating system-level innovation and change. Each approach has strengths and limitations, so in practice it may be useful to combine elements of multiple approaches.
Coaching material and tools for altruistic entrepreneurs -mentors - Module 3.pdfBrodoto
Here are some key points I gathered from reviewing the material:
- The module provides an overview of various tools and strategies that mentors can use to effectively support mentees, including in areas like digitalization, innovation, impact measurement, and business modeling.
- Digital tools, innovation management techniques, theories of change, impact value chains, and business canvases were some that were specifically highlighted.
- Acquiring a basic understanding of strategies like shared value creation, purpose-driven approaches, and the PDCA cycle could also help mentors strengthen their work.
- Additional tools outside of what was included could potentially be useful, depending on the specific mentor-mentee relationship and goals. Local or digital solutions may need to be
An Effective Factors Pattern Affecting Implementation Of Strategic PlansSandra Long
This document discusses factors that affect the successful implementation of strategic plans. It identifies the objectives of the research as determining the effects of organizational structure, leadership, human resources, organizational culture, information systems, and technology on strategic plan implementation. The document provides definitions of key concepts like strategy, strategic management, and implementing strategy. It also discusses the relationship between strategic plan formulation and implementation.
The document introduces Logical Framework Analysis (LFA), a methodology used for participatory project planning, implementation, and evaluation. It describes the key steps in LFA, including situation analysis, stakeholder analysis, problem analysis, objective analysis, strategy analysis, and developing a project planning matrix. The planning matrix outlines objectives, indicators, means of verification, and external assumptions. The document provides definitions for the different components of the LFA process and planning matrix.
This document discusses sector analysis and using the logical framework approach to analyze an education system. It describes sector analysis as collecting and critically examining internal and external factors relating to the education system. These include how the system functions internally and external conditions influencing the system. The logical framework approach is presented as an analytical technique to structure the situation analysis, establish objectives, and identify risks. Key aspects of the logical framework like the matrix, problem analysis, SWOT analysis, and stakeholder analysis are outlined.
Planning and cybernetic controls are important elements of management control systems. Planning controls include long-range planning with a strategic focus of 3-5 years and action planning with a tactical focus of 1 year or less. Budgeting is a key component of planning controls as it quantifies goals and allows for performance evaluation. Cybernetic controls use feedback loops of measuring performance against standards to modify systems and drive performance. Common cybernetic controls include budgets, financial and non-financial metrics, and hybrid systems that use both. Effective planning and control systems help organizations achieve goals in a proactive manner.
Operational research (OR) is an analytical method that uses mathematical modeling to help organizations make optimal decisions. It breaks problems down into components and solves them systematically using defined steps. OR aims to help executives obtain the best solution using techniques like modeling interrelationships between subsystems. It applies scientific methods without personal bias to handle complex problems requiring interdisciplinary teamwork and computer modeling. The OR process involves 7 steps: formulating the problem, observing the system, modeling the problem mathematically, verifying the model, selecting alternatives, presenting results, and implementing and evaluating recommendations. OR has wide applications in fields like national planning, defense, industry, research, business, agriculture, education, transportation, and home management.
The document discusses strategic approaches to management science. It begins by explaining the origins of management science in operational research groups during World War II. It then defines the management science approach as applying the scientific method to solve mathematical equations representing organizational systems. The document outlines key characteristics of the management science approach and contrasts it with scientific management. It also discusses related fields like operations management, management information systems, and attempts to integrate different approaches through contingencies theory and general systems theory. Finally, it covers some recent trends like Theory Z management and principles of excellent companies.
Analyzing The Persuasion Context Of The Persuasive Systems Design Model With ...Susan Campos
The document discusses analyzing the persuasion context of the Persuasive Systems Design (PSD) model using the 3D-RAB model of attitude-behavior relationships. The 3D-RAB model can help guide analysis of change type, user context, use context, and persuasive route in the PSD model. Specifically, it is proposed that technology context should be analyzed as part of strategy rather than as an event, and that the 3D-RAB model provides a way to categorize users and their cognitive states to better inform selection of persuasive strategies and messages.
This document discusses theories of change and outcome mapping as approaches to monitoring and evaluation. It explains that a theory of change describes how and why expected changes will occur through an initiative, while a logical framework lists components and outcomes. The document advocates using outcome mapping to focus on influencing boundary partners and tracking progress markers rather than direct attribution. It provides examples of how to map partners and changes expected in their understanding, behaviors and networks to achieve long term goals.
This document discusses various planning models and processes. It describes Hudson's typology of 5 planning models: synoptic, incremental, transactive, advocacy, and radical. It also discusses Wilson's addition of mixed scanning, learning adaptive, and general systems models. Adams further grouped these typologies. The document contrasts the technicist, political, and consensual planning models and provides an example table comparing their processes, structures, and technologies. It defines endogenous and exogenous variables and discusses the NEDA development planning model which outlines policies, strategies, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation steps.
Planning is the first function of any successful management.
It is the tool that all other managerial functions depends on.
It is a continuous process that aims to specify the goals, objectives, strategies, mission, and vision of any organization.
Depending on the type of objectives and time frame .
planning is divided into three main types; strategic, tactical, and operational.
This document summarizes a research article that investigates the key factors affecting tourism performance in Vietnam using the fuzzy analytic hierarchy process (FAHP) method. The researchers identify factors and sub-factors from literature and expert interviews and develop a hierarchical structure. They then use the FAHP method to determine the relative weights of each factor and sub-factor in contributing to tourism performance. The results provide recommendations to improve tourism efficiency in Vietnam.
Facilitating organisationaldecision making a change riska.docxssuser454af01
Facilitating organisational
decision making: a change risk
assessment model case study
Charalampos Apostolopoulos and George Halikias
School of Mathematics, Computer Science and Engineering,
City University London, London, UK
Krikor Maroukian
Department of Informatics, King’s College London, London, UK, and
Georgios Tsaramirsis
Department of Information Technology, King Abdulaziz University,
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to take the challenge to propose a novel modelling approach named
Change Risk Assessment Model (CRAM), which will contribute significantly to the missing formality of
business models especially in the change risk assessment area and decision-making. Organisational
change risks are assessed with the aid of analytic hierarchy process (AHP) in an attempt to define the
internal dynamics of organisational change management within project management eliciting also risk
cause-and-effect relationships.
Design/methodology/approach – The study discusses interviews/survey/AHP.
Findings – The study presents the following findings. Change risk factors assessment (identification
and prioritisation) recommendations (see Case Study) integration of change management; project
management; risk management top four risk factors, namely, leadership, communication, project
management team and culture.
Research limitations/implications – As projects can be different in a variety of factors (quality,
scope), an exhaustive list of risk factors cannot be identified. There is a continuous risk identification
process throughout the projects’ life cycle. For example, many risks can be classified initially as
unknown and can be refined after the initiation phase of the project. AHP factors limitation (eight per
level) possible bias (survey analysis).
Practical implications – With the aid of modelling and especially CRAM, business change risks can
be assessed numerically and prioritised. Several risk factors and related attributes were identified and
categorised. This empowers project managers or other stakeholders to make proper decisions about
whether to take on or abandon respective organisational or project changes.
Social implications – One of the values of CRAM is that it can be regarded as a global change risk
assessment method that can be applied regardless of project type, size or organisation. Moreover, it has
the advantage that it can be used by any kind of project, as the method is designed to be tailored to
specific needs, taking significant environmental change risk factors into account. AHP has numerous
uses in operational research, in project management and in general in areas where decisions (evaluation
and selection) have to be made. The analysis of the case study presented, indicated that it is vital to
assess the degree (impact) that each risk attribute poses to address complex organisational decisions.
Originality/value – CRAM aims to bridge the gap between theoretical and applied work in the
integrated r ...
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2. Overview
O The paper introduces and evaluates six soft
approaches used in strategy development
and planning.
O These are the SWOT analysis, the Future
Workshop, the Scenario methodology,
Strategic Option Development and Analysis,
Strategic Choice Approach and Soft Systems
Methodology.
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
3. O Evaluations of each methodology are carried
out using a conceptual framework where:
the organization, the result, the process and
the technology of the specific approach are
taken into consideration.
The conceptual framework for evaluations of
soft approaches increases the
understanding of them, their transparency,
and their usability in practice.
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
4. What is Strategy Development
and Planning?
O According to Mintzberg (1998) strategy
development and planning in an organization is
understood, as a process in which strategy is
developed through synthesis, creativity and a
holistic approach, while planning is an analytical
activity where tasks are decomposed into
activities.
Therefore,
O In other words planning begins with strategic
thinking where strategies are identified and
formulated and later interpreted, analyzed and
transformed into detailed plans
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
5. How this Process became a
Learning Process?
O According to Ackoff (1974), this understanding of
strategy development and planning is the same
as ‘interactive planning’ principles.
Therefore:
O SD& P is seen as a dynamic, interactive process
built upon principles of participation of
individuals in the organization, coordination of
various problem situations, integration of all
levels in the organization, and continuous
planning, leading to Learning Process.
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
6. Methods used to Support
SD&P
O There exist several soft OR methodologies to be used
in problem structuring, strategy development,
planning and problem solving (Rosenhead, 1996;
Rosenhead and Mingers, 2001).
But,
O They have highly different ways of technically and
methodologically addressing this task.
Therefore,
O a comparison and evaluation framework is needed,
to choose the methodologies that give the most
suitable support to a specific problematic situation.
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
7. The Six Soft Approaches
Selected:
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
8. The Conceptual Framework
O Ackoff (1974) has formulated the process of SD&P through the four
principles of interactive planning :
Participation which means, that planning has value in terms of both the
process it initiates and creates and the results of the plan.
Coordination which means, that planning is built upon the idea that
messy problem situations needs to be addressed through holistic vision,
where the interaction between problem situations becomes more
important than describing concrete actions.
Integration which means, that planning must take place on every level in
the organization and this planning must be coordinated. More over short-
term goals must be coordinated with long term goals and actions of
strategic planning.
Continuity which means, that planning cannot be seen as a static act but,
plans must be re-evaluated, updated and changed continuously to
address the ever changing world and the uncertainties of the future.
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
9. Methods and Methodologies
According to Borges (1997):
O Planning Methods:
directions on how a ’good’ decision should be taken?
They are steps that can be seen as a tools for
solving a certain task or problem.
O Planning Methodologies:
directions on how decisions are taken?
seeks to structure and support an uncertain,
undefined problem situation.
We use the term Approach that include both methods
and methodologies.
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
10. Soft Approaches Versus Traditional
OR methods: A General outline
O According to Rosenhead and Mingers (2001),
the fundamental characteristics of soft OR
are as follows:
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
Soft Approaches Traditional OR methods
problem structuring problem solving
operate non-linearly through a dynamic process linear way of working
designed for use in groups of humans with different background used by experts
use mathematics in limited terms use hard mathematics
focus on supporting evaluations
more than representing
evaluations
process product oriented
Flexibility of applying Inflexible in applying
11. 1. SWOT analysis
O Description:
Identify the organization's internal strengths
and weaknesses and its external options and
threats.
Evaluate and prioritize different points
identified and then place them in the SWOT
matrix.
analyze and/or implement the strategy or
strategies that seem(s) most relevant from the
four types of strategies.
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
13. 2. The Future Workshop
O Objective:
It is established to focus on a specific problematic
situation, generate visions about the future and
discuss how these visions can be realized.
Participants of the workshop share the same
problem, and have a wish to change the situation.
O Process:
Future Workshop does not use a specific model. It
primarily focuses on the problem solving process.
O Note that carrying out the workshop requires a
planner who is a facilitator.
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
14. Future Workshop Five Phases:
O Preparation Phase: the overall purpose of creating
the necessary frames for the workshop. (ex. finding
location of workshop, participants, getting pens..etc.)
O Critical Phase: each of the members of the workshop
describe and criticizes the problem.
O Fantasy Phase: positive solutions & suggestions are
formulated & critical items and themes are changed
into positive statements, visions.
O Realistic Phase: critical problem areas and positive
solutions are compared with the options and
limitations of reality to form realistic strategies. Then
presented to decision makers.
O Follow-up Phase: the process itself is evaluated as
well as the new situation.
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
15. 3. Scenario Methodology
O Scenario is a description of a likely future as well as
the corresponding actions or ways that lead to this
future.
O The purposes of the usage of scenarios in strategy
development and planning are:
to find and identify priority problems (key variables)
for the organization by looking at relations between
variables in the areas of focus.
to determine the central actors and their strategies
as well as resources and means to make a
successful project.
to describe (in scenarios) the development of a
certain system in focus by taking into account the
most likely developmental trends of the key variables
and to look on the different actors’ influence.
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
16. Two Aspects of the Scenario
Methodology
O The Problem Structuring:
In the problem structuring the following two areas are
considered:
Approaches for describing the system in focus using
either the inductive or deductive principle.
Inductive principle implies looking at the system and its
parts, it’s fundamental factors and their functions and
relations are analyzed. From this picture, alternative
scenarios are constructed.
Deductive principle also analyses the whole system but
decomposition is not performed, more over, it uses
concluding as a tool and it requires a large number of
factors to describe alternative futures.
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
17. Approaches that can take care of the dynamics of
the system in focus by applying the anticipatory or
explanatory principle.
Anticipatory approach starts with forecasting
certain future picture of the system as it would be
the most desirable picture. Then to finding the
possible ways leading from the specific future
picture to the known present situation.
Explanatory approach, the present situation is
investigated under different sets of trends and
assumptions giving a range of different future
pictures of the system in focus.
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
Aspects of the Scenario
Methodology (continued):
18. Methodological Aspects of
Scenario Methodology
There are two schools of thought behind the scenario
methodology: the American school building on
quantitatively oriented methods, and the French school
based on more informal ways of handling the situation in a
mixture of methods and methodologies.
In either case, the scenario methodology is based on a
combination of steps:
investigating the system (organization or problem area)
investigating the environment surrounding the system
investigating historical trends and the present situation
identifying key variables,
Constructing scenarios and alternative strategies.
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
19. 4. Strategic Option Decision and
Analysis (SODA)
SODA is a way of working with a group of people and a technique
for constructing cognitive maps of how people perceive and think
about a problematic situation.
SODA is made up by a number of concepts and theories:
That each individual perceives the world subjectively.
That the organization is made up by processes and
negotiations more than structures.
That the planner’s function is defined as being supportive in
the above mentioned negotiation processes so decisions can
be reached through consensus and agreements not through
demonstrations of power.
That the primary tool or technique used is cognitive maps were
participants try to understand different ways of thinking and to
involve all partners to redefine the problem perceptions and
form ground for commitment and consensus decisions.
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
20. Process of (SODA)
The process of SODA can be outlined as follows:
Individual problem construction where each individual of the group
is interviewed about the problem situation and cognitive maps are
created.
Individual problem acknowledgement where maps are analyzed
and each map is presented for the individuals again for discussion
and acceptance. Some times another interview can be carried out.
Group redefining the situation, which involve that a merged map is
created based on the individual maps. The merged map includes
perceptions of all individuals and in this way it represents all the
members of the group. Through the merged map, they can
commonly redefine the problem situation.
Group consensus on a number of strategies where a negotiation
process has been carried out based on the redefined problem
situation, and solutions are found. It is assumed that consensus
and engagement lies behind the sequence of strategies being the
visible results of SODA.
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
21. 5. Strategic Choice Approach
SCA can be characterized as a planning methodology that
focuses on dealing with the uncertainty of problematic
situations and decisions.
In SCA the planning process is divided into four modes:
Shaping. In the shaping mode, the decision areas and
problem focus is decided upon.
Designing. The most urgent decision areas are now
analyzed in terms of different decision options and their
interconnectedness.
Comparing. Different criteria or comparison areas are now
discussed to find out about the requirements for the
strategies to construct.
Choosing. For the combinations of decision options that
look most promising, considerations to uncertainties of
different types are made.
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
22. 6. Soft Systems Methodology (SSM)
O According to Checkland (2001) Soft systems
methodology (SSM) is an approach to
organizational process modeling and it can be
used both for general problem solving and in
the management of change.
O It acknowledges that individuals have
subjective views on the problematic situation
(their world views) and through a learning
system, they are learning about the problem,
acknowledging others’ views, comparing, and
finding ways (strategies) to improve the
situation.
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
24. O Even though the six approaches are based
on the same fundamental purpose of
supporting learning processes and
developing strategies, they are quite
different in terms of their support in specific
problematic situations. Therefore, an
evaluation framework can be used.
O The framework addresses the principles of
Ackoff’s interactive planning and therefore
directs the learning process of strategy
development and planning
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
Evaluation Framework
25. Overview of the dimensions of an approach
(based on Friend and Hickling, 2005)
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
26. Diamond and Dimensions
The diamond symbolizes that the dimensions are
biased and cannot be evaluated alone. The four
dimensions can be defined as:
The Process: The process’ focuses on how time is
used most efficiently and if the group individuals
goes through the necessary considerations in terms
of reaching the wanted results of applying the
approach.
The Product: According to Ackoff’s principles,
looking at strategy development and planning with
the views lying in, it is clear that, products of
strategy development and planning can be obtained
at different levels; in terms of substance and in
terms of processes.
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
28. Dimensions (cont.)
The Organization: The third dimension describes
how the work for strategy development and
planning is organized. This includes looking at the
individuals and their way of being involved in the
process.
The Technology: The last dimension, the
technology, refers to the ‘tools’ or techniques used
in the process, i.e., the special structuring and
perhaps programming tools such as pencils and
software programmes. An evaluation of these tools
and techniques is important because of their
influence on the process and the individuals’
possibility to understand the process and its
results.
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
29. Evaluation of the Approaches
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
30. Evaluation of the Approaches (cont.)
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
31. Evaluation Results
When comparing the approaches, we should take into
consideration that:
The characterization of being soft approaches is
dependent on the way they are applied both by the
planner and the involved participants. Viewing objectively
on the descriptions of their way of working, they if have
focus on supporting a learning process, on visible results
of substance, can be applied individually or in groups,
uses various technologies, and require a planner who
must be an expert but also can be a facilitator.
the SWOT analysis and the scenario methodology are
close to traditional planning and OR. Both approaches
are in terms of background and the linear way of
working not necessarily supported by a group process.
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
32. Evaluation Results (cont.)
The future workshop is on the other hand far
from the traditional OR planning methods. The
future workshop supports a learning process for
the individuals participating. Moreover It is
assumed that all individuals participate without
any power relations implicating the situation.
SODA support also a group process however
more indirectly by focusing on the individuals
and gathering their opinions on the problematic
situation before a real workshop is carried out.
SODA supports a learning process and gives
products in all four categories
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
33. SCA has a very analytical way of working with the
problematic situation and developing strategies.
Anyhow, the SCA supports a learning process by
changing between different ways of working and
the cyclic view on the process.
SSM is a classical example on a soft approach.
Through its cyclic way of working and the
acknowledgement that problems are never solved
but must be monitored and dealt with almost
continuously, it deals with future uncertainties in
the way that decisions are never definitive but
can and must be changed all the time.
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
Evaluation Results (cont.)
34. Conclusions
The evaluation shows that the six soft
approaches are different in terms of the
dimensions specified above and, in their
way of supporting the learning processes of
strategy development and planning.
Whether more suitable solutions are found
using these kinds of approaches can be
discussed only in terms of the context in
which they are applied.
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
35. No matter which approach is chosen, it will be
perceived in different ways leaving parts of the
problem situation unsolved or outside the scope of
the methodology.
However, rational, conscious actions are not
enough, experience, intuition, creativity, and
subjectivity are other ingredients needed in the
process.
Practice has shown that, after some applications
the learning process will develop into a situation
where the group does not need a facilitator any
longer and it has developed its own methodology
on the basis of their experiences.
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity
Conclusions
36. References
Ackoff, R.L. (1974): Redesigning the Future – A Systems
Approach to Societal Problems. John Wiley & Sons, New
York.
Borges, P., Sørensen, L. and Vidal, R.V.V. (1997):
Strategy, Planning, Multicriteria. Why? How? For what?
The Institute of Mathematical Modelling, The Technical
University of Denmark, Lyngby.
Mintzberg, H., Ahlstrand, B. and Lampel, J. (1998):
Strategy Safari: a Guided Tour Through the Wilds of
Strategic Management. The Free Press, NY.
Rosenhead, J. (1996): What’s the Problem? An
Introduction to Problem Structuring Methods
Sørensen, L. T., & Valqui Vidal, R. V. (2008). Evaluating
six soft approaches. Economic Analysis Working Papers,
7(9).
Mohammad Ali Jaafar, PhD Systems Mgmt. and Complexity