Importance of epidemics in mono and poly cyclic diseases caused by various plant pathogens and the mathematical models for studying the strategy of those epidemics
Importance of epidemics in mono and poly cyclic diseases caused by various plant pathogens and the mathematical models for studying the strategy of those epidemics
Mycovirus: virus that infects and replicates in fungi .
They are also known as fungal virus, mycophages and virus like particles(VLPs) .
During 1970s, hypovirulence in chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) led to the discovery of mycoviruses in plant pathogenic fungi.
Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) is a plant pathogenic virus. CMV is a linear positive-sense tripartite single-stranded RNA virus. Each genomic segment has a 3' tRNA-like structure and a 5’cap. proteins 1a, 2a, 2b, movement protein-3a (MP) and coat protein-3b sgRNA-4 (CP).
Plants have array of defense response against biotic stresses which could be either structural reinforcement, release of chemicals, and defense gene expression against invading organisms. The physical barriers are trichoms, waxy cuticle, thick cell wall. Once the pathogen overcomes the first line of defense, basal or innate defense response comes into play. Pathogens secrete some conserved molecules known as Pathogen Associated Molecular Pattern (PAMP/MAMP), which are recognized by transmembrane receptors present in the plasma membrane and initiate a series of signal cascade reaction which ultimately leads to activation of various defense related genes. Apart from inducing the expression of defense related genes, it also triggers a hypersensitive reaction (HR) which cause deliberate cell death at the site of infection and limit the pathogen access to water and nutrient by sacrificing a few cells in order to save the rest of the plant. Once HR is triggered, plant tissue may become highly resistant to a broad range of pathogens for an extended period of time. This phenomenon is called Systemic Acquired Resistance (SAR).
Plants respond to herbivory is a similar manner as described above. The biochemical mechanisms of defense against the herbivores are wide-ranging, highly dynamic, and are mediated both by direct and indirect defenses. The defensive compounds are either produced constitutively or in response to plant damage, and affect feeding, growth, and survival of herbivores. In addition, plants also release volatile organic compounds that attract the natural enemies of the herbivores. These strategies either act independently or in conjunction with each other. However, our understanding of these defensive mechanisms is still limited. Induced resistance could be exploited as an important tool for the pest management to minimize the amounts of insecticides used for pest control. Host plant resistance to insects, particularly, induced resistance, can also be manipulated with the use of chemical elicitors of secondary metabolites, which confer resistance to insects. By understanding the mechanisms of induced resistance, we can predict the herbivores that are likely to be affected by inducing responses. The elicitors of induced responses can be sprayed on crop plants to build up the natural defense system against damage caused by herbivores. The induced responses can also be genetically engineered, so that the defensive compounds are constitutively produced in plants challenged by the herbivory. Induced resistance can be exploited for developing crop cultivars, which readily produce the inducible response upon mild infestation, and can act as one of components of integrated pest management for sustainable crop production.
In a computer simulation of an epidemic, the computer is given data describing the various sub components of the epidemic and control practices at specific points in time (such as at weekly intervals).Computer simulation of epidemics is extremely useful as an educational exercise for students of plant pathology and also for farmers so that they can better understand and appreciate the effect of each epidemic sub component on the final size of their crop loss.Simulators serve as tools that can evaluate the importance of the size of each epidemic sub component at a particular point in time of the epidemic by projecting its effect on the final crop loss.Computer simulation are expert systems,that try to equal and suppress the logic and ability of an expert professional in solving problems.Systems are used in plant pathology frequently for diagnosis of plant diseases.Systems can advice growers in making decisions on disease management in respect of kind, amount and time of application of pesticides etc.Simulators can decompose disease progress so they are used now to develop forecaster.
Epidemiology and Forecasting of plant disease
Monocyclic and Polycyclic
Disease progressive curve
How the Plant Affects Development of Epidemics.
Environmental factors.
Measuring Disease in a Population
Effect of environment and nutrition on plant disease developmentparnavi kadam
BRIEF AND PRECISE POINTS ON PLANT DISEASE DEVELOPMENT. IT MOSTLY FOCUSES ON HOW THE FACTORS AFFECT THE MICROBES AND THEN THEIR MICROBIAL EFFECT ON DISEASE DEVELOPMENT.
Mycovirus: virus that infects and replicates in fungi .
They are also known as fungal virus, mycophages and virus like particles(VLPs) .
During 1970s, hypovirulence in chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) led to the discovery of mycoviruses in plant pathogenic fungi.
Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) is a plant pathogenic virus. CMV is a linear positive-sense tripartite single-stranded RNA virus. Each genomic segment has a 3' tRNA-like structure and a 5’cap. proteins 1a, 2a, 2b, movement protein-3a (MP) and coat protein-3b sgRNA-4 (CP).
Plants have array of defense response against biotic stresses which could be either structural reinforcement, release of chemicals, and defense gene expression against invading organisms. The physical barriers are trichoms, waxy cuticle, thick cell wall. Once the pathogen overcomes the first line of defense, basal or innate defense response comes into play. Pathogens secrete some conserved molecules known as Pathogen Associated Molecular Pattern (PAMP/MAMP), which are recognized by transmembrane receptors present in the plasma membrane and initiate a series of signal cascade reaction which ultimately leads to activation of various defense related genes. Apart from inducing the expression of defense related genes, it also triggers a hypersensitive reaction (HR) which cause deliberate cell death at the site of infection and limit the pathogen access to water and nutrient by sacrificing a few cells in order to save the rest of the plant. Once HR is triggered, plant tissue may become highly resistant to a broad range of pathogens for an extended period of time. This phenomenon is called Systemic Acquired Resistance (SAR).
Plants respond to herbivory is a similar manner as described above. The biochemical mechanisms of defense against the herbivores are wide-ranging, highly dynamic, and are mediated both by direct and indirect defenses. The defensive compounds are either produced constitutively or in response to plant damage, and affect feeding, growth, and survival of herbivores. In addition, plants also release volatile organic compounds that attract the natural enemies of the herbivores. These strategies either act independently or in conjunction with each other. However, our understanding of these defensive mechanisms is still limited. Induced resistance could be exploited as an important tool for the pest management to minimize the amounts of insecticides used for pest control. Host plant resistance to insects, particularly, induced resistance, can also be manipulated with the use of chemical elicitors of secondary metabolites, which confer resistance to insects. By understanding the mechanisms of induced resistance, we can predict the herbivores that are likely to be affected by inducing responses. The elicitors of induced responses can be sprayed on crop plants to build up the natural defense system against damage caused by herbivores. The induced responses can also be genetically engineered, so that the defensive compounds are constitutively produced in plants challenged by the herbivory. Induced resistance can be exploited for developing crop cultivars, which readily produce the inducible response upon mild infestation, and can act as one of components of integrated pest management for sustainable crop production.
In a computer simulation of an epidemic, the computer is given data describing the various sub components of the epidemic and control practices at specific points in time (such as at weekly intervals).Computer simulation of epidemics is extremely useful as an educational exercise for students of plant pathology and also for farmers so that they can better understand and appreciate the effect of each epidemic sub component on the final size of their crop loss.Simulators serve as tools that can evaluate the importance of the size of each epidemic sub component at a particular point in time of the epidemic by projecting its effect on the final crop loss.Computer simulation are expert systems,that try to equal and suppress the logic and ability of an expert professional in solving problems.Systems are used in plant pathology frequently for diagnosis of plant diseases.Systems can advice growers in making decisions on disease management in respect of kind, amount and time of application of pesticides etc.Simulators can decompose disease progress so they are used now to develop forecaster.
Epidemiology and Forecasting of plant disease
Monocyclic and Polycyclic
Disease progressive curve
How the Plant Affects Development of Epidemics.
Environmental factors.
Measuring Disease in a Population
Effect of environment and nutrition on plant disease developmentparnavi kadam
BRIEF AND PRECISE POINTS ON PLANT DISEASE DEVELOPMENT. IT MOSTLY FOCUSES ON HOW THE FACTORS AFFECT THE MICROBES AND THEN THEIR MICROBIAL EFFECT ON DISEASE DEVELOPMENT.
Module 5 Case Assignment Pertussis (Whooping Cough)TasksPart .docxadelaidefarmer322
Module 5 Case Assignment:
Pertussis (Whooping Cough)
Tasks
Part A: In one page maximum
Briefly describe the disease: Pertussis in terms of its infectivity, pathogenicity, and virulence.
Identify any reservoir(s), and mode(s) of transmission
Part B: (1-2 pages)
Weighing the benefits and the risks, take a clear position on whether you feel vaccination programs for Pertussis (whooping cough) should be expanded in your current community. Explain factors that went into your decision.
HELPING REFERENCES
U.S. Food & Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition (n.d.) Bad Bug Book. Retrieved February 21, 2013 from
http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodSafety/FoodborneIllness/FoodborneIllnessFoodbornePathogensNaturalToxins/BadBugBook/default.htm
FAO. Epidemiology: some basic concepts and definitions. Retrieved February 21, 2013 from
http://www.fao.org/wairdocs/ILRI/x5436E/x5436e04.htm
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2004). How to Investigate an Outbreak. Retrieved February 21, 2013 from
http://www.cdc.gov/excite/classroom/outbreak/steps.htm
Aschengrau A, Seage GR (2003). Chapter 6: Overview of Epidemiologic Study Designs. Essentials of Epidemiology in Public Health, Boston: Jones & Bartlett Publishers. Retrieved February 21, 2013 at:
http://publichealth.jbpub.com/aschengrau/Aschengrau06.pdf
Cosio G (2005). Epidemiological Overview of Tuberculosis [Presentation]. Retrieved February 21, 2013 from
www.paho.org/cdmedia/dpccd01/Presentations/Day1/EPIDEMIOLOGICAL%20OVERVIEW%20OF%20TUBERCULOSIS%202.ppt
Optional Readings
Long SG, DuPont HL, Gaul L, Arafat RR, Selwyn BJ, Rogers J, et al. (2007). Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis for
Salmonella
infection surveillance, Texas, USA. Emerg Infect Dis [serial on the Internet]. Retrieved fro
http://www.cdc.gov/EID/content/16/6/983.htm
READ:
Variations in Severity of Illness
The severity of an illness may be measured by the case fatality rate or the proportion of surviving patients with complications. The
case fatality rate
is defined as the number of deaths from a particular disease divided by the number of clinically apparent cases of that disease.
An infectious disease may have a wide variety of clinical symptoms, ranging from no symptoms to severe clinical illness or death. Diseases such as tuberculosis have a high proportion of asymptomatic individuals (low pathogenicity), while diseases such as measles have a high proportion of symptomatic infections and a small percent of severe or fatal illness. Diseases such as the African hemorrhagic fevers caused by Marburg and Ebola virus are very severe and usually fatal. For diseases with low pathogenicity, only a small fraction of cases are often diagnosed and reported. Control measures should be directed toward all infections capable of being transmitted to others, not just the symptomatic cases.
From a public health perspective, diseases of high incidence and lesser severity may be considered a more serious problem becaus.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
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Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
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2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
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Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
1. What is Plant Pathology or Phytopathology?
Plant Pathology or Phytopathology
is the study of suffering of plant
diseases.
Pathology comes from 2 Greek words
Pathos
Suffering
Logos
Study
2. Why do we study Plant Pathology?
1. To study the causes of diseases
2. To study the interaction(s) between the plant
and the pathogen
3. To study the mechanism(s) of disease
development.
4. To develop management strategy of the
diseases
3. Disease = disturbance from plant pathogen or
environmental factor that interferes with plant
physiology
• Causes changes in plant appearance or yield
loss
• Disease results from:
• Direct damage to cells
• Toxins, growth regulators, or other byproducts
that affect metabolism
• Use of nutrients and water or interference
with their uptake
4. When a pathogen spreads to and affects many
individuals within a population over a relatively
large area and within a relatively short time, the
phenomenon is called an epidemic.
Epidemic and Epidemiology
An epidemic has been defined as any increase of
disease in a population.
A similar definition of an epidemic is the dynamics
of change in plant disease in time and space.
5. Plant Disease Epidemiology
Study of epidemics
The study of epidemics and of the factors that
influence them is called epidemiology.
Epidemiology is concerned simultaneously with
populations of pathogens and host plants as they
occur in an evolving environment.
6. Edpidemiology or epiphytology is the study of the
outbreak of disease, its course, intensity, cause , effects
and the various factors governing it.
The science of populations of pathogens in
populations of host plants, and the diseases
resulting there from under the influence of the
environment and human interferences
7. Based on the occurrence and geographical distribution
they are classified as follows:
1. Endemic or Enphytotic When a disease is more or less
constantly occurring year after year in a moderate to severe
form in a country or locality then it is called as endemic disease.
eg: wart disease of potato (Synchytrium endobioticum) is
endemic in Darjeeling, citrus canker (Xanthomonas axonopodis
pv citri)in Asia and sorghum rust (Puccinia purpurea)
Certain disease are endemic in one area and become epidemic
in another area. Eg: Citrus canker is endemic in Asia but
epidemic in the introduced place, Florida (U.S.A).The downy
mildew of corn is a endemic disease in India but became
epidemic in the Philippine
8. 2. Epidemic or Epiphytotic
It is a sudden outbreak of a disease periodically over a widespread
area in a devastatingly severe form causing severe losses or
complete destruction.
This is constantly present in a locality but it assumes severe form
only on occasions.
This is because of the occurrence of favorable environment
responsible for the rapid development of disease.
eg: wheat stem rust (Puccinia graminis tritici), late blight of
potato (Phytophthora infestans)Irish famine1845-1746, and rice
blast (Pyricularia oryzae) Bengal famine 1943.
9. 3. Pandemic
When an epidemic disease spreads over continents or
subcontinents and involves mass mortality it is considered as
pandemic. The outbreak of black stem rust of wheat in India
during 1947 is best example for a pandemic disease.
4. Sporadic
Diseases which occur at irregular intervals over limited areas or
locations are called sporadic. They occur relatively in few
instances. Eg: Fusarium wilt of cotton (Fusarium oxysporum f sp.
vasiinfectum) and loose smut of wheat (Ustilago nuda)
10. An epidemic may cause widespread and mass
destruction of crop in a short time or may persist for
long periods depending upon the following factors
responsible for the disease:
Elements of an epidemics
11. Vanderplank’s Equivalence Theorem
“Effects of host, pathogen and environment can
be translated into terms of the rate parameter
of an epidemic”
Changes in any component has an equivalent
effect on disease
-More-less susceptible host All affect
-More-less favorable environment amount of
-More-less aggressive pathogen disease
12. 12
Typical Disease cycle
Knowing how particular pathogens go through
their disease cycle is important in developing
management strategies.
13. Therefore, disease management principles and
practices are often centered around the concept
of the Disease Triangle. so that management
tactics often seek to manipulate one or more of
the components of the disease triangle.
14. Elements of a disease cycle
1.Host
2. Pathogen
3. Environment
Interactions of the 3 main
components are described by the
disease triangle.
The Disease Triangle
Disease development is also affected
by
4. Time
5. Humans
Interactions of the 5
components are
described by the disease
pyramid.
16. Eg: Outbreak of Phytophthora wilt of betelvine occurs
during rainy season in Bangladesh. This disease once
again become destructive during rainy season. This
type of epidemic is known as seasonal epidemic or
annual epidemic.
Eg: Epidemics caused as a result of introduction of
new pathogens in the locality. The well known
epidemics of late blight of potato in Europe and blast
disease of rice in South East Asia.
18. Host factors
A. Level of genetic resistance or Susceptibility of
the host
Susceptibility- inherent character, lack of ability to resist the
effect of a pathogen or other damaging factors
Resistance- the ability of an organism to exclude or
overcome completely or in some degree.
a. true resistance-gene control, eg: vertical and
horizontal resistance
b. apparent resistance- not genetically control
# disease escape- to overcome the disease
developing factors
# disease tolerance- disease occur but not
economic loss
Race : a genetically and often geographically distinct mating
group with in a species of a pathogen.
19. B. Degree of genetic uniformity of the host plant
Eg : Vegetative propagated crop, Self-pollinated
crop, Monoculture, especially Clones
C. Types of crop-
- Annual crops & foliar or fruit diseases develop much more
rapidly (in weeks)
- Perennial woody diseases take longer time to develop
(in years
D. Age of crop plant –
Plant change in their susceptibility to disease with age- Some
plants are susceptible only during growth period & become
resistant during mature period
.
Host factors
E. Introduction of new hosts-
21. Pathogenic Factors
A. Level of virulence and aggressiveness –
Virulence-degree of pathogenecity of a given pathogen
Aggressiveness – production of a large number of inoculums
with in a very short period of time.
B. Quantity of inoculums near host-
22. A central concept to epidemiology is that different pathogen
populations have different disease cycles.
I. Monocyclic = single cycle (simple interest)
Pathogens that complete one or even part of one disease
cycle/year are called monocyclic
In monocyclic pathogens the primary inoculum is the only
inoculum available for the entire season. There is no secondary
inoculum and no secondary infection.
The amount of inoculum produced at the end of the season,
however, is greater than at the start of the season so the amount
of inoculum may increase steadily from year to year.
C. Types of reproduction of the pathogen-
23. This representation of plant disease over time is referred to
as a “Disease Progress Curve”
Graphically, disease caused by monocyclic pathogens looks
like a saturation curve.
24. Rate of increase of disease over time can be
represented by a simple interest function.
25. It is clear from the above model of a monocyclic
epidemic that Q, R, and t have equal weight in
their effect on x. A reduction in the initial
inoculum or the rate of infection will result in a
reduction in the level of disease by the same
proportion at any time, t, throughout the epidemic.
If t can be reduced (for example, by shortening the
season), disease will be reduced proportionately.
The monocyclic
model (Van der
plank in 1963)
26. 1. Reduce the initial inoculum (Q in the
monocyclic model and xo in the polycyclic
model). (Actually xo is the initial incidence of
disease, which is proportional to the initial
inoculum.)
2. Reduce the rate of infection (R in the
monocyclic model and r in the polycyclic
model)
3. Reduce the duration of the epidemic (the time,
t, at the end of the epidemic)
Examining these models, we can see that in both there are
three ways in which we can reduce x at any point in the
epidemic:
27. Examples of Monocyclic Diseases
Blackleg of potato (Erwinia caratovora)
Verticillium wilt
Cereal Cyst Nematode
28. Polycyclic = multiple cycles/year (compound
interest)
Most pathogens go through more than one (2-
30) disease cycle in a growing season and are
referred to as polycyclic.
Only a small number of sexual spores or other
hardy structures survive as primary inoculum
that cause initial infections.
29. Once infection takes place, large numbers of
asexual spores are produced as secondary
inoculum at each infection site.
These spores can produce new (secondary)
infections that produce more asexual spores
and so on.
With each cycle the amount of inoculum is
multiplied many fold.
31. Rate of increase of disease over time can be
represented by a compound interest function.
32. The polycyclic model
• If r is very high, the apparent
effect of reducing xo is to delay
the epidemic.
• If r is very high, xo must be reduced to very low
levels to have a significant effect on the epidemic.
• Reducing r has a relatively greater effect on the
epidemic than reducing xo.
• Reducing xo makes good strategic sense only if r is
low or if r is also being reduced.
33. Many of these pathogens are disseminated primarily
by air Or air-borne vectors and are responsible for
most of the explosive epidemics in most crops
Examples of Polcyclic Diseases
•Downy mildews
•Powdery mildews
•Late blight of potato
•Leaf spots
•Blights
•Grain rusts
•Aphid borne viruses
•Root-knot nematodes
34. III. Polyetic (multi-year) cycles
Some pathogens take several years before inoculum they
produce can be disseminated and initiate new infections.
May not cause many new infections over a given area in
a year, amount of inoculum does not increase greatly
within a year.
However, because they survive in perennial hosts they
have almost as much inoculumas they had at the end of
the previous year.
Inoculum may increase steadily(exponentially) from year
to year and can cause severe outbreaks when considered
over several years.
35. Examples of Polyetic Diseases:
Some diseases of trees
Dutch elm disease
Citrus tristeza
Fungal vascular wilts
Mycoplasmal yellows
Viral infections
36. Pathogenic Factors
D. Ecology of the pathogen-
- Presence of inoculums in the host
- vascular fungi reproduce inside of the host and vector
transmitted cause epidemic
- Soil borne pathogen produce inoculums on the infected field.
E. Mode of spread of the pathogen-
- Wind, Water, Soil, Seed, insect, Human, Machinery used in
agriculture
37. Environmental Factors
Temperature
-Host effect- high temperature break the host resistance
specially horizontal resistance
-Pathogen effect- high temperature increase the
growth of pathogen but low temp. reduce the amount
of inoculum also reduce the movement of vectors.
38. Moisture
• Activates resting stages
• Affects germination of spores and penetration
into host eg. Soil borne pathogen produce
inoculums on the infected field
• Water on leaves
• Humidity
• Splashing water- distributes inoculum
• Leaf wetness = best indicator but difficult to
measure
Environmental Factors
39. Effect of foliage density on
development of Phytophthora
infestans during a period of partly
favorable weather (May–June)
and of very favorable weather
(November– December).
Moisture
40. Human Factors
A. Site selection and preparation
- Poor drainage, low land, infected field
B. Selection of propagating materials
-Using pathogen free or treated planting materials reduce
disease
C. Cultural practices
-Monoculture, higher level of nitrogenous fertilizer, dense
planting, overhead irrigation, poor sanitation, creation injury in
plant.
D. Disease control
- cultural , biological chemical control reduce the epidemic
41. Disease development is also affected by Time
Time factors
1. Season of the year
2. Duration & frequency of favorable temp. &
rains
3. Appearance of vectors, etc.
42. Implications for Disease Management Strategies
Monocyclic Diseases
•Reduce the amount of primary inoculum, or affect
the efficiency of invasion by the primary inoculum.
Polycyclic Diseases
•Reducing the amount of primary inoculum has less
impact.
•Reducing the rate of increase of the pathogen more
beneficial.
43. Purpose of disease management is to prevent
disease from exceeding some level where profit or
yield is significantly diminished.
44. Principles of epidemiology indicates that
control measures can do this in only two
ways.
1. They may reduce (or delay) disease at the
beginning of the season (x) or
2. They may decrease the rate of disease
development (r) during the growing period.
45. Ways to reduce disease (inoculum) at beginning
(x0)
•Fumigation, Certified seed
•Sanitation, Seed treatments
•Quarantine, Host plant resistance
Ways to decrease the rate of disease development
(infection rate) (r)
•Change the environment
•Fertilizer application
•Host plant resistance
Ways to change t
•Harvest early before disease becomes severe.
•Plant early (cereal cyst nematode)
46. PATTERNS OF EPIDEMICS
Interactions among the elements of epidemics, as
influenced over time by factors of the environment
and by human interference, are expressed in patterns
and rates.
disease–progress curve
Disease gradient curve
47. Disease progress curve
(A) Saturation type of curve
Three monocyclic diseases of different epidemic
rates.
(B)Sigmoidal curve
Polycyclic disease, such as late blight of potato.
(C) Bimodal curve
polycyclic disease, such as apple scab, in which the
blossoms and the fruit are infected at different,
separate times
48.
49. Disease gradient curve
disease–gradient curve: The percentage of disease and
the scale for distance vary with the type of pathogen or
its method of dispersal
being small for soil borne pathogens or vectors and
larger for airborne pathogens.
The progress of an
epidemic measured in
terms of changes in the
number of lesions/ the
amount of diseased
tissue, and the number of
diseased plants as it
spreads over distance, is
called disease gradient
curve (spatial pattern)