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Engineering Internet QoS 1st Edition Sanjay Jha Digital
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Author(s): Sanjay Jha, Mahbub Hassan
ISBN(s): 9781580535663, 1580535666
Edition: 1st
File Details: PDF, 1.91 MB
Year: 2002
Language: english

For a listing of recent titles in the Artech House Telecommunications Library, turn to
the back of this book.

Engineering Internet QoS
Sanjay Jha
Mahbub Hassan
Artech House
Boston • London
www.artechhouse.com

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Jha, Sanjay.
Engineering Internet QoS / Sanjay Jha, Mahbub Hassan.
p. cm. — (Artech House telecommunications library)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-58053-341-8 (alk. paper)
1. Internet—Evaluation. 2. Telecommunications—Traffic management. 3. Quality
control. I. Hassan, Mahbub. II. Title. III. Series.
TK5105.875.I57 J53 2002
004.6—dc21 2002074494
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Jha, Sanjay
Engineering Internet QoS. — (Artech House
telecommunications library)
1. Computer engineering 2. Internet 3. Computer networks–
Quality control
I. Title II. Hassan, Mahbub
621.3'981
ISBN 1-58053-341-8
Cover design by Gary Ragaglia
© 2002 ARTECH HOUSE, INC.
685 Canton Street
Norwood, MA 02062
All rights reserved. Printed and bound in the United States of America. No part of this book
may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, in-
cluding photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, with-
out permission in writing from the publisher.
All terms mentioned in this book that are known to be trademarks or service marks have
been appropriately capitalized. Artech House cannot attest to the accuracy of this informa-
tion. Use of a term in this book should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trade-
mark or service mark.
International Standard Book Number: 1-58053-341-8
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2002074494
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

v
To my father, Krishna, my wife, Manju, and my pets, Kookaburra (Maansi)
and Possum (Pranay).
Sanjay Jha
To my son, Aaron.
Mahbub Hassan

Contents
Preface xv
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 QoS Framework 1
1.2 Video-Conferencing System 5
1.3 Overview of Audio-Video Compression Techniques 6
1.3.1 Video-Compression Standards 6
1.3.2 Audio-Compression 9
1.4 End-System Considerations 9
1.5 Operating-System Approach 10
1.6 Overview of Networking and Media Technologies 11
1.7 End-to-End QoS in the Internet 13
1.8 Supporting QoS in Best-Effort Networks 14
1.9 Application-Level Adaptation 16
1.9.1 Montgomery’s Destination Wait Method 16
1.9.2 Adaptive Audio Playout 18
1.9.3 Feedback Control Mechanism 19
1.9.4 Forward Error Correction 19
1.9.5 Interleaving 20
1.9.6 Repair at Receiver 20
1.10 Real-Time Protocol 20
1.11 Real-Time Control Protocol 22
1.11.1 Interarrival Jitter Calculation 24
1.11.2 Example: Audio Transmission in the Internet 24
1.12 Summary 26
vii

viii Contents
1.13 Review Questions 26
Chapter 2 QoS Fundamentals 31
2.1 Traffic Description 31
2.1.1 Types of Traffic Sources 31
2.1.2 Traffic Parameters 32
2.2 QoS Specification and Contract 34
2.3 QoS Signaling 34
2.4 Packet Classification 34
2.5 Resource Reservation 35
2.6 Admission Control 35
2.7 Traffic Policing 36
2.7.1 Requirements for Traffic Policing 36
2.7.2 Policing Parameters 37
2.7.3 Policing Algorithms 37
2.8 Traffic Shaping 42
2.9 Queuing and Scheduling 43
2.10 Congestion Control and Buffer Management 44
2.11 Research Directions 44
2.12 Summary 45
Chapter 3 Scheduling for QoS Management 49
3.1 Scheduling Goals 49
3.2 Scheduling Techniques 52
3.2.1 First Come First Serve 52
3.2.2 Priority Queuing 53
3.2.3 Generalized Processor Sharing 54
3.2.4 Round Robin 56
3.2.5 Weighted Round Robin 57
3.2.6 Deficit Round Robin 58
3.2.7 Weighted Fair Queuing 60
3.2.8 Virtual Clock 66
3.3 Class-Based Queuing 67
3.4 Implementation Status 69
3.5 Research Directions in Scheduling 71
3.6 Summary 73
3.8 Implementation Project 74

Contents ix
Chapter 4 TCP/IP and Queue Management 77
4.1 Internet Protocol 77
4.1.1 Datagram Forwarding 78
4.1.2 Unreliable Delivery of Datagrams 78
4.1.3 Datagram Format 78
4.2 User Datagram Protocol 81
4.3 TCP Basics 82
4.4 TCP Segment Format 82
4.5 TCP Three-Way Handshake 85
4.6 TCP Acknowledgment 86
4.7 Flow Control 86
4.8 Congestion Control 88
4.8.1 Packet Loss Detection 88
4.8.2 Retransmission Timer 89
4.8.3 RTT Estimation 89
4.8.4 Slow Start 90
4.8.5 AIMD 90
4.8.6 TCP Tahoe/Reno/Vegas 92
4.9 Queue Management 93
4.9.1 Explicit Congestion Notification 93
4.9.2 Packet Drop Schemes 94
4.9.3 Global Synchronization Problem 95
4.9.4 Random Early Detection Scheme 95
4.9.5 Weighted Random Early Detection 98
4.9.6 RED with In/Out 98
4.9.7 Problems with RED 99
4.10.1 Blue 100
4.10.2 Related Work 101
4.11 Summary 102
Chapter 5 Integrated Services Packet Network 107
5.1 Intserv Aim 108
5.2 Application Classification 108
5.2.1 Elastic Applications 108
5.2.2 Tolerant Real-Time Applications 109
5.2.3 Intolerant Real-Time Applications 109

x Contents
5.3 Intserv Service Classes 109
5.3.1 Controlled Load Service Class 110
5.3.2 Guaranteed Service Class 110
5.4 Flow Definition 111
5.5 Signaling/Flow Setup 111
5.6 Routing Protocol Independence 112
5.7 Reservation Specs 113
5.8 IS-Capable Router Components 116
5.8.1 Admission Control 116
5.8.2 Policing and Shaping 117
5.8.3 Packet Classifier 117
5.8.4 Packet Scheduler 118
5.8.5 Packet Processing 118
5.8.6 Traffic Control Implementation 118
5.9 LAN QoS and Intserv 120
5.9.1 QoS Problem in LAN 120
5.9.2 IEEE Solution for LAN QoS 120
5.9.3 Mapping of Intserv QoS to LAN QoS 124
5.10 Intserv Problems 125
5.12 Summary 128
Chapter 6 Resource Reservation Protocol 133
6.1 RSVP Features 133
6.1.1 Simplex Protocol 133
6.1.2 Receiver-Oriented Approach 134
6.1.3 Routing-Protocol Independent 134
6.1.4 Reservation Setup 134
6.1.5 Soft State Refresh 135
6.2 Reservation Merger 135
6.3 Reservation Styles 137
6.3.1 Wildcard Filter 137
6.3.2 Shared Explicit 138
6.3.3 Fixed Filter 139
6.3.4 RSVP/ns Simulation 141
6.4 RSVP Messages 143
6.4.1 PATH Messages 144

Contents xi
6.4.2 RESV Messages 145
6.4.3 Other RSVP Messages 145
6.4.4 Message Processing 146
6.5 RSVP Message Format 147
6.5.1 Session Objects 148
6.5.2 TSpec Object 148
6.5.3 AdSpec Object Class 149
6.5.4 AdSpec Functional Block 150
6.5.5 Other RSVP Objects 151
6.5.6 PATH Message Format 152
6.5.7 RESV Message Format 153
6.5.8 Controlled Load Flow Specification 154
6.5.9 Guaranteed Load Flow Specification 154
6.6 RSVP APIs 155
6.7 RSVP Problems 157
6.8 Other Resource Reservation Protocols 159
6.9 RSVP Extensions 160
6.9.1 Improvement-Related Extensions 161
6.9.2 Subnet Bandwidth Manager 161
6.9.3 New Application-Related Extensions 163
6.10 Summary 164
Chapter 7 IP Differentiated Services Network 169
7.1 Diffserv Architecture 169
7.1.1 Per-Hop Behavior 171
7.1.2 Per-Domain Behavior 171
7.1.3 Existing IPv4 ToS 172
7.1.4 Diffserv Codepoint 172
7.1.5 PHB Encoding 173
7.2 Diffserv Router 175
7.3 Premium Service 178
7.4 Experimental Evaluation of Premium Service Under Linux 179
7.5 Assured Service 184
7.6 Open Issues with Diffserv 187
7.7 Diffserv Research Directions 187
7.8 Summary 190

xii Contents
Chapter 8 Policy-Based QoS Management 195
8.1 Definition of Terminologies 195
8.2 Bandwidth Broker 196
8.3 Policy Framework 198
8.3.1 Policy Protocols 200
8.3.2 Policy Rules and Representations 201
8.3.3 Policy Database 202
8.4 Policy and RSVP 203
8.5 Bandwidth Broker Implementation 203
8.6 Internet2 and QBone 208
8.8 Summary 209
Chapter 9 ATM QoS 213
9.1 Why ATM Networks? 213
9.2 Protocol Architecture 214
9.3 Connections 215
9.3.1 Virtual Channel 216
9.3.2 Virtual Path 216
9.3.3 Permanent and Switched Virtual Circuits 216
9.4 Interfaces 217
9.5 Cell Formats 218
9.6 QoS Support 220
9.6.1 Traffic Contract 220
9.6.2 Traffic Descriptions 221
9.6.3 QoS Parameters 222
9.6.4 Service Classes 222
9.7 Adaptation Layers 224
9.8 IP-ATM Integration 227
9.8.1 ATM Deployment in IP Networks 227
9.8.2 Encapsulation of IP Datagrams into ATM Cells 228
9.9 IP-ATM QoS Mapping 232
9.9.1 Intserv over ATM 233
9.9.2 Diffserv over ATM 233
9.9.3 Performance Implications of QoS Mapping 235

Contents xiii
9.9.4 MPLS Solution 235
9.11 Summary 236
9.12 Further Reading 237
Chapter 10Multiprotocol Label Switching 241
10.1 Proprietary Protocols 241
10.2 Motivation 242
10.3 MPLS Basics 243
10.4 Conventional IP Routing 244
10.5 MPLS Approach 245
10.5.1 Label Encoding 245
10.5.2 TTL Handling 246
10.5.3 MPLS Encapsulation 246
10.5.4 Label Processing 246
10.6 Label Distribution 247
10.6.1 Sample Network 247
10.6.2 Label Binding 248
10.6.3 Label Allocation 249
10.6.4 Label Switching 250
10.7 Hierarchical Routing 252
10.8 MPLS over ATM 254
10.9 Traffic Engineering Using MPLS 256
10.9.1 Constraint Routed LSP 257
10.9.2 Path Resource Reservation Protocols 258
10.9.3 Traffic Trunk 260
10.9.4 MPLS Experimental Results 261
10.9.5 No Trunking 261
10.9.6 Two Trunks Using LSPs 262
10.10MPLS and latest developments 262
10.10.1 Diffserv over MPLS 262
10.10.2 Generalized MPLS (GMPLS) 264
10.11Summary 265
10.12Review Questions 265
Chapter 11QoS in Mobile Wireless Networks 269
11.1 Mobile Applications 269
11.2 Mobile Wireless Networks 270

xiv Contents
11.2.1 Wireless LAN 271
11.2.2 Bluetooth 272
11.2.3 Cellular Networks 273
11.2.4 Comparison of Wireless Networks 274
11.3 Mobile Services over IP Networks 274
11.3.1 Mobile IP 274
11.3.2 Cellular IP 277
11.4 Impact of Mobility on QoS 278
11.4.1 Effect of Wireless Links 278
11.4.2 Effect of Movement 279
11.4.3 Limitations of Portable Devices 279
11.5 Managing QoS in Mobile Environments 280
11.5.1 Resource Reservation 280
11.5.2 Context-Aware Handoff 282
11.5.3 Application Adaptivity 282
11.7 Summary 287
Chapter 12Future 293
12.1 Intserv over Diffserv 293
12.1.1 Motivation 293
12.1.2 Generic Framework for Intserv over Diffserv 293
12.1.3 Guaranteed Service over EF PHB 295
12.1.4 Controlled Load over AF PHB 296
12.2 QoS Routing 297
12.3 Resource Discovery and QoS 297
12.4 Virtual Private Network and QoS 298
12.5 Content Distribution Network and QoS 299
12.6 Web QoS 300
12.7 Billing and Charging for QoS 301
12.8 Final Words 302
12.9 Summary 303
12.10Review Questions 303
About the Authors 307
Index 309

Preface
Engineering Internet QoS addresses the technical issues raised by the emergence of
new types, classes, and qualities of the Internet services. The international research
community has been working for the last decade on designing solutions to the QoS
problems in the Internet. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) has issued
many standards recommending architectures and protocols to build a QoS support
infrastructure for the IP networks. The volume and pace of this QoS research
and development have demanded new textbooks on this topic. Although several
books on QoS have been published in the last few years, currently no text exists
that provides a single comprehensive source for the QoS concepts, architectures,
and algorithms. Most books cover the latest developments in IETF without going
into the depth of the fundamentals that is required to provide QoS. Readers are
required to consult several reference books to gain an in-depth understanding of the
fundamental concepts to build QoS in the Internet. This makes it difficult to adopt
any of these books as a text for a course on QoS.
We have written Engineering Internet QoS to provide a comprehensive source
of knowledge in the field. We have attempted to provide sufficient depth for the ma-
jor QoS concepts and architectures. Simulation results have been presented to help
understand some of the difficult concepts. The book has several Linux/FreeBSD–
based practical examples to illustrate how QoS testbeds can be set up for experi-
mentation and future research.
xv

xvi Engineering Internet QoS
ASSUMED KNOWLEDGE
Readers would be required to have the basic knowledge of data communications
and TCP/IP protocols, with some exposure to IP routing.
AUDIENCE
The book is designed for use in a second course on networking with a prerequisite
of introductory networking or data communications. The name of the course can be
as specific as “QoS in the Internet.” The book can also be used in some existing
networking courses. Some of the possible courses for which the book can be
adopted include Advanced Computer Networks and High Performance Networks.
Graduate students will find the sections on “research direction” useful for their
literature survey in the respective fields.
Professionals working as network engineers, telecommunication and network
software developers, R&D managers, research scientists, and network administra-
tors will also find this book valuable to understanding the QoS issues and how to
implement, maintain, and deploy QoS technologies. QoS API and traffic control ex-
amples will help engineers learn how to configure a router/switch supporting QoS.
Since this book is partly based on the industry short courses the authors developed,
the book will be suitable for internal training in many telecommunication industries.
The trainees will find the knowledge acquired useful in creating new products or
setting new directions for their team.
ORGANIZATION
1. Introduction: We believe that it will be easier to understand the specific
architectures once the readers have absorbed the fundamental issues and
techniques. This chapter provides definition of the QoS problem and QoS
parameters and answers why QoS is an important problem. This is followed
by the issues in providing QoS in the Internet environment. Through an
example, we discuss issues related to providing end-to-end QoS for real-time
multimedia communications over the Internet. End system as well as network
issues are discussed. The standard protocol real-time transport protocol (RTP)
and RTCP are also discussed, with examples of how they provide features
for supporting adaptive feedback as well as jitter calculation. Readers not
familiar with the QoS area will find this chapter interesting.

Preface xvii
2. QoS Fundamentals: In order to understand various architectures for QoS
provisioning in the Internet, it is important to understand the fundamental
algorithms/techniques behind these architectures. This chapter provides an
overview of the fundamental issues such as traffic specification and nego-
tiation, admission control, resource reservation, scheduling, and congestion
control. A detailed treatment to shaping and policing has been provided in this
chapter. Highly technical details of scheduling, congestion control, and buffer
management as well as resource reservation are provided in later chapters.
Readers familiar with these basic concepts may find the specialized chapters
more useful.
3. Scheduling for QoS Management: Packet scheduling is an important build-
ing block for any QoS network. This chapter provides an in-depth treatment
of this topic. A variety of schedulers including FCFS, priority round robin,
fair queuing, and its variants are discussed in details with examples of how
they could meet the delay and bandwith requirements of flows. There is an
overview of several advanced schedulers, and current research issues are de-
scribed. We recommend this chapter to both novice and advanced readers.
4. TCP/IP and Queue Management: This chapter provides a brief refresher on
TCP and IP protocols. Another objective of this section is to provide readers
with background on how the congestion control problem is currently solved
in the best-effort Internet. Authors have included this material to minimize
cross–referencing to other books where possible. Readers familiar with these
concepts may skip this section. The later part of this chapter deals with
queue management techniques used in best effort as well as QoS-capable
networks. Algorithms, such as RED/RIO, wRED, and Blue are discussed in
detail. An overview of current research issues relating to queue management
is described in this chapter.
5. Integrated Services Packet Network: One of the earliest architectures for
QoS support within IETF is the integrated services (Intserv) model. This
chapter starts with classification and requirements of applications, followed
by description of various components of the Intserv model. Components of
an Intserv capable router are described in detail. QoS support issues in the
LAN environment as well as Intserv mapping of LAN QoS are also covered
in this chapter.
6. Resource Reservation Protocol: Although flow setup has been discussed
briefly in the context of Intserv, a separate chapter has been dedicated to the

xviii Engineering Internet QoS
resource reservation protocol (RSVP). This chapter covers details of RSVP
protocol design and demonstrates its usefulness in the Intserv environment
through examples and simulation. Resource reservation protocol is an active
research area. This chapter will help researchers and implementors learn
the issues involved in designing any new resource reservation protocol. An
overview of various RSVP extensions and related research is also provided in
this chapter.
7. IP Differentiated Services Network: This chapter describes the Diffserv
architecture and its various elements. We also describe components of a
Diffserv router. Premium and assured service are described in detail with
experimental evaluation of premium service using Linux testbed. The chapter
concludes with Diffserv problems and new research development such as per-
domain behavior.
8. Policy–Based QoS Management: Policy-based QoS management is emerg-
ing as a strong research and development area for next generation Internet. We
discuss resource allocation protocol (RAP) framework. Bandwidth broker is
considered to be the oracle that has a global view of resources within a Diff-
serv domain. This chapter also describes the intra- and interdomain protocols
used in the Internet along with the Internet2 and Qbone architectures.
9. ATM QoS: ATM network was designed to support QoS from the start.
Currently many carriers have deployed ATM switches in their backbone
network. This chapter provides an overview of ATM technology as well as
the IP/ATM integration issues. This background is essential for understanding
the next chapter on MPLS. However, readers familiar with ATM network may
skip this chapter.
10. Multiprotocol Label Switching: Multiprotocol label switching has been a
popular topic for developers and researchers in the QoS area. This chapter
begins with the motivation behind developing this new technology. A detailed
description of the MPLS protocol, label distribution protocol, and issues
related to MPLS over ATM network is provided. Finally we discuss the
traffic engineering issues, with some examples of traffic trunking in MPLS
networks.
11. QoS in Mobile Wireless Networks: Mobile wireless technology has experi-
enced the same level of growth as the Internet. A vast topic like this deserves
a separate book. We start with discussion of applications and their QoS re-
quirments in the wireless Internet. We also provide a high-level overview of

Preface xix
measures currently being proposed to address the QoS issue in the wireless
Internet.
12. Future: Besides the various architectures discussed in this book, several new
architectures are evolving in the Internet. It is impossible to cover all these
new developments in a single book. We start this chapter with a detailed
discussion of Intserv over Diffserv followed by an overview of QoS routing,
VPN and QoS, content distribution network, as well as billing and charging
for QoS. Each of these sections provides a list of key references for further
reading.
Each chapter provides a section on either future research directions or latest devel-
opments in the area. Readers keen to explore the areas further will find these sec-
tions and references very useful. We have structured chapters in a way that readers
absorb basic concepts before jumping into architectural issues. Each chapter is self-
contained. We have repeated some concepts briefly in a few chapters to make them
self-contained, providing forward/backward reference for details. This facilitates
readers to carry on with the current chapter without breaking their continuity.
ON-LINE SUPPORT
On-line support material for each chapter and presentation foils (for adopters of the
text only) will be available from the following URL:
http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/qosbook
https://hhp.bvdep.com/artechhouse
/Default.Asp?Frame=Book.Asp&Book=1-58053-341-8
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First of all we would like to express our gratitude to the anyonymous reviewer for
the extensive reviews of the chapters and the comments on the book’s organization.
A number of other people helped with this book. Some part of this book came
from our joint work with Professor Raj Jain from Ohio State University. Muneyb
Minhazuddin from Avaya Communications provided helpful suggestions on Diff-
serv. Professor William Atwood from Concordia University provided suggestions

xx Engineering Internet QoS
on various aspects of this book. Our graduate students William Lau, Jahan Hassan,
Alfandika, and Monir Hossain, read some of the chapter drafts. Jim Wu provided
graphics for the Diffserv chapter. Abdul Aziz Mustafa helped with the NS simula-
tion setup. Matt Chalmers and Shaleeza Sohail provided references for billing and
charging as well as policy-based management sections. Filip Rosenbaum provided
experimental results for MPLS and helped with Linux TC examples. This book has
been influenced by authors of books, articles, and RFCs provided in the refence list
after each chapter. The MPLS chapter has been influenced by Bruce Davie’s MPLS
tutorial in Globecom’98.
We are indebted to our employer, the University of New South Wales, and
our head of school, Professor Arun Sharma, for their flexibity and encouragement,
which enabled us to write this book. We acknowledge Mark Walsh, Barbara Loven-
virth, Judi Stone, Jen Kelland, Susanne Schott and others at Artech House Publish-
ers for their wonderful support. Geoff Oakley helped with Latex formatting. Finally,
we extend our gratitude to our families for their continual support throughout the
entire project.
Sanjay Jha
Mahbub Hassan
July 2002

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cypress, a. n

accurate
92 THE SHIPWRECKED SAILOR abundance of incense, of
ivory tusks, of baboons, of apes, and all kind of precious things. I
embarked all in the ship which was come, and bowing myself, I
prayed God for him. " Then he said to me, * Behold thou shalt come
to thy country in two months, thou shalt press to thy bosom thy
children, and thou shalt rest in thy tomb/ After this I went down to
the shore unto the ship, and I called to the sailors who were there.
Then on the shore I rendered adoration to the master of this isle
and to those who dwelt therein. " When we shall come, in our
return, to the house of Pharaoh, in the second month, according to
all that the serpent has said, we shall approach unto the palace. And
I shall go in before Pharaoh, I shall bring the gifts which I have
brought from this isle into the country. Then he shall thank me
before the fulness of all the land. Grant then unto me a follower, and
lead me to the courtiers of

accurate
REMARKS 93 the king. Cast thy eye upon me, after that I
am come to land again, after that I have both seen and proved this.
Hear my prayer, for it is good to listen to people. It was said unto
me, ' Become a wise man, and thou shalt come to honour,' and
behold I have become such." This is finished from its beginning unto
its end, even as it was found in a writing. It is written by the scribe
of cunning fingers Ameni-amen-aa ; may he live in life, wealth, and
health ! REMARKS This tale is only known in one copy, preserved in
the Hermitage collection at St. Petersburg. The papyrus has not yet
been published, either in facsimile or transcription. But two
translations of it have appeared by M. Golenischeff : from the earlier
a modified translation is given by Maspero in the " Contes
Populaires," 2nd edit., pp. 133— 146, and the later translation is in
M. GolenischefFs excellent

accurate
94 THE SHIPWRECKED SAILOR " Inventaire de la collection
Egyptienne (Ermitage Imperial)/' p. 177-182. The tale is that of a
returned sailor, speaking to his superior and telling his adventures,
to induce him to send him on with an introduction to the king. At
first his master professes to disbelieve him, and then the sailor
protests that this happened to himself, and gives his narrative. The
idea of an enchanted island, which has risen from the waves and will
sink again, is here found to be one of the oldest plots for a tale of
marvels. But the construction is far more advanced than that of the
tales of the magicians. The family of serpents and the manner of the
great serpent is well conceived, and there are many fine touches of
literary quality : such as noise as of thunder, the trees shaking and
the earth being moved at the appearance of the great serpent — the
speeches of the serpent and his threat — the sailors who had seen
heaven and earth — the contempt of the serpent for his offerings,

accurate
REMARKS 95 " As for me, I am prince of the land of Punt,
and I have perfumes " — and the scene of departure. All of these
points show a firm hand and practised taste, although there is still a
style of simplicity clinging to it which agrees well to its date in the
Xllth Dynasty. The great serpent is not of a type usual in Egyptian
designs. The human-headed uraeus is seldom bearded ; and the
best example of such a monster is on an Ethiopian temple, where a
great uraeus has human arms and a lion's head. The colours again
repeat the favourite combination expressive of splendour — gold and
lazuli. Though lazuli is very rare in early times, yet it certainly was
known in the Xllth Dynasty, as shown by the forms of some beads of
lazuli. The slaughter of asses in sacrifice is a very peculiar offering,
and no sign of this is found in any representations or groups of
offerings.

accurate
96 THE SHIPWRECKED SAILOR The colophon of the copyist
at the end shows by the style of the name that it belongs to the
earlier part of the Xllth Dynasty, and if so, the composition might be
referred to the opening of foreign trade under Sankhkara or
Amenemhat I.

accurate
XIlTH DYNASTY THE ADVENTURES OF SANEHAT THE
hereditary prince, royal seal-bearer, confidential friend, judge, keeper
of the gate of the foreigners, true and beloved royal acquaintance,
the royal follower Sanehat says : — I attended my lord as a follower
of the king, of the house of the hereditary princess, the greatly
favoured, the royal wife, AnkhetUsertesen, who shares the dwelling
ot the royal son Amenemhat in Kanefer. In the thirtieth year, the
month Paophi, the seventh day the god entered his horizon, the king
Sehotepabra flew up to heaven and joined the sun's disc, the
follower of the god 8 97

accurate
98 THE ADVENTURES OF SANEHAT met his maker. The
palace was silenced, and in mourning, the great gates were closed,
the courtiers crouching on the ground, the people in hushed
mourning. His majesty had sent a great army with the nobles to the
land of the Temehu (Lybia), his son and heir, the good god king
Usertesen as their leader. Now he was returning, and had brought
away living captives and all kinds of cattle without end. The
councillors of the palace had sent to the West to let the king know
the matter that had come to pass in the inner hall. The messenger
was to meet him on the road, and reach him at the time of evening :
the matter was urgent. "A hawk had soared with his followers/' Thus
said he, not to let the army know of it. Even if the royal sons who
commanded in that army send a message, he was not to speak to a
single one of them. But I was standing near, and heard his voice
while he was speaking. 1 fled far away, my heart beating, my arms

accurate
THE ADVENTURES OF SANEHAT 99 failing, trembling had
fallen on all my limbs. I turned about in running to seek a place to
hide me, and I threw myself between two bushes, to wait while they
should pass by. THE FLIGHT Then I turned me toward the south, not
from wishing to come into this palace — for I knew not if war was
declared — nor even thinking a wish to live after this sovereign,

accurate
ioo THE ADVENTURES OF SANEHAT I turned my back to
the sycamore, I reached Shi-Seneferu, and rested on the open field.
In the morning I went on and overtook a man, who passed by the
edge of the road. He asked of me mercy, for he feared me. By tke
evening I drew near to Kher-ahau (? old Cairo), and I crossed the
river on a THE CROSSING raft without a rudder. Carried over by the
west wind, I passed over to the east to the quarries of Aku and the
land of the goddess Herit, mistress of the red mountain (Gebel
Ahmar). Then I fled on foot, northward, and reached the walls of the
prince, built to repel the Sati. I crouched in a bush

accurate
THE ADVENTURES OF SANEHAf 101 for fear of being seen
by the guards, changed each day, who watch on the top of the
fortress. I took my way by night, and at the lighting or the day I
reached Peten, and turned me toward the valley of Kemur. Then
thirst hasted me on ; I dried up, and my throat narrowed, and I said,
" This is the THE RESCUE taste of death." When I lifted up my heart
and gathered strength, I heard a voice and the lowing of cattle. I
saw men of the Sati, and one of them — a friend unto Egypt —
knew me. Behold he gave me water and boiled me milk, and I went
with him to his camp ; they did me good, and one tribe passed me
on to another. I passed on

accurate
ioa THE ADVENTURES Of SANEMAT to Sun, and reached
the land of Adim (Edom). When I had dwelt there half a year Amuan
shi — who is the prince of the Upper Tenu — sent for me and said:
"Dwell thou with me that thou mayest hear the speech of Egypt-" He
said thus for that he knew of my excellence, and had heard tell of
my worth, for men of Egypt who were there with him bore witness
of me. Behold he said to me, "For what cause hast thou come
hither? Has a matter come to pass in the palace ? Has the king of
the two lands, Sehetepabra gone to heaven ? That which has
happened about this is not known.'* But I answered with
concealment, and said, " When I came from the land of the Tamahu,
and my desires were there changed in me, if I fled away it was not
by reason of remorse that I took the way of a fugitive ; I have not
failed in my duty, my mouth has not said any bitter words, I have
not heard any evil counsel, my name has not come into

accurate
THE ADVENTURES OF SANEHAT 103 the mouth of a
magistrate. I know not by what I have been led into this land." And
Amu-an-shi said, " This is by the will of the god (king of Egypt), for
what is a land like if it know not that excellent god, of whom the
dread is upon the lands of strangers, as they dread Sekhet in a year
of pestilence/' I spake to him, and replied, " Forgive me, his son now
enters the palace, and has received the heritage of his father. He is a
god who has none like him, and there is none before him. He is a
master of wisdom, prudent in his designs, excellent in his decrees,
with good-will to him who goes or who comes ; he subdued the land
of strangers while his father yet lived in his palace, and he rendered
account of that which his father destined him to perform. He is a
brave man, who verily strikes with his sword ; a valiant one, who has
not his equal ; he springs upon the barbarians, and throws himself
on the spoilers ; he breaks the horns and weakens the hands, and
those whom he

accurate
104 THE ADVENTURES OF SANEHAT smites cannot raise
the buckler. He is fearless, and dashes the heads, and none can
stand before him. He is swift of foot, to destroy him who flies ; and
none who flees from him reaches his home. His heart is strong in his
time ; he is a lion who strikes with the claw, and never has he
turned his back. His heart is closed to pity ; and when he sees
multitudes, he leaves none to live behind him. He is a valiant one
who springs in front when he sees resistance ; he is a warrior who
rejoices when he flies on the barbarians. He seizes the buckler, he
rushes forward, he never needs to strike again, he slays and none
can turn his lance ; and when he takes the bow the barbarians flee
from his arms like dogs ; for the great goddess has given to him to
strike those who know her not ; and if he reaches forth he spares
none, and leaves nought behind. He is a friend of great sweetness,
who knows how to gain love ; his land loves him more than itself,
and rejoices in him more than in its own

accurate
THE ADVENTURES Of SANEtfAT 105 god ; men and women
run to his call. A king, he has ruled from his birth ; he, from his
birth, has increased births, a sole being, a divine essence, by whom
this land rejoices to be governed. He enlarges the borders of the
South , but he covets not the lands of the North : he does not smite
the Sati, nor crush the Nemau-shau, If he descends here, let him
know thy name, by the homage which thou wilt pay to his majesty.
For he refuses not to bless the land which obeys him." And he
replied to me, " Egypt is indeed happy and well settled ; behold thou
art far from it, but whilst thou art with me I will do good unto thee."
And he placed me before his children, he married his eldest
daughter to me, and gave me the choice of all his land, even among
the best of that which he had oh the border of the next land. It is a
goodly land, laa is its name, There are figs and grapes ; there is
wine commoner than water ; abun

accurate
106 THE ADVENTURES OF SANEHAT dant is the honey,
many are its olives ; and all fruits are upon its trees ; there is barley
and wheat, and cattle of kinds without end. 1 his was truly a great
thing that he granted me, when the prince came to invest me, and
SANEIIAT MEETING THE TENU establish me as prince of a tribe in
the best of his land. I had my continual portion of bread and of wine
each day, of cooked meat, of roasted fowl, as well as the wild game
which I took, or which was brought to me,

accurate
THE ADVENTURES OF SANEHAT 107 besides what my dogs
captured. They made me much butter, and prepared milk of all
kinds. I passed many years, the children that I had became great,
each ruling his tribe. When a messenger went or came to the palace,
he turned aside from the way to come to me ; for I helped every
man. I gave water to the thirsty, I set on his way him who went
astray, and I rescued the robbed. The Sati who went far, to strike
and turn back the princes of other lands, I ordained their goings ;
for the Prince of the Tenu for many years appointed me to be
general of his soldiers. In every land which I attacked I played the
champion, I took the cattle, I led away the vassals, I carried off the
slaves, I slew the people, by my sword, my bow, my marches and
my good devices. I was excellent to the heart of my prince ; he
loved me when he knew my power, and set me over his children
when he saw the strength of my arms. A champion of the Tenu
came to defy

accurate
io8 THE ADVENTURES OF S me in my tent : a bold man
without equal, for he had vanquished the whole country. He said, "
Let Sanehat fight with me ; " for he desired to overthrow me, he
thought to take my cattle for his tribe. The prince councilled with
me. I said, " I know him not. I certainly am not of his degree, I hold
me far from his place. Have I ever opened his door, or leaped over
his fence? It is some envious jealousy from seeing me ; does he
think that I am like some steer among the cows, whom the bull
overthrows ? If this is a wretch who thinks to enrich himself at my
cost, not a Bedawi and a Bedawi fit for fight, then let us put the
matter to judgment. Verily a true bull loves battle, but a vain-
glorious bull turns his back for fear of contest ; if he has a heart for
combat, let him speak what he pleases. Will God forget what He has
ordained, and how shall that be known ? " I lay down ; and when I
had rested I strung my bow, I made ready my arrows, I loosened
my poignard, I

accurate
THE ADVENTURES OF SANEHAT 109 furbished my arms. At
dawn the land of the Tenu came together ; it had gathered its tribes
and called all the neighbouring people, it spake of nothing but the
fight. Each heart burnt for me, men and women crying out ; for each
heart was troubled for THE COMBAT me, and they said, " Is there
another strong one who would fight with him ? Behold the adversary
has a buckler, a battle axe, and an armful of javelins." Then I drew
him to the attack ; I turned aside his arrows, and they struck the
ground in vain. One drew

accurate
i io THE ADVENTURES OF SANEHAT near to the other, and
he fell on me, and then I shot him. My arrow fastened in his neck,
he cried out, and fell on his face : I drove his lance into him, and
raised my shout of victory on his back. Whilst all the men of the land
rejoiced, I, and his vassals whom he had oppressed, gave thanks
unto Mentu. This prince, Amu-an-shi, embraced me. Then I carried
off his goods and took his cattle, that which he had wished to do to
me, I did even so unto him ; I seized that which was in his tent, I
spoiled his dwelling. As time went on I increased the richness of my
treasures and the number of my cattle. Petition to the king of Egypt.
" Now behold what the god has done for me who trusted in him.
Having once fled away, yet now there is a witness of me in the
palace. Once having fled away, as a fugitive, now all in the palace
give unto me a good name. After that I had been

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