Energy is required at various stages of food processing and production. Between 50 to 100 MJ of energy is needed to produce and package each kilogram of a retail food product. This energy is used for power, heating and cooling. Food molecules like sugars and fats are broken down into smaller molecules through digestion and various cellular processes to produce energy molecules like ATP. This breakdown occurs in three stages - digestion, glycolysis/citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria. The chemical energy from food is ultimately captured and stored in ATP molecules, which are then used to power various cellular functions.
Introducing the Evolutionary Cell Memory (ECM) Hypothesis banafsheh61
This research study has gone through more than 34 sample tumors in Violet Cancer Institute (VCI) to find the cancer
cells’ resemblances to the primitive eukaryote cells in 3.5 billion years ago before the entrance of the mitochondria
into the eukaryote cells as endosymbionts. Nearly all the samples showed that the mitochondria inside the cells were
not working properly. Their cristae were damaged or the mitochondria did not work or better said “shut down”
inside the cancer cells. This study introduces a new hypothesis called the Evolutionary Cell Memory (ECM) based on
the Lamarckian Evolutionary Hypothesis and the Evolutionary Metabolic Hypothesis of Cancer introduced by the
Somayeh Zaminpira and Sorush Niknamian in 2017.
Introducing the Evolutionary Cell Memory (ECM) Hypothesis banafsheh61
This research study has gone through more than 34 sample tumors in Violet Cancer Institute (VCI) to find the cancer
cells’ resemblances to the primitive eukaryote cells in 3.5 billion years ago before the entrance of the mitochondria
into the eukaryote cells as endosymbionts. Nearly all the samples showed that the mitochondria inside the cells were
not working properly. Their cristae were damaged or the mitochondria did not work or better said “shut down”
inside the cancer cells. This study introduces a new hypothesis called the Evolutionary Cell Memory (ECM) based on
the Lamarckian Evolutionary Hypothesis and the Evolutionary Metabolic Hypothesis of Cancer introduced by the
Somayeh Zaminpira and Sorush Niknamian in 2017.
The prime cause and treatment of cancer somayeh zaminpira - sorush niknamianbanafsheh61
This meta-analysis research has gone through more than 200 studies from 1934 to 2016 to find the differences and similarities in cancer cells, mostly the cause. The most important difference between normal cells and cancer cells is how they respire. Normal cells use the sophisticated process of respiration to efficiently turn any kind of nutrient that is fat, carbohydrate or protein into high amounts of energy in the form of ATP. This process requires oxygen and breaks food down completely into harmless carbon dioxide and water. Cancer cells use a primitive process of fermentation to inefficiently turn either glucose from carbohydrates or the amino acid glutamine from protein into small quantities of energy in the form of ATP. This process does not require oxygen, and only partially breaks down food molecules into lactic acid and ammonia, which are toxic waste products. The most important result is that fatty acids or better told fats cannot be fermented by cells. This research mentions the role of ROS and inflammation in causing mitochondrial damage and answers the most important questions behind cancer cause and mentions some beneficial methods in preventing and treatment of cancer.
Cellular Respiration Essay
Cellular Respiration Research Paper
Photosynthesis And Cellular Respiration Essay
What Is Cellular Respiration?
Conclusion Of Cellular Respiration
Cellular Respiration
Cellular Respiration Paper
What´s Cellular Respiration?
Cellular Respiration
A Research Study On Cellular Respiration Essay
Cellular Respiration Essay
How Cellular Respiration Is Important? Essay
Biology: Cellular Respiration
Cellular Respiration
We All Need Some Cellular Respiration Essay
Biology: Cellular Respiration
Essay on Aerobic Cellular Respiration
Synthesis Of Cellular Respiration
Cellular Respiration
Amino and carboxylic acid functional groups can both be found in organic compounds known as amino acids. Although there are more than 500 amino acids in nature, the alpha-amino acids, which make up proteins, are by far the most significant. The genetic code of every living thing contains just 22 alpha glucosamine.
The cornerstone of someone’s mental health is how they think, feel, and behave. Mental health specialists can help people with disorders like addiction, bipolar disorder, depression, and anxiety.
The prime cause and treatment of cancer somayeh zaminpira - sorush niknamianbanafsheh61
This meta-analysis research has gone through more than 200 studies from 1934 to 2016 to find the differences and similarities in cancer cells, mostly the cause. The most important difference between normal cells and cancer cells is how they respire. Normal cells use the sophisticated process of respiration to efficiently turn any kind of nutrient that is fat, carbohydrate or protein into high amounts of energy in the form of ATP. This process requires oxygen and breaks food down completely into harmless carbon dioxide and water. Cancer cells use a primitive process of fermentation to inefficiently turn either glucose from carbohydrates or the amino acid glutamine from protein into small quantities of energy in the form of ATP. This process does not require oxygen, and only partially breaks down food molecules into lactic acid and ammonia, which are toxic waste products. The most important result is that fatty acids or better told fats cannot be fermented by cells. This research mentions the role of ROS and inflammation in causing mitochondrial damage and answers the most important questions behind cancer cause and mentions some beneficial methods in preventing and treatment of cancer.
Cellular Respiration Essay
Cellular Respiration Research Paper
Photosynthesis And Cellular Respiration Essay
What Is Cellular Respiration?
Conclusion Of Cellular Respiration
Cellular Respiration
Cellular Respiration Paper
What´s Cellular Respiration?
Cellular Respiration
A Research Study On Cellular Respiration Essay
Cellular Respiration Essay
How Cellular Respiration Is Important? Essay
Biology: Cellular Respiration
Cellular Respiration
We All Need Some Cellular Respiration Essay
Biology: Cellular Respiration
Essay on Aerobic Cellular Respiration
Synthesis Of Cellular Respiration
Cellular Respiration
Amino and carboxylic acid functional groups can both be found in organic compounds known as amino acids. Although there are more than 500 amino acids in nature, the alpha-amino acids, which make up proteins, are by far the most significant. The genetic code of every living thing contains just 22 alpha glucosamine.
The cornerstone of someone’s mental health is how they think, feel, and behave. Mental health specialists can help people with disorders like addiction, bipolar disorder, depression, and anxiety.
“The investigation of food’s physical and chemical characteristics as well as any changes brought on by handling, storing, etc is known as food science.”
The fields of food science, agriculture, microbiology, chemistry, and engineering are all included in the broad area of food engineering. Food process engineering spans the full spectrum from obtaining raw food ingredients to processing them into food products to preserving, packing, and distributing the food products to the consumer market using thorough research methodologies, cutting-edge machinery, and complex procedures. And this applies to more than simply fresh food. It also encompasses the development and production of nutrient-dense goods in more palatable forms and packaging, such as superfood powder, tablets, oils, and other dietary supplements. This is true for substitutes like superfoods, which provide the same health advantages of fruits and vegetables in a form that is simpler to prepare and eat .There will be a significant growth in these employment in the upcoming years due to the enormous industry that is food engineering, particularly genetic food engineering, which is required to feed the expanding global population. In particular, as seen by the rising consumption of green food supplements and other more practical goods, a growing number of health-conscious consumers are searching for more practical ways to receive their recommended daily intake of nutrients. It also extends to nutritious substitutes like powdered supplements, oils, and other alternatives to food that has been farmed .
A focus on agricultural chemistry emerged in the writings of J. G. Wallerius, Humphry Davy, and others, leading to the development of the scientific approach to food and nutrition. For instance, Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, by Davy, was published in the United Kingdom in 1813 as part of a course of lectures for the Board of Agriculture and is now in its sixth edition. Carl Wilhelm Scheele’s 1785 isolation of malic acid from apples was among earlier research.
The categorization of carbohydrates into the four primary groups—monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides—used here is among the most popular classification schemes for carbohydrates. The majority of monosaccharides, or simple sugars, are found in honey, grapes, and other fruits. Although they can have three to nine carbon atoms, the most typical examples only have five or six joined together to form a molecule that resembles a chain. The three most significant simple sugars are glucose (also known as dextrose, grape sugar, corn sugar, fructose, and galactose), fructose (also known as fruit sugar), and galactose. Despite having the same molecular formula (C6H12O6), these sugars differ from one another and are known as isomers.
Proteins are polypeptide structures made up of one or more extended chains of residues from the amino acid. They provide a wide range of organism tasks, including as DNA replication, molecule transport, metabolic process catalysis, and cell structural support.
The albumins seen in vast quantities in egg whites typically have a distinct 3D structure as a result of bonds that form between the protein’s various amino acids. These bonds are broken by heating, exposing the hydrophobic (water-hating) amino acids that are typically maintained on the inside of the protein 1, 1 comma, 2 end superscript, 2, start superscript. In an effort to escape the water that surrounds them in the egg white, the hydrophobic amino acids will bind to one another, creating a protein network that gives the egg white structure and makes it white and opaque. Ta-da! Protein denaturation, thank you for another wonderful breakfast
Vitamins are frequently classified as either fat-soluble or water-soluble organic substances.. minerals that dissolve in fat, such as vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E, and vitamin K, have a tendency to build up in the body. Water-soluble vitamins, such as vitamin C and the B-complex vitamins, such as vitamin B6, vitamin B12, and folate, must dissolve in water in order to be absorbed by the body. the body and cannot be stored. Any water-soluble minerals that the body does not use are mostly excreted in the urine. People require trace amounts of organic substances called vitamins. Every one plays a unique part in preserving health and body function. Some people may require supplements to improve their supply, depending on their lifestyle and overall health..
Minerals are those substances found in meals and in the ground that our bodies require for healthy growth and development. Calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, chloride, magnesium, iron, zinc, iodine, chromium, copper, fluoride, molybdenum, manganese, and selenium are among the nutrients that are crucial for good health.
Water has the chemical formula H2O, making it an inorganic substance. It is the primary chemical component of the Earth’s hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living things (in which it serves as a solvent. It is translucent, flavourless, odourless, and almost colourless. In spite of not supplying food, energy, or organic micronutrients, it is essential for all known forms of life. Its molecules are made up of two hydrogen atoms joined by covalent bonds and have the chemical formula H2O. The angle at which the hydrogen atoms are joined to the oxygen atom is 104.45°. The liquid condition of H2O at normal pressure and temperature is known as “water” as well.
You obtain fats as a sort of nutrition from your food. While eating some fats is necessary, eating too much can be harmful. Your body gets the energy it needs to function correctly from the fats you consume. Your body burns calories from the carbs you’ve consumed while you workout.
Obesity – Causes and Symptoms : A condition known as obesity involves having too much body fat. Obesity is more than simply a visual issue. It is a medical condition that raises the chance of several illnesses and conditions, including heart disease, diabetes, high blood pressure, and some malignancies.
Food Borne Diseases are also called foodborne illness. any illness brought on by eating or drinking things that have been contaminated with certain infectious or noninfectious substances. Agents like bacteria, viruses, or parasites are to blame for the majority of cases of foodborne disease. Other harmful substances include mycotoxins (fungal toxins), marine biotoxins, and the toxins found in poisonous mushrooms. They also include metals like lead, mercury, and cadmium that can contaminate food through soil, water, or air pollution, organic pollutants like dioxin and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which are byproducts of some industrial processes, and prions (abnormal protein forms). Foodborne illness agents can result in a wide range of ailments, including gastroenteritis, reproductive or developmental problems, and neurological illnesses like bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease). Since many cases of foodborne illness go unreported, it is challenging to determine how common they are, but the burden of illness is believed to be significant. For instance, tens of millions of individuals get diarrheal disorders each year, a frequent indicator of a foodborne illness. Outbreaks of foodborne infections frequently happen, and they have the potential to harm a lot of people. For instance, a hepatitis A epidemic in 1988 in China that was brought on by eating infected clams impacted more than 300,000 people, while a salmonellosis outbreak in 1994 in the United States that was brought on by eating contaminated ice cream affected 224,000 individuals. Food-borne infections are often fatal. Consuming tainted foods or drinks results in foodborne disease. Foods can be contaminated by a wide range of pathogens or disease-causing bacteria, leading to a wide range of foodborne diseases. Eating food tainted with germs, viruses, parasites, or chemicals like heavy metals can result in over 200 ailments. Through pressure on healthcare systems, lost productivity, and detrimental effects on trade and tourism, this growing public health issue has a significant socioeconomic impact. The worldwide burden of disease and mortality is considerably increased by these illnesses.
Healthy food: It’s easy to wonder which foods are the healthiest, but there are a tonne that are both nutritious and tasty. By packing your plate with fruits, vegetables, quality protein sources, and other whole foods, you’ll have meals that are vibrant, adaptable, and healthy.
Food safety is a science-based discipline, procedure, or action that guards against the presence of contaminants that might be harmful to a person’s health in food. Having food that is safe to eat is the goal of food safety.
The phrase “heat transfer” refers to the distribution and changes in temperature that result from the transport of heat (thermal energy) induced by temperature differences. The study of transport phenomena focuses on the interchange of momentum, energy, and mass through conduction, convection, and radiation.
Nutrition of Bacteria: Bacteria primarily rely on autotrophic and heterotrophic nourishment. Heterotrophic bacteria rely on the food produced by other species, whereas phototrophic bacteria synthesize their own food using a variety of colors. The host cell provides the nutrients and other necessities for parasitic microorganisms. To learn more about bacterial nutrition and the specific form of bacterial feeding, see this article.
Liquid water is converted to gaseous water (water vapor) by the process of evaporation. Water travels from the Earth’s surface to the atmosphere via evaporation. Evaporation results from the dissolution of the bonds holding the water molecules together as a result of heat energy.
Removing undesirable heat from one item, substance, or area and transferring it to another is known as refrigeration, sometimes known as chilling. The temperature can be lowered by removing heat, which can be done using ice, snow, cooled water, or mechanical refrigeration.
Removing undesirable heat from one item, substance, or area and transferring it to another is known as refrigeration, sometimes known as chilling. The temperature can be reduced by removing heat, which can be accomplished by the use of ice, snow, cooled water, or mechanical refrigeration.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Toxic effects of heavy metals : Lead and Arsenicsanjana502982
Heavy metals are naturally occuring metallic chemical elements that have relatively high density, and are toxic at even low concentrations. All toxic metals are termed as heavy metals irrespective of their atomic mass and density, eg. arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, thallium, chromium, etc.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Salas, V. (2024) "John of St. Thomas (Poinsot) on the Science of Sacred Theol...Studia Poinsotiana
I Introduction
II Subalternation and Theology
III Theology and Dogmatic Declarations
IV The Mixed Principles of Theology
V Virtual Revelation: The Unity of Theology
VI Theology as a Natural Science
VII Theology’s Certitude
VIII Conclusion
Notes
Bibliography
All the contents are fully attributable to the author, Doctor Victor Salas. Should you wish to get this text republished, get in touch with the author or the editorial committee of the Studia Poinsotiana. Insofar as possible, we will be happy to broker your contact.
1. Energy for food process
May 7, 2023admin
Energy for food process: According to estimates, a retail food product requires
between 50 and 100 MJ (megajoules) of energy to produce and package each
kilograms. Energy is needed in the food processing sector for power, heating,
and cooling.
How Cells Obtain Energy from Food
As we just saw, for cells to create and sustain the biological order that keeps
them alive, they need a steady flow of energy. Food molecules’ chemical
bonds, which act as the fuel for cells, are the source of this energy.
Particularly significant fuel molecules include sugars, which are gradually
converted to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (Figure 2-69). In this part, we
outline the key processes involved in the catabolism, or breakdown, of sugars
and demonstrate how ATP, NADH, and other activated carrier molecules are
created in animal cells as a result. Since it accounts for the majority of energy
generation in most animal cells, we concentrate on glucose breakdown.
Additionally, fungi, many bacteria, and plants all use a very similar
mechanism. Various more compounds, such Proteins and fatty acids can also
be used as energy sources if the proper enzymatic pathways are followed.
Food Molecules Are Broken Down in Three Stages to
Produce ATP:
Before our cells can utilize the proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides that make
up the majority of the food we consume—either as a source of energy or as
building blocks for other molecules—they must be divided into smaller
2. molecules. Food consumed from the outside must be broken down, but not
the macromolecules found inside our own cells. Therefore, digestion is the
first stage of the enzymatic breakdown of food molecules and takes place
either outside of cells, in the gut, or inside of cells, in the lysosome, a
specialized organelle. (A membrane around the lysosome prevents the
digesting enzymes from mixing with the cytoplasm, In any case, during
digestion, enzymes break down the huge polymeric molecules in food into
their monomer subunits—proteins into amino acids, polysaccharides into
sugars, and fats into fatty acids and glycerol. Small organic molecules from
meals reach the cell’s cytosol after being digested to start the process of
progressive oxidation. Figure shows two further phases of cellular catabolism
in which oxidation takes place: stage 2 begins in the cytosol and concludes in
the mitochondrion, the main organelle responsible for turning food into energy;
stage 3 is exclusively restricted to the mitochondrion.
Each molecule of glucose is split into two smaller molecules of pyruvate
during stage 2, a process known as glycolysis. When sugars other than
glucose are transformed to one of the sugar intermediates in this glycolytic
pathway, they are then similarly reduced to pyruvate. ATP and NADH are two
different classes of active carrier molecules that are created during pyruvate
synthesis. After that, the pyruvate moves from the cytosol into the
mitochondria. Each pyruvate molecule there undergoes a transformation into
CO2 and a two-carbon acetyl group, which is then joined to coenzyme A
(CoA) to create acetyl CoA, another active carrier molecule . The sequential
oxidation and breakdown of fatty acids formed from lipids, which are
transported in the circulation and brought into cells as fatty acids, also
produces significant quantities of acetyl CoA.
All of stage 3 of the oxidative disintegration of food molecules occurs in
mitochondria. Since coenzyme A and acetyl CoA are connected by a high-
energy bond, the acetyl group in acetyl CoA is readily transferred to other
molecules. The acetyl group enters the citric acid cycle after being transferred
to the four-carbon oxaloacetate molecule. In these processes, the acetyl
group is oxidized to CO2, as we will explore momentarily, and significant
quantities of the electron carrier NADH are produced.In the mitochondrial
inner membrane, the high-energy electrons from NADH are then sent through
an electron-transport chain, where the energy produced during their
transmission is used to power a process that generates ATP and uses
molecule oxygen (O2). The majority of the energy generated by oxidation is
used in these last processes to make the majority of the cell’s ATP.
3. The phosphorylation of ADP to produce ATP that is fueled by electron
transport in the mitochondrion is known as oxidative phosphorylation because
the energy to drive ATP production in mitochondria ultimately originates from
the oxidative breakdown of food molecules. Chapter 14 primarily focuses on
the intriguing processes that take place within the mitochondrial inner
membrane during oxidative phosphorylation. The energy released during the
breakdown of carbohydrates and fats is redistributed as packets of chemical
energy in a form that is useful for usage in other parts of the cell through the
generation of ATP. A normal cell has around 109 ATP molecules in solution at
any given time, and in many cells, all of this ATP is changed over (that is,
used up and replenished) every one to two minutes.
The energetically unfavourable process Pi + ADP ATP is driven by
approximately half of the energy that might, in theory, come from the oxidation
of glucose or fatty acids to H2O and CO2. (In comparison, a normal
combustion engine, like one in a car, can only convert up to 20% of the fuel’s
potential energy into usable work.) Our bodies get heated as a result of the
cell discharging the remaining energy as heat.
Glycolysis Is a Central ATP-producing Pathway:
The decomposition of glucose through the series of processes known as
glycolysis—from the Greek glukus, “sweet,” and lusis, “rupture”—is the most
significant step in stage 2 of the breakdown of food molecules. ATP is created
during glycolysis without the help of molecule oxygen (O2 gas). Most cells,
including many anaerobic bacteria (those that can survive without using
molecular oxygen), include it in their cytoplasm. Prior to the introduction of
oxygen into the atmosphere by photosynthetic organisms, glycolysis likely
originated early in the history of life. A glucose molecule with six carbon atoms
is split into two pyruvate molecules, each with three, during the glycolytic
process.
4. Two molecules of ATP are hydrolyzed for every molecule of glucose to give
energy for the early processes, whereas four molecules of ATP are created in
the latter phases. As a result, towards the end of glycolysis, there is a net gain
of two ATP molecules for each glucose molecule that was broken down.
Figure presents the glycolytic route in broad strokes. A series of 10 distinct
processes, each of which produces a different sugar intermediate and is
catalyzed by a different enzyme, make up glycolysis. These enzymes, like the
majority of enzymes, all have names that end in ace, such as dehydrogenase
and isomerase, which describe the sort of process they catalyze.
Although there is no molecular oxygen involved in glycolysis, oxidation does
take place because some of the carbons released from the glucose molecule
are subjected to electron removal by NAD+ (forming NADH). Since the
process is stepwise, the energy of oxidation can be released in modest
amounts, allowing for the storage of some of it in activated carrier molecules
rather than its whole release as heat . As a result, part of the energy
generated during oxidation is used to directly synthesize ATP molecules from
ADP and Pi, while some of it is stored as electrons in the highly energetic
electron transporter NADH.
In the process of glycolysis, two molecules of NADH are created for every
molecule of glucose. These NADH molecules transfer their electrons to the
electron-transport chain outlined in aerobic organisms, and the NAD+
produced from the NADH is then utilized once more for glycolysis.
5. Fermentations Allow ATP to Be Produced in the
Absence of Oxygen:
Glycolysis is often just the first step in the third and final stage of the
breakdown of food molecules in most animal and plant cells. The pyruvate
produced in these cells at the last stage of stage 2 is swiftly carried into the
mitochondria where it is transformed into CO2 plus acetyl CoA and fully
oxidized to CO2 and H2O.
In contrast, glycolysis serves as the main source of ATP in the cells of many
anaerobic species, which do not use molecular oxygen and can grow and
divide without it. This is also true for some animal tissues, such skeletal
muscle, which may continue to work even when there is a shortage of
molecular oxygen. The NADH electrons and pyruvate remain in the cytosol
under these anaerobic circumstances. Pyruvate is transformed into
compounds that are expelled from the cell, such as lactate in muscle or
ethanol and CO2 in yeasts used in brewing and breadmaking. The NADH
surrenders its electrons during this phase, turning back into NAD+. To keep
the glycolysis processes going, NAD+ must be replenished.
These types of anaerobic energy-producing pathways are known as
fermentations. Early biochemistry was greatly influenced by studies of the
commercially significant fermentations carried out by yeasts. The discovery
that these processes could be investigated in cell extracts rather than living
beings was a remarkable development in 1896 as a result of work done in the
nineteenth century. Eventually, this ground-breaking finding allowed for the
dissection and examination of each individual fermentation reaction. The
discovery of the whole glycolytic pathway in the 1930s was a significant
6. biochemical achievement, and it was soon followed by the identification of
ATP’s crucial function in cellular functions. As a result, the majority of the
fundamental ideas covered in this chapter have been known for more than 50
years.
Glycolysis Illustrates How Enzymes Couple Oxidation
to Energy Storage:
We have previously used a “paddle wheel” analogy to illustrate how cells
employ enzymes to connect an energetically unfavorable process to an
energetically favorable one in order to obtain usable energy from the oxidation
of organic molecules. We now return to a stage in glycolysis that we have
previously covered to further show how coupled reactions take place.
Enzymes serve as the paddle wheel in our example. The three-carbon sugar
intermediate glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (an aldehyde) is transformed into 3-
phosphoglycerate (a carboxylic acid) through two key events in glycolysis
(steps 6 and 7). This involves the two-step oxidation of an aldehyde group to a
carboxylic acid group. While still releasing enough heat to the environment to
make the overall reaction energetically favorable (G° for the overall reaction is
-3.0 kcal/mole), the overall reaction releases enough free energy to convert a
molecule of ADP to ATP and to transfer two electrons from the aldehyde to
NAD+ to form NADH.
Figure 2-73 depicts the process through which this amazing achievement is
performed. Two enzymes, to which the sugar intermediates are firmly linked,
direct the chemical processes. Through a reactive -SH group on the enzyme,
the first enzyme (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase) establishes a
transient covalent link with the aldehyde and then catalysis its oxidation while
still attached. An inorganic phosphate ion subsequently displaces the high-
energy enzyme-substrate bond formed by the oxidation to generate a high-
energy sugar-phosphate intermediate, which is then released from the
enzyme. This intermediate then joins with the phosphoglycerate kinase, the
second enzyme. In order to produce ATP and complete the reaction, this
enzyme catalysis the energetically advantageous transfer of the recently
formed high-energy phosphate to ADP.
Sugars and Fats Are Both Degraded to Acetyl CoA in
Mitochondria:
We now discuss catabolism’s third step, which calls for a lot of molecule
oxygen (O2 gas). Since abundant life-forms have been known to exist on
Earth for 3.5 billion years and the Earth’s atmosphere is thought to have
7. developed between one and two billion years ago, the use of O2 in the
reactions we will discuss next is thought to be of relatively recent origin.
Depicts a process for making ATP that does not require oxygen, suggesting
that cousins of this beautiful pair of linked events may have first appeared
relatively early in the evolution of life on Earth.
In aerobic metabolism, a massive trio of enzymes known as the pyruvate
dehydrogenase complex quickly decarboxylates the pyruvate generated by
glycolysis. A molecule of CO2 (waste product), a molecule of NADH, and
acetyl CoA are the byproducts of pyruvate decarboxylation. The structure and
method of action of the three-enzyme complex, which is found in the
mitochondria of eukaryotic cells, are described.
Summary
By using regulated stepwise oxidation to break down glucose and other
dietary components, chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADH is
produced. The citric acid cycle, which takes place in the mitochondrial matrix,
glycolysis, which takes place in the cytosol, and oxidative phosphorylation,
which occurs on the inner mitochondrial membrane, are the three primary sets
of processes that function in sequence, with the byproducts of one serving as
the raw material for the next. In addition to serving as sources of metabolic
energy, the intermediate products of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are
also employed to create a large number of the tiny molecules that serve as
the building blocks for biosynthesis. Animal and plant cells store sugar
molecules as glycogen and starch, respectively; both plants and animals also
extensively employ lipids as a food storage. Together with the proteins that
make up the majority of the dry mass of the cells we consume, these storage
resources in turn serve as a significant source of food for us.
Reference
https://www.theconsciouschallenge.org/ecologicalfootprintbibleoverview/food-
and-
energy#:~:text=Food%20and%20beverage%20processing,for%20heating%2C%
20cooling%20and%20electricity.
https://gcwgandhinagar.com/econtent/document/1587461405Unit%20III%20Ener
gy%20in%20food%20processing.pdf