This document provides an overview of MRI anatomy of the foot and ankle. It describes the bones, joints, ligaments, tendons, muscles, nerves, arteries and other structures. Key points include a description of the 4 aspects of the ankle joint and their contents, as well as the 3 parts of the foot. Ligaments of the ankle and foot are defined. The document outlines the layers of muscles and tendons on the plantar surface of the foot. Finally, it provides guidance on performing MRI exams of the foot and ankle.
The document provides guidance on how to read spine MRI scans. It discusses T1 and T2 weighted images and what tissues appear dark or bright on each. It describes how to evaluate mid-sagittal, para-sagittal, and foraminal-sagittal slices as well as axial slices. Key areas to inspect include the disc, neural foramina, thecal sac, and posterior arch. Common pathologies like disc herniations and spinal stenosis are also explained.
This document provides a summary of MRI findings related to the ankle and foot. It describes MRI sequences and images of various ankle structures including tendons, ligaments, bones and bursae. Specific pathologies are discussed such as tendinopathies, ligament tears, tenosynovitis, plantar fasciitis, sinus tarsi syndrome and tarsal tunnel syndrome. Images demonstrate normal anatomy as well as examples of injuries and conditions affecting the ankle and foot.
A fracture is a discontinuity in a bone resulting from mechanical forces exceeding the bone's strength. Common fractures of the distal forearm include Colles' fractures, Barton's fractures, Smith's fractures, Galeazzi fractures, and Piedmont fractures. Fractures of the wrist bones like the scaphoid, triquetral, and hamate can also occur. Delayed treatment of scaphoid fractures can lead to nonunion or osteonecrosis. Ulnar impingement syndrome and ulnar impaction syndrome can cause ulnar-sided wrist pain.
The shoulder ultrasound report examined the biceps tendon, rotator cuff including the subscapularis, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and teres minor muscles. It also noted the posterior labrum, spinoglenoid notch, acromioclavicular joint, acromion, subacromial/subdeltoid bursa, bicipital sheath, greater and lesser tuberosities, and impingement of the supraspinatus and subcoracoid regions. The sonographer provided their impression.
Presentation1.pptx, ultrasound examination of the shoulder joint.Abdellah Nazeer
This ultrasound examination document provides images and descriptions of normal shoulder anatomy as well as common shoulder pathologies. It begins with transverse, longitudinal, and axial views of normal structures like the biceps, subscapularis, supraspinatus, and infraspinatus tendons. Patient positioning and scanning techniques are described. Common conditions like rotator cuff tears, bursitis, tendinosis, and biceps tendinitis are then discussed along with their ultrasound appearances. The document concludes with limitations of ultrasound and tips for equipment selection and scanning techniques.
Presentation1.pptx, radiological imaging of benign bone tumour.Abdellah Nazeer
This document describes several benign bone tumors including osteoid osteoma, osteoblastoma, unicameral bone cyst, aneurysmal bone cyst, fibrous dysplasia, osteofibrous dysplasia, cortical fibrous defect, myofibroma, desmoplastic fibroma, chest wall hamartoma, osteochondroma, and enchondroma. It defines each tumor, discusses their epidemiology, common sites of involvement, clinical findings, and imaging appearance. Many of the tumors present as lytic lesions on imaging and can cause pain or pathological fractures.
This document provides an overview of MRI anatomy of the foot and ankle. It describes the bones, joints, ligaments, tendons, muscles, nerves, arteries and other structures. Key points include a description of the 4 aspects of the ankle joint and their contents, as well as the 3 parts of the foot. Ligaments of the ankle and foot are defined. The document outlines the layers of muscles and tendons on the plantar surface of the foot. Finally, it provides guidance on performing MRI exams of the foot and ankle.
The document provides guidance on how to read spine MRI scans. It discusses T1 and T2 weighted images and what tissues appear dark or bright on each. It describes how to evaluate mid-sagittal, para-sagittal, and foraminal-sagittal slices as well as axial slices. Key areas to inspect include the disc, neural foramina, thecal sac, and posterior arch. Common pathologies like disc herniations and spinal stenosis are also explained.
This document provides a summary of MRI findings related to the ankle and foot. It describes MRI sequences and images of various ankle structures including tendons, ligaments, bones and bursae. Specific pathologies are discussed such as tendinopathies, ligament tears, tenosynovitis, plantar fasciitis, sinus tarsi syndrome and tarsal tunnel syndrome. Images demonstrate normal anatomy as well as examples of injuries and conditions affecting the ankle and foot.
A fracture is a discontinuity in a bone resulting from mechanical forces exceeding the bone's strength. Common fractures of the distal forearm include Colles' fractures, Barton's fractures, Smith's fractures, Galeazzi fractures, and Piedmont fractures. Fractures of the wrist bones like the scaphoid, triquetral, and hamate can also occur. Delayed treatment of scaphoid fractures can lead to nonunion or osteonecrosis. Ulnar impingement syndrome and ulnar impaction syndrome can cause ulnar-sided wrist pain.
The shoulder ultrasound report examined the biceps tendon, rotator cuff including the subscapularis, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and teres minor muscles. It also noted the posterior labrum, spinoglenoid notch, acromioclavicular joint, acromion, subacromial/subdeltoid bursa, bicipital sheath, greater and lesser tuberosities, and impingement of the supraspinatus and subcoracoid regions. The sonographer provided their impression.
Presentation1.pptx, ultrasound examination of the shoulder joint.Abdellah Nazeer
This ultrasound examination document provides images and descriptions of normal shoulder anatomy as well as common shoulder pathologies. It begins with transverse, longitudinal, and axial views of normal structures like the biceps, subscapularis, supraspinatus, and infraspinatus tendons. Patient positioning and scanning techniques are described. Common conditions like rotator cuff tears, bursitis, tendinosis, and biceps tendinitis are then discussed along with their ultrasound appearances. The document concludes with limitations of ultrasound and tips for equipment selection and scanning techniques.
Presentation1.pptx, radiological imaging of benign bone tumour.Abdellah Nazeer
This document describes several benign bone tumors including osteoid osteoma, osteoblastoma, unicameral bone cyst, aneurysmal bone cyst, fibrous dysplasia, osteofibrous dysplasia, cortical fibrous defect, myofibroma, desmoplastic fibroma, chest wall hamartoma, osteochondroma, and enchondroma. It defines each tumor, discusses their epidemiology, common sites of involvement, clinical findings, and imaging appearance. Many of the tumors present as lytic lesions on imaging and can cause pain or pathological fractures.
Basic sonoanatomy of ultrasound guided interventions of cervical and lumbar s...Abdallah Allam
This document discusses pain management techniques for the lower back, including facet joint medial branch blocks, sacral hiatus injections, and sacroiliac joint injections. These techniques involve injecting therapeutic medications into specific areas to diagnose and potentially treat sources of lower back pain.
This document provides an overview of MRI scans of the shoulder, knee, and hip. It lists anatomical structures that are visible in axial, coronal, and sagittal plane views of the shoulder and knee, including ligaments, menisci, and cruciate ligaments. For the hip, it lists axial, sagittal, and coronal plane views without specific anatomical labels.
1) The document reports on MRI findings for two patients. For the first patient, a 5-year-old boy, the MRI found bilateral schizencephaly and corpus callosum hypoplasia.
2) For the second patient, a 15-month-old boy with a history of subarachnoid hematoma, the MRI found a giant saccular aneurysm of the left middle cerebral artery and posterior communicating artery that had hemorrhaged and thrombosed, leading to hypoplasia of the left middle cerebral artery and left fronto-temporal lobe.
3) The document also provides background information on schizencephaly, describing it as clefts in the brain paren
1. Radiography is the first step in diagnosing avascular necrosis, though it has limitations in detecting early stages. Changes seen on radiography include osteoporosis, sclerosis, fractures, and joint space narrowing.
2. MRI is the most sensitive imaging modality and allows for accurate staging. Changes seen include band forms and double line signs.
3. Different imaging modalities show characteristics of avascular necrosis at various stages. SPECT may show cold spots while radiography shows fractures and joint damage at later stages. Proper staging guides treatment selection and monitoring of progression.
Presentation1, radiological imaging of ostepopikilosisAbdellah Nazeer
This document discusses osteopoikilosis, a rare inherited bone disorder characterized by multiple benign bone growths. It is typically asymptomatic and diagnosed incidentally on x-rays. Genetic evidence suggests it may be related to conditions like osteopathia striata and melorheostosis. Radiographic findings include small, well-defined, sclerotic lesions clustered around joints. MRI shows the lesions as dark on T1 and T2 weighted images. Bone scans are typically normal. The condition involves the appearance of many small bone islands and is distinguished from other disorders based on its characteristic radiographic pattern.
This document provides an overview of osteosarcoma, including its definition, epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical presentation, evaluation, treatment, and subtypes. Osteosarcoma is the second most common primary bone tumor arising from mesenchymal cells. It most often affects people between 12-25 years old. Evaluation involves imaging like x-rays and MRI to determine tumor extent and biopsy for diagnosis. Treatment is typically neoadjuvant chemotherapy followed by surgical resection with wide margins and reconstruction. Prognosis has improved with current multimodal treatment approaches.
RADIOLOGICAL ANATOMY OF ARTERIAL SUPPLY OF BRAINMohammad Naufal
1. The arterial supply of the brain comes from the internal carotid arteries and vertebral arteries, which form the circle of Willis at the base of the brain.
2. The main branches of the vertebral arteries include the posterior inferior cerebellar artery and posterior spinal arteries. The vertebral arteries join to form the basilar artery.
3. The internal carotid artery gives off branches that include the anterior cerebral artery, middle cerebral artery, and anterior choroidal artery. These arteries supply different regions of the brain.
4. The circle of Willis is formed by the anterior and posterior cerebral arteries connecting the left and right internal carotid and basilar arteries, allowing for collateral blood flow in case of arterial occlusion.
This document provides information on using ultrasound to examine the shoulder, including:
1) It describes the anatomy that can be visualized with ultrasound and how it compares to MRI, outlines the ultrasound technique for examining various shoulder structures like the biceps tendon, rotator cuff muscles, and joints.
2) It explains the diagnostic and therapeutic uses of ultrasound for the shoulder, such as guiding injections and assessing tears, injuries, or other soft tissue abnormalities.
3) Examples of ultrasound images are provided to illustrate normal anatomy as well as various pathologies that may be detected like tears, tendonitis, fractures.
This document provides an overview of shoulder anatomy and MRI of the shoulder. It describes the bony anatomy including the coracoid process and spine of the scapula. It discusses the stabilizers of the shoulder joint including muscles like the rotator cuff as well as ligaments. The document then focuses on the rotator cuff muscles - supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor and subscapularis. It provides details on their origins, insertions and actions. The document also discusses MRI techniques for the shoulder and presentations of common shoulder pathologies like rotator cuff tears and adhesive capsulitis on MRI.
The document discusses hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and its progression from regenerative nodules to dysplastic nodules and eventual development of HCC in patients with cirrhosis. It describes the imaging appearance of these lesions at various stages, from regenerative nodules that appear similar to liver parenchyma, to early HCCs that are often hypovascular, to progressed HCCs over 2cm that typically appear hypervascular on arterial phase imaging and washout on delayed phases. Accurately diagnosing small HCC nodules remains challenging, and updated guidelines recommend monitoring nodules under 1cm and biopsying those between 1-2cm.
Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) accounts for 10-15% of strokes and has a high 30-day mortality rate of around 50%. The main causes of ICH are hypertension, vascular malformations, tumors, bleeding disorders, anticoagulants, and head trauma. CT and MRI are used to image ICH, with CT being the initial imaging method. On CT and MRI, ICH has characteristic appearances that change over time from hyperacute to chronic stages as the blood breaks down.
The document outlined ultrasound techniques for evaluating various structures of the knee, including tendons, ligaments, menisci, and neurovascular structures. It described optimal probe positioning and leg positioning for visualizing each target structure in longitudinal and transverse views. Comparisons were made to equivalent MRI planes to aid ultrasound interpretation. A variety of pathologies were also demonstrated through ultrasound images.
Pediatric urinary tract infection..the role of imagingAhmed Bahnassy
Urinary tract infections are common in children and imaging plays an important role. Ultrasound can be used to (1) identify potential causes of infection, (2) determine if kidneys are normal or at risk for scarring, and (3) detect issues like reflux that facilitate infection. The document outlines ultrasound techniques for evaluating the urinary bladder, kidneys, and ureters in children with UTIs and describes findings of conditions like acute pyelonephritis, abscesses, and scarring. Ultrasound remains valuable for characterizing urinary tract anatomy and complications in pediatric UTI patients.
This document provides an overview of musculoskeletal ultrasound (MSK US) and tendon anatomy and pathology. It discusses the basics of MSK US, including equipment selection, probe placement, image orientation, and normal anatomical structures like tendons, ligaments, and bones. It also covers current, developing and potential clinical indications for MSK US in evaluating conditions like effusions, synovitis, tendon tears, and bone abnormalities. Finally, it discusses tendon anatomy in detail, describing the histological structure and features of supporting versus sliding tendons, as well as myotendinous and osteotendinous junctions.
Rickets is the softening and weakening of bones in children, usually because of an extreme and prolonged vitamin D deficiency. Rare inherited problems also can cause rickets.
Vitamin D helps your child's body absorb calcium and phosphorus from food. Not enough vitamin D makes it difficult to maintain proper calcium and phosphorus levels in bones, which can cause rickets.
Adding vitamin D or calcium to the diet generally corrects the bone problems associated with rickets. When rickets is due to another underlying medical problem, your child may need additional medications or other treatment. Some skeletal deformities caused by rickets may require corrective surgery.
Rare inherited disorders related to low levels of phosphorus, the other mineral component in bone, may require other medications.
Products & Services
Book: Mayo Clinic Family Health Book, 5th Edition
Symptoms
Signs and symptoms of rickets can include:
Delayed growth
Delayed motor skills
Pain in the spine, pelvis and legs
Muscle weakness
Because rickets softens the areas of growing tissue at the ends of a child's bones (growth plates), it can cause skeletal deformities such as:
Bowed legs or knock knees
Thickened wrists and ankles
Breastbone projection
Presentation1.pptx, radiological imaging of rediolucent lesions of bones.Abdellah Nazeer
This document provides information on radiolucent bone lesions, including giant cell tumor of bone (GCT), aneurysmal bone cyst (ABC), unicameral bone cyst (UBC), eosinophilic granuloma (EG), and non-ossifying fibroma (NOF). It describes the clinical features, locations, radiographic findings, and imaging appearances of each condition. Key radiographic findings include lytic and expansile lesions with thin or thick sclerotic rims and internal trabeculations. MRI is useful for evaluating soft tissue extension and detecting fluid-fluid levels in ABC.
This document provides an overview of radiological anatomy of the brain. It describes the major structures seen on different axial cuts from the infra-tentorial to supratentorial levels, including the cerebral hemispheres, ventricles, basal ganglia, corpus callosum, pituitary gland, cerebellum, and cisterns. Imaging techniques for CT and MRI are also covered. Key anatomical structures are highlighted on each axial cut level from below the fourth ventricle to above the ventricles.
Poep aan je vingers? Gatsie! Poep verraadt veel over de spijsvertering. Wat haalt je lijf uit de schijf van vijf? Kom alles te weten over jouw spijsvertering en
ontdek wat dierenkeutels ons vertellen in een heus poeppracticum.
Basic sonoanatomy of ultrasound guided interventions of cervical and lumbar s...Abdallah Allam
This document discusses pain management techniques for the lower back, including facet joint medial branch blocks, sacral hiatus injections, and sacroiliac joint injections. These techniques involve injecting therapeutic medications into specific areas to diagnose and potentially treat sources of lower back pain.
This document provides an overview of MRI scans of the shoulder, knee, and hip. It lists anatomical structures that are visible in axial, coronal, and sagittal plane views of the shoulder and knee, including ligaments, menisci, and cruciate ligaments. For the hip, it lists axial, sagittal, and coronal plane views without specific anatomical labels.
1) The document reports on MRI findings for two patients. For the first patient, a 5-year-old boy, the MRI found bilateral schizencephaly and corpus callosum hypoplasia.
2) For the second patient, a 15-month-old boy with a history of subarachnoid hematoma, the MRI found a giant saccular aneurysm of the left middle cerebral artery and posterior communicating artery that had hemorrhaged and thrombosed, leading to hypoplasia of the left middle cerebral artery and left fronto-temporal lobe.
3) The document also provides background information on schizencephaly, describing it as clefts in the brain paren
1. Radiography is the first step in diagnosing avascular necrosis, though it has limitations in detecting early stages. Changes seen on radiography include osteoporosis, sclerosis, fractures, and joint space narrowing.
2. MRI is the most sensitive imaging modality and allows for accurate staging. Changes seen include band forms and double line signs.
3. Different imaging modalities show characteristics of avascular necrosis at various stages. SPECT may show cold spots while radiography shows fractures and joint damage at later stages. Proper staging guides treatment selection and monitoring of progression.
Presentation1, radiological imaging of ostepopikilosisAbdellah Nazeer
This document discusses osteopoikilosis, a rare inherited bone disorder characterized by multiple benign bone growths. It is typically asymptomatic and diagnosed incidentally on x-rays. Genetic evidence suggests it may be related to conditions like osteopathia striata and melorheostosis. Radiographic findings include small, well-defined, sclerotic lesions clustered around joints. MRI shows the lesions as dark on T1 and T2 weighted images. Bone scans are typically normal. The condition involves the appearance of many small bone islands and is distinguished from other disorders based on its characteristic radiographic pattern.
This document provides an overview of osteosarcoma, including its definition, epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical presentation, evaluation, treatment, and subtypes. Osteosarcoma is the second most common primary bone tumor arising from mesenchymal cells. It most often affects people between 12-25 years old. Evaluation involves imaging like x-rays and MRI to determine tumor extent and biopsy for diagnosis. Treatment is typically neoadjuvant chemotherapy followed by surgical resection with wide margins and reconstruction. Prognosis has improved with current multimodal treatment approaches.
RADIOLOGICAL ANATOMY OF ARTERIAL SUPPLY OF BRAINMohammad Naufal
1. The arterial supply of the brain comes from the internal carotid arteries and vertebral arteries, which form the circle of Willis at the base of the brain.
2. The main branches of the vertebral arteries include the posterior inferior cerebellar artery and posterior spinal arteries. The vertebral arteries join to form the basilar artery.
3. The internal carotid artery gives off branches that include the anterior cerebral artery, middle cerebral artery, and anterior choroidal artery. These arteries supply different regions of the brain.
4. The circle of Willis is formed by the anterior and posterior cerebral arteries connecting the left and right internal carotid and basilar arteries, allowing for collateral blood flow in case of arterial occlusion.
This document provides information on using ultrasound to examine the shoulder, including:
1) It describes the anatomy that can be visualized with ultrasound and how it compares to MRI, outlines the ultrasound technique for examining various shoulder structures like the biceps tendon, rotator cuff muscles, and joints.
2) It explains the diagnostic and therapeutic uses of ultrasound for the shoulder, such as guiding injections and assessing tears, injuries, or other soft tissue abnormalities.
3) Examples of ultrasound images are provided to illustrate normal anatomy as well as various pathologies that may be detected like tears, tendonitis, fractures.
This document provides an overview of shoulder anatomy and MRI of the shoulder. It describes the bony anatomy including the coracoid process and spine of the scapula. It discusses the stabilizers of the shoulder joint including muscles like the rotator cuff as well as ligaments. The document then focuses on the rotator cuff muscles - supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor and subscapularis. It provides details on their origins, insertions and actions. The document also discusses MRI techniques for the shoulder and presentations of common shoulder pathologies like rotator cuff tears and adhesive capsulitis on MRI.
The document discusses hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and its progression from regenerative nodules to dysplastic nodules and eventual development of HCC in patients with cirrhosis. It describes the imaging appearance of these lesions at various stages, from regenerative nodules that appear similar to liver parenchyma, to early HCCs that are often hypovascular, to progressed HCCs over 2cm that typically appear hypervascular on arterial phase imaging and washout on delayed phases. Accurately diagnosing small HCC nodules remains challenging, and updated guidelines recommend monitoring nodules under 1cm and biopsying those between 1-2cm.
Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) accounts for 10-15% of strokes and has a high 30-day mortality rate of around 50%. The main causes of ICH are hypertension, vascular malformations, tumors, bleeding disorders, anticoagulants, and head trauma. CT and MRI are used to image ICH, with CT being the initial imaging method. On CT and MRI, ICH has characteristic appearances that change over time from hyperacute to chronic stages as the blood breaks down.
The document outlined ultrasound techniques for evaluating various structures of the knee, including tendons, ligaments, menisci, and neurovascular structures. It described optimal probe positioning and leg positioning for visualizing each target structure in longitudinal and transverse views. Comparisons were made to equivalent MRI planes to aid ultrasound interpretation. A variety of pathologies were also demonstrated through ultrasound images.
Pediatric urinary tract infection..the role of imagingAhmed Bahnassy
Urinary tract infections are common in children and imaging plays an important role. Ultrasound can be used to (1) identify potential causes of infection, (2) determine if kidneys are normal or at risk for scarring, and (3) detect issues like reflux that facilitate infection. The document outlines ultrasound techniques for evaluating the urinary bladder, kidneys, and ureters in children with UTIs and describes findings of conditions like acute pyelonephritis, abscesses, and scarring. Ultrasound remains valuable for characterizing urinary tract anatomy and complications in pediatric UTI patients.
This document provides an overview of musculoskeletal ultrasound (MSK US) and tendon anatomy and pathology. It discusses the basics of MSK US, including equipment selection, probe placement, image orientation, and normal anatomical structures like tendons, ligaments, and bones. It also covers current, developing and potential clinical indications for MSK US in evaluating conditions like effusions, synovitis, tendon tears, and bone abnormalities. Finally, it discusses tendon anatomy in detail, describing the histological structure and features of supporting versus sliding tendons, as well as myotendinous and osteotendinous junctions.
Rickets is the softening and weakening of bones in children, usually because of an extreme and prolonged vitamin D deficiency. Rare inherited problems also can cause rickets.
Vitamin D helps your child's body absorb calcium and phosphorus from food. Not enough vitamin D makes it difficult to maintain proper calcium and phosphorus levels in bones, which can cause rickets.
Adding vitamin D or calcium to the diet generally corrects the bone problems associated with rickets. When rickets is due to another underlying medical problem, your child may need additional medications or other treatment. Some skeletal deformities caused by rickets may require corrective surgery.
Rare inherited disorders related to low levels of phosphorus, the other mineral component in bone, may require other medications.
Products & Services
Book: Mayo Clinic Family Health Book, 5th Edition
Symptoms
Signs and symptoms of rickets can include:
Delayed growth
Delayed motor skills
Pain in the spine, pelvis and legs
Muscle weakness
Because rickets softens the areas of growing tissue at the ends of a child's bones (growth plates), it can cause skeletal deformities such as:
Bowed legs or knock knees
Thickened wrists and ankles
Breastbone projection
Presentation1.pptx, radiological imaging of rediolucent lesions of bones.Abdellah Nazeer
This document provides information on radiolucent bone lesions, including giant cell tumor of bone (GCT), aneurysmal bone cyst (ABC), unicameral bone cyst (UBC), eosinophilic granuloma (EG), and non-ossifying fibroma (NOF). It describes the clinical features, locations, radiographic findings, and imaging appearances of each condition. Key radiographic findings include lytic and expansile lesions with thin or thick sclerotic rims and internal trabeculations. MRI is useful for evaluating soft tissue extension and detecting fluid-fluid levels in ABC.
This document provides an overview of radiological anatomy of the brain. It describes the major structures seen on different axial cuts from the infra-tentorial to supratentorial levels, including the cerebral hemispheres, ventricles, basal ganglia, corpus callosum, pituitary gland, cerebellum, and cisterns. Imaging techniques for CT and MRI are also covered. Key anatomical structures are highlighted on each axial cut level from below the fourth ventricle to above the ventricles.
Poep aan je vingers? Gatsie! Poep verraadt veel over de spijsvertering. Wat haalt je lijf uit de schijf van vijf? Kom alles te weten over jouw spijsvertering en
ontdek wat dierenkeutels ons vertellen in een heus poeppracticum.
Dr Bernadette Timmermans geeft een aantal nuttige tips om je stem beter te gebruiken en te verzorgen. Ideaal voor professionele sprekers en mediafiguren
This document discusses the etiology and diagnosis of acute pancreatitis. It lists various etiological factors including mechanical obstruction, alcohol, hypertriglyceridemia, genetic mutations, drugs, infections, and trauma. It describes the diagnosis of acute pancreatitis based on abdominal symptoms, lipase or amylase levels, and imaging findings. It also discusses local complications like acute peripancreatic fluid collection, pancreatic pseudocyst, acute necrotic collection, and walled-off necrosis. Organ failure is defined using the Modified Marshall Scoring System.
The document discusses key concepts in metabolism including:
- Metabolism extracts energy from fuels like carbohydrates and fats through catabolism and uses this energy to synthesize complex molecules through anabolism.
- Coupled reactions allow thermodynamically unfavorable reactions to proceed by making the overall free energy change negative.
- ATP is the universal energy currency in biological systems, and its hydrolysis drives metabolism by shifting reaction equilibria.
The document discusses different carbon fixation pathways in plants. C4 plants fix carbon dioxide in mesophyll cells before it is transported to bundle sheath cells, concentrating CO2 around Rubisco and reducing photorespiration. This allows higher photosynthesis rates with lower transpiration. C4 plants evolved in hot, dry climates. Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plants fix CO2 at night and store it as malate, releasing CO2 for photosynthesis during the day, reducing water loss. CAM metabolism is inducible and some plants like ice plant switch to CAM in response to salt or drought stress.
The document discusses photosynthesis in C3 and C4 plants. It shows that willow and maize plants will both survive under a sealed cover individually, but only the willow survives when the two are combined, due to the maize plant using oxygen during photosynthesis. It then examines the differences in carbon fixation pathways between C3 and C4 plants, including their A-Ci curves and leaf anatomy, showing C4 plants have adaptations that allow them to more efficiently fix carbon in hot, dry environments. The document depicts the pathways that allow C4 plants like maize to concentrate CO2 around rubisco through compartmentalization between mesophyll and bundle sheath cells.
The rate of photosynthesis is often lower than expected for several reasons: 1) Dark respiration occurs during the day which reduces net photosynthesis, 2) Not all wavelengths of light are absorbed efficiently by leaves, and 3) Factors like photorespiration and suboptimal conditions can limit carbon fixation and respire photosynthates. Leaf anatomy, physiology, and environmental conditions can prevent photosynthesis from reaching its maximum potential.
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