ENDOCRINE SYSTEM, Presented by group 2 in General Physiology

Presented by: Group 2
ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM

GLANDS AND ITS
SECRETION
FUNCTIONS OF
HORMONES
ABNORMALITIES
OF THE SYSTEM
SUB TOPICS:

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the session, the student should be able
to;
1. Identify and describe the major glands of the
endocrine system.
2. Explain the functions of hormones secreted by each
gland.
3. Discuss common abnormalities or disorders
associated with the endocrine system, not only in
humans but also in animals.

The endocrine system is a network of glands
and organs that produce, store, and release
hormones into the bloodstream. These
hormones regulate many of the body's
functions, including growth, metabolism,
reproduction, and mood.
WHAT IS ENDOCRINE SYSTEM?

Pituitary Glands
Hypothalamus
Thyroid Glands
Parathyroid Glands
Adrenal Glands
Pancreas
Gonads (Ovaries & Testes)
Pineal
Thymus
ENDOCRINE GLANDS

A pea-sized structure attached to a stalk
extending from the hypothalamus. It
regulates growth, metabolism, and
reproduction through the hormones that it
produces.
The pituitary gland has two glands in one:
the larger Anterior Pituitary (toward the
front) and the smaller Posterior Pituitary
The pituitary is important in controlling
growth and development and the
functioning of the other endocrine glands
PITUITARY GLANDS

It keeps the human body stable or in good
condition, it produces hormones that
stimulates or inhibit the release of hormones
from the pituitary gland also called as the
"master regulator" or "the control center" of
the endocrine system.
Its main function is to keep your body in a
stable state called homeostasis. It does its
job by directly influencing your autonomic
nervous system or by managing hormones.
HYPOTHALAMUS

-Butterfly shaped; located just inferior to the
larynx (voice box)
-regulates metabolism, growth and
developmen
-releases thyroid hormones called
thyroxine(tetraiodothyronine, T4) and
triiodothyronine (T3) that increase the rate
of metabolism in target cells
THYROID GLAND

Small, 4 round masses of tissue partially
embedded in the posterior surface of the
lateral lobes of thyroid gland
They produce parathyroid hormone (PTH),
which plays a role in regulating the body's
blood level of calcium and phosphorus.
PARATHYROID GLANDS

The paired, walnut-sized adrenal glands
sit on the top of the kidneys
The adrenal medulla is the inner portion of
each gland, adrenal cortex is the outer
portion
Produce hormones that regulate kidney
function and contribute to the body's
stress response
ADRENAL GLANDS

The adrenal medulla makes chemicals such
as epinephrine (adrenaline) and
norepinephrine (noradrenaline) which are
involved in sending nerve signals
Controls hormones that initiate the flight
or fight response.
ADRENAL GLANDS
Adrenal Medulla

It secretes steroid hormones under the
influence of ACTH.
These hormones include mineralocorticoids,
glucocorticoids, and androgen
ADRENAL GLANDS
Adrenal Cortex

a slender, fish-shaped organ that
stretches across the abdomen behind
the stomach and near duodenum of
small intestine
clusters of cells called pancreatic islets
(also called islets of Langerhans)
,produces and secretes the hormones
insulin and glucagon directly into the
blood
PANCREAS

GONADS (OVARIES AND TESTES)
The gonads, the primary
reproductive organs, are the testes
in the male and the ovaries in the
female. These organs are
responsible for producing the sperm
and ova, but they also secrete
hormones and are considered to be
endocrine glands.

Types of Gonads
There are two main types of
gonads: testes in males and
ovaries in females. Testes
produce sperm and
testosterone, while ovaries
produce eggs, estrogen, and
progesterone.

The testes consist of seminiferous tubules,
where spermatogenesis (sperm production)
occurs, and Leydig cells, which produce
testosterone. Sertoli cells support and nourish
the developing sperm. The structure is
essential for sperm production and hormone
secretion.
Structure of Male Gonads

Ovaries contain ovarian follicles, which
house immature eggs. The process of
oogenesis (egg production) occurs
here. After ovulation, the corpus luteum
forms and secretes hormones like
estrogen and progesterone, which are
crucial for reproductive health and
menstrual regulation.
Structure of Female Gonads

The pineal gland is a small, pinecone-
shaped endocrine gland located deep
within the brain, specifically in the
epithalamus near the center, between the
two hemispheres.
This gland plays a crucial role in
regulating circadian rhythms and
hormonal functions. It is often referred to
as the “third eye” due to its sensitivity to
light.
PINEAL GLAND

The pineal gland is a small structure,
roughly 5-8 mm in size in adults. It is
shaped like a pinecone.
Located near the center of the brain,
between the superior colliculi, and nestled
in a groove between the two halves of the
thalamus.
Anatomy of the Pineal Gland
Size and Shape
Position

Consists of pinealocytes (main functional
cells) and supportive glial cells.
Pinealocytes are responsible for
melatonin production.
Richly supplied by blood vessels, making
it one of the most vascularized areas of
the brain. Innervated by sympathetic
nerve fibers.
Microscopic
Structure
Blood Supply
and
Innervation
Anatomy of the Pineal Gland

THYMUS
The thymus is a central
lymphoid organ located in the
upper chest, crucial for the
development and maturation
of T-cells, which are vital for
adaptive immunity. This
presentation will cover the
anatomy, function,
development, and clinical
significance of the thymus.

Anatomy of
Thymus
The thymus is a bilobed structure
located in the anterior mediastinum,
above the heart. It is divided into the
cortex and medulla, each containing
different stages of T-cell maturation.
The organ is most prominent in
childhood and regresses with age.

Function of the Thymus
The primary function of the thymus is the maturation and differentiation
of T-cells (T lymphocytes), which are essential for adaptive immune
response. The thymus ensures T-cells undergo positive and negative
selection, eliminating self-reactive T-cells to prevent autoimmune
diseases.
Development and Involution of the Thymus
The thymus originates from the third pharyngeal pouch during
embryonic development. It reaches its maximum size and function
during puberty and gradually undergoes involution, where the functional
thymic tissue is replaced by fatty tissue in adulthood. This involution
affects immune function with age.

How do the thymus, pineal gland, and gonads interact
to maintain overall health and balance in the human
body?
QUESTION:

HORMONE
Hormones are chemical substances that
act like messenger molecules in the
body. After being made in one part of the
body, they travel to other parts of the
body where they help control how cells
amd organs to their work.

The pituitary gland is made up of two
parts: the anterior pituitary and the
posterior pituitary. The anterior pituitary
produces hormones, while the posterior
pituitary produces oxytocin and
vasopressin.

Anterior Pituitary Hormones
List of hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary: Growth Hormone
(GH), Prolactin (PRL), Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH),
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH), Follicle-Stimulating Hormone
(FSH), and Luteinizing Hormone (LH).
Growth Hormone (GH)
The roles of growth hormone include influencing our height, and helping
build our bones and muscles. Natural levels of growth hormone fluctuate
during the day, seemingly influenced by physical activity. For example,
levels rise when we exercise. Growth hormone levels increase during
childhood and peak during puberty.

Prolactin (PRL)
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
Prolactin is a polypeptide hormone responsible for lactation, breast
development, and hundreds of other actions needed to maintain homeostasis.
The chemical structure of prolactin is similar to the structure of growth and
placental lactogen hormones.
The main function of ACTH is to regulate the glucocorticoid (steroid) hormone
cortisol. Cortisol is released by the adrenal gland. It regulates blood pressure,
blood sugar, the immune system, and the response to stress.

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Gonadotropins (FSH & LH)
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) triggers your thyroid to release its
hormones, which mainly impact your body's metabolism. High TSH levels
usually indicate hypothyroidism, and low TSH levels usually indicate
hyperthyroidism.
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone causes the pituitary gland in the brain to
make and secrete the hormones luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH). In men, these hormones cause the testicles to
make testosterone. In women, they cause the ovaries to make estrogen and
progesterone.

Posterior Pituitary Hormones
Oxytocin
The main role of the posterior pituitary is to store and releases
two hormones: oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH, or
vasopressin).
As oxytocin is associated with trust, sexual arousal and relationship
building, it's sometimes referred to as the “love hormone” or “cuddle
chemical.” Oxytocin levels also increase when you're hugging someone
and when you're experiencing an orgasm. Oxytocin is an essential
hormone for childbirth and lactation.

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
A hormone that helps blood vessels constrict and helps the kidneys
control the amount of water and salt in the body. This helps control
blood pressure and the amount of urine that is made.

•The hypothalamus is a small region at the
base of the brain.
• It plays a crucial role in linking the nervous
system to the endocrine system via the
pituitary gland.
• The hypothalamus regulates homeostasis,
controlling functions such as hunger, thirst,
sleep, temperature, and hormonal balance.

• Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH)
• Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH)
• Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH)
• Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone (GHRH)
• Somatostatin (Growth Hormone-Inhibiting Hormone)
• Dopamine (Prolactin-Inhibiting Hormone)
• Oxytocin and Vasopressin (Antidiuretic Hormone, ADH)
Hormones Produced by the Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus produces several hormones that
regulate the pituitary gland and other functions:

Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH)
• CRH stimulates the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH) from the anterior pituitary.
• ACTH then stimulates the adrenal glands to release cortisol, a
stress hormone.
• Function: Plays a key role in the body’s response to stress and in
maintaining circadian rhythms.

Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH)
• TRH stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from
the anterior pituitary.
• TSH then acts on the thyroid gland to promote the production of
thyroid hormones (T3 and T4).
• Function: Regulates metabolism, energy levels, and overall growth
and development.

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH)
• GnRH stimulates the release of two key hormones: luteinizing
hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from the
anterior pituitary.
• LH and FSH regulate reproductive processes such as
gametogenesis and sex hormone production.
• Function: Essential for the regulation of reproductive function and
puberty.

Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone (GHRH)
• GHRH stimulates the release of growth hormone (GH) from the anterior pituitary.
• GH affects growth and metabolism throughout the body, especially in muscles
and bones.
• Function: Vital for growth, cell repair, and metabolism.
Somatostatin (Growth Hormone-Inhibiting Hormone)
• Somatostatin inhibits the release of growth hormone (GH) and thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH).
• It has a broader role in inhibiting other hormones and regulating digestive functions.
• Function: Balances the effects of growth hormone and controls the release of
digestive enzymes.

Dopamine (Prolactin-Inhibiting Hormone)
• Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that also acts as a hormone to inhibit the release of
prolactin from the anterior pituitary.
• Prolactin is involved in lactation and reproductive functions.
• Function: Regulates prolactin levels to maintain normal reproductive function.
Oxytocin and Vasopressin (ADH)
Oxytocin is involved in childbirth and lactation, promoting uterine contractions and
milk ejection.
• Vasopressin (ADH) regulates water balance in the body by acting on the kidneys.
• Functions: Oxytocin supports reproductive functions; ADH maintains water balance
and blood pressure.

• The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped endocrine
gland located in the neck.
• It plays a critical role in regulating metabolism, growth,
and development.
• Produces key hormones: Thyroxine (T4),
Triiodothyronine (T3), and Calcitonin.

• Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3) are the
main hormones produced by the thyroid gland.
• Calcitonin helps regulate calcium levels in the
blood.
• T3 and T4 are crucial for controlling the body’s
metabolic rate, while calcitonin plays a role in
calcium homeostasis.
Hormones Produced By Thyroid

Thyroxine (T4)
• T4 is the primary hormone produced by the thyroid gland.
• Contains four iodine atoms and is considered a prohormone.
• Function: Regulates metabolism, heart rate, digestive functions, muscle control,
brain development, and bone health.
• T4 is converted to T3 in peripheral tissues, which is the more active form.

Triiodothyronine (T3)
• T3 is the active form of thyroid hormone, with three iodine atoms.
• Although produced in smaller amounts than T4, it is more potent and
directly affects metabolism.
• Function: Increases basal metabolic rate, enhances oxygen and energy
consumption, and impacts almost every physiological process in the body,
including growth and development.
• T3 binds to nuclear receptors in cells to activate transcription of target
genes.

Regulation of T3 and T4 Production
• The hypothalamus releases Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone
(TRH).
• TRH stimulates the pituitary gland to release Thyroid-
Stimulating Hormone (TSH).
• TSH acts on the thyroid gland to stimulate the synthesis and
release of T3 and T4.
• Negative feedback loop: High levels of T3 and T4 inhibit TRH
and TSH production.

Calcitonin
• Calcitonin is produced by parafollicular cells (C-cells) of the
thyroid gland.
• Function: Lowers blood calcium levels by inhibiting osteoclast
activity, which decreases the release of calcium from bones.
• Calcitonin is not considered a primary thyroid hormone but is
important in calcium and phosphate metabolism.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
is a hormone that your
parathyroid glands make
and release to control the
level of calcium in your
blood.
Parathyroid hormones ( PTH )

Functions of parathyroid hormone
BONES - Parathyroid hormone stimulates the release of small amounts of
calcuim from your bones into your bloodstream.
KIDNEYS - Parathyroid hormone enables the production of active vitamin D
(calcitriol) in your kidneys. PTH also signals your kidneys to retain calcuim in
your body rather than flushing it out through your urine.
SMALL INTESTINES - Parathyroid hormone signals your small intestine to
absorb more calcuim from the food you eat.

Adrenal Glands
hormones can be
categorized into two
broad groups:
Catecholamines
Adrenaline
Noradrenaline
Steroid Hormones
Glucocorticoids
Mineralocorticoids
Adrenal androgen

Catecholamines are a group of similar
substances that your body releases into your
blood in response to physical or emotional stress.
The adrenal medulla, the inner part of your
adrenal glands which is also responsible for short
term stress, produces and releases the
catecholamines adrenaline and noradrenaline.
Primary catecholamines are ADRENALINE and
NORADRENALINE.
Catecholamines

Adrenaline (epinephrine) & Noradrenaline
(norepinephrine)
These are hormones produced by the adrenal glands,
specifically the adrenal medulla, the inner part of the
adrenal gland.
Adrenaline (epinephrine) Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
Primarily responsible for the
body's "fight or flight" response.
It is released in response to
stress, excitement, or danger.
It is a neurotransmitter that helps
transmit signals between nerve cells in
the brain and body. It plays curial role for
"fight or flight" response, helping to
regulate arousal, attention, and stress.

Actual happening physiologically during fight or flight response:

Steroid Hormones
Steroid hormones help control metabolism,
inflammation, immune system functions, salt
and water balance, development of sexual
characteristics and the ability to withstand injury
and illness.
The adrenal cortex, the outer region of your
adrenal glands which is also responsible for the
long term stress, produce and release
glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and adrenal
androgens, which are all type of steroid hormones.

Cortex 3 main layers of Adrenal Cortex:

Cortisol
Cortisol is a
glucocorticoid hormone
that plays several
important roles. It is a
steroid hormone
produced by the adrenal
glands, which are located
on top of the kidneys.
It's often referred to as
the "stress hormone"
because it plays a crucial
role in helping the body
respond to stress

Aldosterone
Aldosterone is a
mineralocorticoid hormone
that plays a central role in
regulating blood pressure
and the levels of sodium and
potassium (electrolytes) in
your blood.
Four Key Things
About Aldosterone
It is released if the blood
pressure or fluid volume get too
low, or because of disease.
It causes the kidneys to hold
onto water.
It causes the kidneys to hold
onto soduim.
It causes the kidneys to get rid
of potassium.

DHEA (Dehydroepiandrosterone) &
Androgenic Steroid
DHEA is a hormone produced
primarily by the adrenal glands,
which are located on top of your
kidneys. It's often referred to as a
precursor hormone because it
serves as a building block for other
hormones, including testosterone
and estrogen.
Hormone Precursor: DHEA is converted into sex
hormones like testosterone and estrogen. This makes
it important for various bodily functions related to these
hormones.
Energy and Mood: Some research suggests that
DHEA may play a role in maintaining energy levels and
mood. It might help in reducing fatigue and improving
overall well-being, although evidence is mixed.
Aging: DHEA levels naturally decline with age, and
some people take DHEA supplements with the belief
that it could slow down aging effects or improve quality
of life, though scientific support for these claims is
limited.

DHEA (Dehydroepiandrosterone) &
Androgenic Steroid
Androgenic steroids are a class of
hormones that include androgens,
which are commonly known as
male hormones. The most well-
known androgenic steroid is
testosterone. These steroids are
responsible for developing and
maintaining male characteristics,
but they are present in both males
and females.
Development of Male Characteristics: In males,
androgens are crucial for the development of
secondary sexual characteristics during puberty, such
as facial hair, deep voice, and increased muscle mass.
Muscle Growth and Strength: Androgens help
increase muscle mass and strength. This is why some
athletes and bodybuilders use synthetic versions of
these hormones (anabolic steroids) to enhance
performance, although this practice can have
significant health risks.
Reproductive Health: Androgens play a role in male
reproductive health, including sperm production and
libido.

Insulin
Insulin is a hormone produced
by the pancreas that helps
regulate blood sugar levels. It
works by helping cells in your
body absorb glucose from the
bloodstream.
When carbohydrates are digested, glucose
is released into the bloodstream.
This increases blood glucose levels.
The pancreas releases insulin in response.
Insulin signals cells to take in glucose from
the bloodstream.
Most glucose is used for energy by the cells.
Excess glucose is converted into glycogen
and stored in the liver and muscle cells for
later use.
Insulin lowers blood glucose levels.
Insulin Function

Glucagon
Glucagon is a hormone
produced by the pancreas that
helps raise blood sugar levels.
It works by stimulating the liver
to release stored glucose into
the bloodstream.
After several hours without eating, blood
glucose levels drop.
This triggers the pancreas to release
glucagon.
Glucagon signals the liver and muscle
cells to convert stored glycogen back into
glucose.
The glucose is then absorbed by cells to
produce energy.
This process ensures blood glucose
levels do not drop too low.
Glucagon Function

GONADS HORMONES
(OVARIES AND TESTES)

GONADS
The gonads are the organs that
make sex hormones and
reproductive cells.
Sex hormones released by the
testicles in males involve
testosterone, while hormones
released by ovaries in females
include estrogen and
progesterone.

OVARIES
Ovaries are located in
pelvic cavity in females.

The ovaries produce
estrogen and progesterone,
the female sex hormones.

Estrogen
Estrogen is a steroid hormone
that helps control and guide
female secondary sex
characteristics.
Development of the breast,
widening of the hips and the
growth of body hair.
Progesterone
Progesterone helps
prepare the uterus for
pregnancy.
Progesterone creates a
healthy uterine lining to
support a fertilized egg,
embryo and fetus.

TESTES
Located outside the
pelvic cavity and
contained in the scrotal
sac.

The testes produce
testosterone, the male
sex hormones.

Testosterone
Testosterone brings out and maintains the male secondary
sex characteristics that develop during puberty.
Testosterone is essential for the production of sperm
Testosterone is responsible for many changes seen in
children assigned male and during puberty, including:
An increase in height
1.
Body and pubic hair growth
2.
Enlargement of their penis, testes and prostate gland.
3.
Increasing libido (sex drive).
4.

PINEAL GLAND
Pineal gland is a
small pea-sized
organ within the
brain that plays an
important role in the
endocrine system.

The main function of
pineal gland is to
help the circadian
cycle of sleep and
wakefulness by
secreting melatonin.

Melatonin
Melatonin is a natural
hormone that’s mainly
produced by pineal
gland in the brain. It
plays a role in
managing the sleep-
wake cycle and
circadian rhythm.

Circadian Rhythms
Circadian rhythms
help living things
respond to changes
in their environment
in ways that
conserve energy,
help them find food,
and allow them to
grow and heal.
“Sleeping at the right times is just as
important as the number of hours of sleep” -
Dr. Lulu Guo

THYMUS The thymus is a small
gland that’s part of the
lymphatic system.
The primarily function of the
thymus gland is to train
special white blood cells
called T-lymphocytes or T-
cells.
Thymus gland produces
and releases several
hormones including:
Thymopoietin, Thymosin
and Thymulin.

Thymopoietin
Thymulin
Thymosin
Fuels the production of T-cells and
tells the pituitary gland to release
hormones
Thymosin is a hormone secreted from the
thymus. Its primary function is to stimulate the
production of T cells, which are an important
part of the immune system.
Thymosin also assists in the development of B
cells to plasma cells to produce antibodies.
Thymulin is a zinc-containing peptide
secreted by the thymic epithelial cells,
and it can partially restore T cell
function in thymectomized animals.

PITUITARY GLAND DISORDER
Growth hormone deficiency (GHD), also
known as dwarfism or pituitary dwarfism, is a
condition caused by insufficient amounts of
growth hormone in the body. Children with
GHD have abnormally short stature with
normal body proportions. GHD can be present
at birth (congenital) or develop later
(acquired).
PITUITARY DWARFISM

SYMPTOMS
below-average growth
short stature
delayed dentition
delayed skeletal maturation.
PITUITARY DWARFISM

Gigantism is a very rare condition that
happens when a child or adolescent has high
levels of growth hormone (GH) in their body,
which causes them to grow very tall. The
pituitary gland normally produces GH, but a
tumor on their pituitary can produce excess
GH in gigantism.
GIGANTISM

SYMPTOMS
Very prominent forehead and a prominent
jaw.
Gaps between their teeth.
Thickening of their facial features.
Large hands and feet with thick fingers and
toes.
GIGANTISM

A rare condition where the body produces too
much growth hormone, causing body tissues
and bones to growth more.
ACROMEGALY

SYMPTOMS
swelling of soft tissue in the hands and feet (onset signs)
enlarged bones in the skull, face, jaw, hands and feet
joint pains
pins and needles in the hands
headaches
gaps forming between the teeth, which may cause a ‘bad
bite’
barrel chest
enlarged heart (cardiomegaly)
thick and oily skin and strong body odour
ACROMEGALY

THYROID GLAND DISORDER
Congenital hypothyroidism is thyroid hormone
deficiency present at birth. If untreated for
several months after birth, severe congenital
hypothyroidism can lead to growth failure and
permanent intellectual disability
CONGENITAL HYPOTHYROIDISM

SYMPTOMS
jaundice (yellow skin or eyes)
sleeping longer or more often than usual.
constipation.
a large soft spot (fontanel) on the head.
large, swollen tongue.
weak ("floppy") muscle tone.
swelling around the eyes.
poor or slow growth.
CONGENITAL HYPOTHYROIDISM

Graves disease is an autoimmune disorder
that leads to an overactive thyroid gland
(hyperthyroidism). An autoimmune disorder is
a condition that occurs when the immune
system mistakenly attacks healthy tissue.
Graves disease is an autoimmune disorder
that involves overactivity of the thyroid
(hyperthyroidism).
GRAVES DISEASE

SYMPTOMS
Feeling nervous and irritable.
Having a slight tremor of the hands or fingers.
Being sensitive to heat with an increase in sweating
or warm, moist skin.
Not being able to get or keep an erection, called
erectile dysfunction, or having less desire for sex.
Having bowel movements often.
Having bulging eyes — a condition called
thyroid eye disease or Graves' ophthalmopathy.
.
GRAVES DISEASE

ANIMALS ENDOCRINE
ABNORMALITIES

HYPERTHYROIDISM
Most species affected are cats.
Hyperthyroidism is caused by an
increase in production of thyroid
hormones (known as T3 and T4) from
an enlarged thyroid gland in a cat’s
neck.
It is primarily caused by benign tumors
called the thyroid adenomas.

HYPERTHYROIDISM
Symptoms:
Weight loss
Increased appetite
Increased thirst and urination
Hyperactivity
Increase in heart rate

HYPOTHYROIDISM
Most dog species are affected.
Hypothyroidism is often caused by
autoimmune destruction of the thyroid
gland or, less commonly, by congenital
issues or certain types of thyroid
glanditis.

HYPOTHYROIDISM
SYMPTOMS:
Include weight loss
Lethargy
Hair loss
Cold intolerance

CUSHING’S DISEASE
Most species affected are dogs,
horses, and ferrets.
Cushing’s disease is an endocrine
disorder characterized by the
overproduction of cortisol
It is most prevalent in middle-aged to
older dogs and breeds with a higher
predisposition.

CUSHING’S DISEASE
SYMPTOMS:
Panting
Behavioral Changes
Hair Loss
Increased Thirst and Urination
Muscle Weakness
Lethargy

HYPERPARATHYROIDISM
Most species affected are dogs, cats, and
horse.
It is a disorder where the parathyroid glands
produce excessive amounts of parathyroid
hormone (PTH).
Hyperparathyroidism is an uncommon
disease that affects calcium and
phosphorus regulation in dogs, and less
commonly, in cats.

HYPERPARATHYROIDISM
SYMPTOMS:
Increased thirst and urination
Lethargy
Vomiting
Bone weakness

ADDISON’S DISEASE
Most species affected are dogs, cats, and
horse.
The opposite of Cushing’s, this disorder
involves underproduction of cortisol and
aldosterone by the adrenal glands.
It occurs most commonly in dogs.

ADDISON’S DISEASE
SYMPTOMS:
Poor appetite
Weight loss
Vomiting
Shaking or tremors
Lethargy

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM, Presented by group 2 in General Physiology

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