This academic output meant for undergraduate students of BBS, BBA, B.Ed, and BA Psychology. Emotions are biologically-based psychological states brought on by neurophysiological changes, variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavioural responses, and a degree of pleasure or displeasure.

1. Emotion in Psychological Perspectives
By
Khemraj Subedi
Associate Professor
Tikapur Multiple Campus
Far Western University

2. Content Outline
 Concept and Importance
 Theories of Emotion (James-Lange Theory,
Cannon-Bard Theory, Schachter – Singer
Theory of Emotion, Opponent Process theory)
 Emotion and cognition – How affect
influences cognition and how cognition
influences affect
 Subjective well-being.

3. Concept of Perception
 In psychology, the concept of emotion encompasses a
complex interplay of psychological and physiological
processes that influence an individual's subjective experience,
behavior, and cognitive functioning. Emotions are central to
human experience and play a crucial role in various aspects of
psychology.
 In other words, emotion typically includes a subjective,
conscious experience characterized primarily by
psychophysiological expressions, biological reactions, and
mental states.
 In summary, emotions are integral to human experience,
influencing our thoughts, actions, and interactions with the
world. Recognizing and understanding the importance of
emotions can contribute to enhanced well-being, interpersonal
relationships, and overall life satisfaction

4. Figure 1

5. Figure 2

6. Importance of Emotion
1.Communication and Social Bonds(Expressive Function, Building
Relationships)
2. Motivation and Goal-Directed Behavior(Behavioral Guidance,
adaptation)
3. Decision-Making and Problem-Solving(Influence on Cognition,
intuition and creativity)
4. Emotional Intelligence and Self-Regulation(Self-Awareness, adapting
coping)
5. Health and Well-Being(Psychological and Physical Health, immune
system coping)
6. Memory and Learning(Enhanced Memory, Learning and
Adaptation)
7. Creativity and Innovation(Positive emotions, such as joy and curiosity,
can inspire individuals to explore new ideas and take creative risks)
8. Personal Identity and Meaning(Emotions contribute to the construction
of personal identity)

7. Theories of Emotion

8. James-Lange Theory of Emotion
 James (1884) and Lange (1885) proposed similar theories on the
function of an emotion. Eventually, their ideas were combined into
one overarching theory called “James-Lange Theory of emotion.
 James-Lange Theory proposes that emotions are essentially the way
our physical body reacts to an eliciting event. Further, emotion
labels (e.g., fear, disgust, anger) are labels that we use to describe
the way our body changes after the eliciting event
occurs. Specifically, James-Lange posits that we first notice
physiological and behavior changes and we use our observation of
these changes to label our emotion. According to James-Lange, our
subjective feelings, not our cognitive appraisals, represent the
perception of the body’s behavior and physiological changes. The
central idea is that the physiological changes associated with
emotions precede and give rise to the subjective emotional
experience.

9. Figure 2

10. Key principles of the James-Lange theory of emotion
include:
 Physiological Arousal First: According to the James-Lange theory, when an
individual encounters a stimulus or experiences an event, the body undergoes a
physiological response. This response involves changes in the autonomic nervous
system, such as increased heart rate, sweating, and changes in muscle tension.
 Emotional Experience Follows Physiological Response: The theory proposes
that the emotional experience, or the feeling of emotion, is a direct result of the
feedback from the physiological changes. In other words, individuals interpret their
physiological responses to a stimulus as an emotional experience.
 Different Emotions Correspond to Different Physiological Responses: James
and Lange suggested that specific patterns of physiological arousal are associated
with different emotions. For example, the physiological response to fear would be
distinct from the response to joy or anger.
 Cognitive Interpretation: While the initial formulation of the James-Lange
theory emphasized a direct link between physiological responses and emotional
experience, subsequent variations of the theory have acknowledged the role of
cognitive processes. The interpretation of physiological changes may involve
cognitive appraisal, where individuals attribute meaning to their bodily sensations
in a given context.

11. Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
 The Cannon-Bard Theory of emotion,
proposed by Walter Cannon and Philip Bard in
1927, presents an alternative perspective to the
James-Lange Theory. The Cannon-Bard
Theory challenges the idea that physiological
responses are the sole cause of emotions and
suggests that emotional experiences and
physiological reactions occur simultaneously.

12. Figure 2

13. Key principles of the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
include:
 Simultaneous Activation: According to the Cannon-Bard Theory, emotional
experiences and physiological responses occur simultaneously in response to a
stimulus. This means that when we encounter a triggering event, both the emotional
experience and the physiological changes happen at the same time.
 Independence of Emotion and Physiology: Unlike the James-Lange Theory,
which proposes that physiological responses lead to emotional experiences, the
Cannon-Bard Theory posits that physiological changes and emotional experiences
are independent processes. Both are triggered by the same stimulus but operate
separately.
 Thalamic Control: The thalamus, a brain structure responsible for relaying sensory
information, plays a crucial role in the Cannon-Bard Theory. According to Cannon
and Bard, the thalamus receives information about a stimulus and sends signals
simultaneously to the cortex (resulting in the emotional experience) and to the
autonomic nervous system (leading to physiological responses).
 Emotions Have Unique Patterns: Cannon and Bard suggested that different
emotions are associated with distinct patterns of physiological arousal. However,
they did not propose a one-to-one correspondence between specific physiological
changes and particular emotions.

14. Cannon-Bard Theory cont…
 In summary, the Cannon-Bard Theory asserts
that emotions and physiological responses are
independent but occur simultaneously in
response to a stimulus. This perspective
contributed to a shift in the understanding of
the relationship between emotion and bodily
responses, challenging the earlier idea that
emotions are simply a consequence of bodily
reactions.

15. Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion
 The Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion, also known as the
Two-Factor Theory or Cognitive Arousal Theory, was
proposed by psychologists Stanley Schachter and Jerome
Singer in 1962.
 This theory builds on elements of both the James-Lange
Theory and the Cannon-Bard Theory and introduces the
importance of cognitive appraisal in the experience of
emotions.
 Thus, the Schachter-Singer theory of emotion is a theory
that states that emotion is due to two factors, physiological
arousal and cognitive processes. The theory explains that
people use cues from their immediate environment to
inform their emotion

16. Figure 3

17. Key principles of the Schachter-Singer
Theory include:
1. Physiological Arousal: Like the James-Lange Theory, the
Schachter-Singer Theory acknowledges the role of
physiological arousal in the experience of emotion. It suggests
that when individuals encounter a stimulus, they experience a
general state of physiological arousal.
2. Cognitive Interpretation: The crucial addition in this theory
is the emphasis on cognitive interpretation or appraisal of the
arousal. Schachter and Singer proposed that the specific
emotion experienced depends on the individual's cognitive
interpretation of the physiological arousal, which is influenced
by the context and external cues.

18. Key principles of the Schachter-Singer
Theory cont…
3. Two Factors: The theory posits two main factors contributing to
the emotional experience: physiological arousal and cognitive
interpretation. The combination of these factors determines the
specific emotion felt by an individual in a given situation.
4. Cognitive Labeling: The theory suggests that people look to their
external environment and cognitive appraisal to label and identify the
specific emotion they are feeling. In other words, the cognitive
interpretation of the situation helps individuals make sense of their
physiological arousal and attribute it to a particular emotion.

19. Opponent-Process Theory of Emotion
 The Opponent-Process Theory of emotion was
first proposed by psychologists Richard
Solomon and John Corbit in the early 1970s.
This theory aims to explain the dynamics of
emotional experiences over time and suggests
that emotions are not isolated events but are
instead part of a process involving both a
primary and an opponent process.

21. Key principles of the Opponent-Process Theory include:
1.Primary Process: The initial emotional response to a stimulus is
referred to as the primary process. This is the direct and immediate
emotional reaction to a specific event or stimulus. For example, the
primary process might involve feelings of pleasure in response to
eating chocolate or fear in response to a loud noise.
2.Opponent Process: The opponent process is a secondary response
that counteracts the primary process. According to the theory, this
opponent process is initiated to bring the emotional state back to
baseline or equilibrium. For instance, if the primary process involves
pleasure from eating chocolate, the opponent process may involve a
decrease in pleasure or the onset of negative feelings after some time.

22. Key principles of the Opponent-Process Theory cont…
3.Adaptation and Tolerance: The opponent process is thought to be responsible
for adaptation and tolerance to emotional stimuli over time. As the primary
process weakens with repeated exposure to a stimulus, the opponent process
becomes more pronounced. This can lead to a reduction in the intensity of the
primary emotional response, creating a sense of emotional stability or
equilibrium.
4. Withdrawal and Dependence: The theory has been applied to explain the
development of dependence and withdrawal symptoms in the context of drug use.
According to the Opponent-Process Theory, repeated drug use leads to a
strengthening of the opponent process, which can result in withdrawal symptoms
when the drug is not present.
5. Emotional Oscillation: The Opponent-Process Theory suggests that emotional
experiences involve a back-and-forth oscillation between the primary and
opponent processes. Over time, the primary process weakens, and the opponent
process gains strength, leading to emotional stability or habituation.

23. Opponent-Process Theory cont…
 This theory has been particularly influential in
understanding the emotional aspects of drug
addiction, as well as providing a framework
for understanding the temporal dynamics of
emotional experiences. It offers insights into
how emotions may change and adapt over
time, shedding light on the complexity of
emotional processes.

24. Figure 4

25. Emotion and Cognition
 Emotion and cognition are two interrelated and
interconnected aspects of human mental
processes, influencing each other in various
ways.
 In other words, the interaction between affect
(emotion) and cognition is a complex and
bidirectional process. Affect and cognition are
intertwined, influencing each other in various
ways. Here's an overview of how affect
influences cognition and how cognition
influences affect

26. How Affect (emotion)Influences Cognition:
1. Attention and Memory: Affect can influence the allocation of attention and the
encoding and retrieval of information in memory. Emotionally salient stimuli tend to
capture attention more readily, and emotional experiences are often better remembered
than neutral ones.
2. Cognitive Appraisal: Emotions involve cognitive appraisals of situations. The way
an event is appraised emotionally can shape subsequent cognitive processing. For
example, a positively appraised event may lead to more positive thinking and problem-
solving.
3. Decision-Making: Emotional states can impact decision-making processes. Positive
emotions might lead to risk-taking behavior, while negative emotions might result in
more cautious decision-making. The framing of information and the emotional context
can significantly influence choices.
4. Problem Solving: Emotional states can affect problem-solving strategies. Positive
emotions may enhance creativity and flexible thinking, while negative emotions might
lead to more analytical and detail-oriented approaches.
5.Social Cognition: Emotions play a crucial role in social cognition. The recognition
and interpretation of facial expressions, vocal cues, and body language are essential
components of social interactions, influencing how we understand and respond to
others.

27. How Cognition Influences Affect:
1. Cognitive Reappraisal: Cognitive processes, such as
cognitive reappraisal, can influence emotional
experiences. Changing the interpretation of a situation
or altering one's perspective can modulate emotional
responses. For example, reframing a stressful event as a
challenge rather than a threat can influence the
emotional experience.
2. Emotional Regulation: Cognitive processes are
involved in emotional regulation. Individuals can use
cognitive strategies to regulate their emotions, such as
distraction, cognitive restructuring, or mindfulness.
These strategies can help manage emotional responses
in different situations.

28. How Cognition Influences Affect cont…
3. Expectations and Beliefs: Cognitive factors, including expectations and
beliefs, can shape emotional responses. If an individual expects a positive
outcome, it can contribute to a positive emotional state, whereas negative
expectations may lead to negative emotions.
4. Attributional Style: The way individuals attribute causes to events
(attributional style) can impact emotional experiences. Someone with a
more optimistic attributional style may experience positive emotions more
frequently, while a pessimistic attributional style may lead to more negative
emotions.
5. Cognitive Processing of Emotion: Higher-order cognitive processes,
such as theory of mind and empathy, influence the understanding and
interpretation of other people's emotions. Cognitive processes enable
individuals to empathize with others, which, in turn, can influence their
own emotional experiences.

29. Application of Emotion in Business Management
 Employee Motivation and Engagement:
 Leadership and Emotional Intelligence:
 Team Building and Collaboration:
 Decision-Making:
 Customer Relations and Service:
 Effective change management:
 Employee Well-Being and Mental Health:
 Innovation and Creativity:
 Brand Image and Corporate Culture:
 Conflict Resolution:

30. Subjective well-being
 Subjective well-being (SWB) is a term used in
psychology to describe an individual's overall
sense of happiness and life satisfaction.
 It represents a person's subjective evaluation of
their own life, encompassing emotional
experiences, cognitive judgments about life
satisfaction, and overall well-being.
 Therefore, SWB refers to how people experience
and evaluate their lives and specific domains and
activities in their lives.

31. Table 1

32.  SWB is a multidimensional construct that typically includes three main
components:
1. Life Satisfaction: Life satisfaction refers to an individual's cognitive
judgment of their life as a whole. It involves a reflective assessment of one's
life circumstances, achievements, and the extent to which they meet personal
goals and expectations.
2. Positive Affect: Positive affect encompasses the experience of positive
emotions, such as joy, gratitude, love, and contentment. This component
reflects the frequency and intensity of positive emotional experiences in an
individual's daily life.
3. Negative Affect: Negative affect involves the experience of negative
emotions, such as sadness, anger, anxiety, and stress. This component
reflects the frequency and intensity of negative emotional experiences in an
individual's daily life.
Researchers often use various measures to assess these components
separately and compute an overall score for subjective well-being. Surveys,
questionnaires, and interviews are common methods employed to gather
self-reported data on life satisfaction and emotional experiences.

33. Figure 5
According to Gregg Henriques,
Kimberly Kleinman and Craig
Asselin SWB is determined by
the Health and Functioning
Domain, the Environmental
Domain, and the Values and
Ideology Domain,

34. References
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examination and an alternative theory. The American journal of
psychology, 39(1/4), 106-124.
 Cotton, J. L. (1981). A review of research on Schachter's theory of emotion and
the misattribution of arousal. European Journal of Social Psychology, 11(4),
365-397.
 Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological bulletin, 95(3), 542.
 Fehr, B., & Russell, J. A. (1984). Concept of emotion viewed from a prototype
perspective. Journal of experimental psychology: General, 113(3), 464.
 Friedman, B. H. (2010). Feelings and the body: The Jamesian perspective on
autonomic specificity of emotion. Biological psychology, 84(3), 383-393.
 Henriques, G., Kleinman, K., & Asselin, C. (2014) The Nested Model of well-
being: A unified approach. Review of General Psychology, 18(1), 7-18.
doi: 10.1037/a0036288
 Solomon, R. L., & Corbit, J. D. (1974). An opponent-process theory of
motivation: I. Temporal dynamics of affect. Psychological review, 81(2), 119.