Eco Assessment Market Failures

Eco Assessment
ContentsSection 12 1.1 Market Failure2 1.2 Public goods2 1.2.1 Relation between Market failure and Public goods2 1.3 Merit goods2 1.3.1 Relation
between Merit goods and Market Failure2 1.4 Externalities2 1.5 Imperfect competition3 Section 24 2.1 UK government policy on the environment4 2.2
About the policy5 2.2.1 Water quality5 2.3 Instruments the government use to achieve their policy5 2.4 A justified evaluation of the performance of
the policy in relation to its use within the UK6 References7
Section 1
1.1 Market Failure Market Failure is an economic situation where free market fails to allocate resources efficiently. It is the abbreviated situation in the
any market where the curves ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
To be fair the price in the market, the government has to tax these monopoly markets.
Section 2
2.1 UK government policy on the environment
One of the good choice is the UK government policy in the environment because the environment from the UK is very eco–friendly. In Myanmar, there
is a lot of rubbish on the street and water is not clean enough. So, instead of Myanmar environment be UK environment. Moreover, there are some
issue about greenhouse such as global warming, a company fined for illegally dumping waste, a drought or flood blamed on pollution, a health scare
about car exhausts and smog in tropical countries.
There are 15 policies in the UK government on the environment. They are; 1. Marine Fisheries 2. Waste and recycling 3. Flooding and coastal change
4. Forests and woodland 5. Marine environment 6. Radioactive and nuclear substances and waste 7. Sustainable development 8. Business and the
environment 9. Biodiversity and ecosystems 10. Water quality 11. Water and sewerage services 12. Energy efficiency in buildings 13. Farming industry
regulation 14. Environment quality 15. Greenhouse gas emissions.
All of them, the best choosing is the water quality because not only human being but also animals and plant are using water.
According to the website case study "DFID Sierra Leone's WASH portfolio" is implementing a major ВЈ50
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

The Failures Of Market Failure
Market failure, in economic terms, refers to a situation wherein the free market fails to efficiently allocate the goods and services. Or in other words,
during market failure, another conceivable outcomes (non– Pareto optimal) exist wherein a market participant is found to be made better–off without
making anyone else worse–off (Francis Bator, 1958). The failures in market can be seen as the scenarios in which the pursuit of pure self–interest of an
individual leads to inefficient results as per the societal point of view and bearing high chances of improvement. Basically, market failures occur when
the market lacks economic efficiency.
Market failures may occur due to a plenty of reasons including asymmetries in information, externalities, monopoly, time inconsistent preferences,
principal agent issues, public goods, or non–competitive markets etc. Therefore the market failure often requires the intervention of supra–national
institutions and self–regulated governments and organizations in that particular market (Joseph Stiglitz, 1989). Micro–economists are usually involved
in the task of identifying potential causes of market failure and suggesting appropriate corrective measures. An important role is played by such an
analysis in number of public policy studies and decision making. Historical records show us that governmental interventions have various impacts on
the economy of its country. However, poorly implemented governmental attempts for correcting market failure

The Implications For Policy Development And Climate Change
High income, well educated and environmental aware individuals also tend to have high transport CO2 emission lifestyles. Critically discuss, including
the implications for policy development and climate change itself.
Introduction
"An enthusiastic green is likely to be well educated, with high levels of household income... They are likely to take more flights [and] have a... car
with a... larger engine. They... recycle more... use energy–saving light bulbs – but... have a relatively high carbon footprint", director of marketing at
CACI, a company that carries out surveys on income and environmental attitudes, (Jowit 2008).
Whilst agreeing with the hypothesis, the essay will also argue it is an over–simplification and that other socio ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
For hypothesis
Studies by both Brand and Preston (2009) and Aamaas et al (2013) found high earners to produce the most CO2 from their travel, with the latter
concluding "high income people travel... more and have a... higher climate impact than low income people". More specifically this study shows the
highest earners to have an impact on climate 250% greater than that of the lowest. The reason being individuals with large disposable incomes are
more able to afford flights, drive more and generally travel further.
With specific reference to flying and driving, both studies also found high earners to be the largest emitters of CO2. Brand and Preston (2009)
highlight data from the CAA (2005) that shows average household incomes of people using Stanstead airport to be much higher than the national
average. Further analysis might show this is exacerbated by the types of vehicle wealthier individuals might drive. For example cars in tax band M
(UK's highest emitting / 250g per km +) are almost all luxury vehicles, with prices ranging from >32K + (Lane, 2014), well beyond the reach of lower
income earners.
With regards to education Lynn and Longhi (2011) found people with "...degree–level qualifications are more likely... to... buy recycled... products,
[and] not purchase... over–packaged items... However, they are less likely to... switch off lights... [and] use public transport rather than travel by car."
This study also finds highly educated

A Business 's Responsibility For An Efficient Allocation...
It is a business's own responsibility to define the external economic environment to ensure their market will be successful. When businesses are free
and left to peruse their own private objectives it is extremely important economic efficiency is carefully thought about as there are a range of market
failures that could occur which lead to government intervention. "Market failure occurs when freely–functioning markets, fail to deliver an efficient
allocation of resources. The result is a loss of economic and social welfare." (Geoff Riley,2012).To avoid market failure businesses must be aware of
changing market conditions.
All organisations have to face the 'Economic Problem' this is deciding what to produce, how to produce it and who to ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Legal monopoly can be companies that operate as a monopoly under government order, these companies will offer products or services at a structured
price and can be independently run and government regulated or both government run and regulated. An example of legal monopoly is the price of
alcohol or air flight prices, the government can always intervene and change the prices. Natural monopoly are companies which produce a product in
economies of scale for example production would be permanently concentrated in a single firm rather than contested competitively, such as water, gas
and electricity firms. Local monopoly is usually where an organisation is the only supplier in that area– for example a petrol station in a small town far
from the city. They will receive all purchases for that particular product as there is nowhere else to get it.
There a number of problems that can occur within production leading to market failure within an organisation. Markets who are in high competition
are often run by big firms with high monopoly power which can lead to exploitation of suppliers, consumers and employees. Big firms also try avoid
direct costs which will lead to environmentally damaging use of resources. In order for the govern–ment to attempt to correct their monopoly
manipulating any stakeholders, The Competition and Markets Authority (CMA) and The Office of Fair Trading, investigate possible abuse of market
power.

The Economic Impact of Notting Hill Carnival Essay
Economic impact of Notting Hill Carnival
Tutor: Dr. Debbie Sadd
Student: Yu–Ting Chen (44459459)
Unit: Event Principles and Practice
Word Count: 2,096 words
Table of Contents
Table of contents.....................................................................................2
Abstract.................................................................................................3
1. Introduction.........................................................................................3
2. Economic impact..................................................................................4
2.1 Definition of economic impact.......................................................4
2.2 The reason why economic impact is chosen....................................4
2.3 Positive and negative economic impacts..........................................6
3. Impact of employment.............................................................................7
4. Impact of business opportunities...............................................................7
5. Impact of opportunity costs.......................................................................8
6. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If more money circulates within the economy, the larger the multiplier effect will be". Therefore, the economic impacts are vital to think of in the
planning of state, regional and community and economical development. They are the important factors in marketing and management decisions as well.
2.2 The reason why economic impact is chosen
Tourism plays a vital role in economic development in most countries around the world. The industry has not only direct economic impact, but also
significant indirect and influential impacts. There is agreement among experts that the travel and tourism sector is the fastest growing of global
economy. According to the latest UNWTO World Tourism Barometer, international tourism receipts surpass US$ 1 trillion in 2011, growing about
3.8%up from 2010 (WTO, 2012).

Each year, hundreds of thousands people descend on the streets of Notting Hill, including performers, DJs, bandleaders, traders, steelpan players and
international visitors. The Notting Hill Carnival is composed of several constituents, through costumes, steel bands, mobile and static sound systems
playing in the street to honour the 'freedom to walk the streets' (ibid). While more and more visitors crowd into the Notting Hill Carnival (see Table 1),
it's not only useful to develop its societal impact through education and the improvement policy of better racial harmony (ibid), but also promote its
economic

Privatizing Urban Transportation Can Work With Timely...
The privatizing of urban transportation can work with timely public planning. A lot of the issues to be considered are due to poor maintenance, slow
expansion of streets, urban highways and excessive congestion in many cities. Public and private partnerships can be used to improve the timing of
investments and ensure adequate maintenance of highways. Because of the lack of funding and political "red tape" at both the local and federal
levels, privatized funding can help with the development of roadways, create jobs and complete the task at hand. Although privatization terms and
conditions of contracted developers of urban planning can create an inflexed rate in the use of tolls for many road ways and highways it can reduce
the congestion in many cities. This paper will explore the how poor maintenance, slow expansion of streets and urban highways and excessive
congestion are chronic in many cities. The research will argue claims that public–private partnerships can be used to improve the timing of new
investments, ensure adequate maintenance of highways and streets and manage congestion with road user charges. It will also elaborate on how this
theory of public and private planning can only work with timely public planning, deft contract design and enforcement and competent inter jurisdiction
coordination as well as show that Public/Private Partnerships (PPPs) do not relieve the public budget of its financial obligation. The research will
touch on how PPPs are preferred over

Congestion Charge Is An Influential Transport Policy...
Introduction: Road congestion charging is an influential transport policy agenda. As the demand cars for has tremendously increased within the past
century and therefore, roads have witnessed an astonishing level of congestion. This brought forward the implementation of the congestion charge. In
particular, the issue of congestion charge has received great attention since it was first introduced in 2003, by the mayor of London. That charge
ВЈ11.50 daily for traveling in the designated zone between 07:00–18:00? (TfL, 2008). This paper will deal with significant improvement of the policy,
but will not look at the cost associated with the policy. Congestion charge is beneficial to the society; it reduces traffic levels in an efficient way to
ensure profits are being made from the charge. Most notably influencing airborne pollutants. However, it is vital to examine this area in order to access
the effectiveness of congestion charge scheme implementation, moreover. Several studies have shown that the congestion charge has been effective in
its implementation (Ishikawa and Asada, 2007); whilst other studies have proven otherwise (Mahendra, 2010). The question remains, evaluating
London congestion charge scheme policy for the government transport sector. This paper will argue that there have been significant improvements,
since the introduction of the scheme. It will begin by outlining on how congestion levels have reduced, then go on to provide the revenues generated
from the

Using Population Control to Achieve Environmental...
Environmental sustainability is when a person, community or area is able to meet the needs of the present, without compromising the needs of the
future. Overconsumption will lead to hardship in the future, and possibly to the destruction of the planet's finite resources; and if we continue using
our resources as at current rates, which have been estimated to be 4 planets worth of resources, this will be inevitable. Populations are all the
inhabitants of a specific area/country and this population can be controlled in various methods such as population policies, like the ones in China,
Kerala and France; as well as control via migration by putting on limits.
A population control method that has achieve environmental sustainability is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
On the other hand, Canada has a fairly low population density of just 3.75 people per square kilometer and with high resources, Canada is
environmentally sustainable; some even say that Canada is under populated and therefore Canada is lenient on in migration.
Similarly to this, Thomas Malthus (1766–1834) had the theory that when population overshoots a certain point (usually food production) there will be
catastrophic effects. The club of Rome, in 1968 published a report called the 'limit of growth', which stated that population growth will lead to an
increase in food demand and this will eventually lead to resource exhaustion, which is obviously not environmentally sustainable. To prevent resource
exhaustion, the Club of Rome decided that we have to regulate population growth and reduce fertility– and that is what China's One Child Policy, and
Kerala's non–enforced population policy was aiming to do. Similarly, the anti–Malthusianist– Ester Boserup was a resource optimist, with research
based on studies of shifting cultivation. Her hypothesis was that population growth would result in an increase demand for food and to meet this
demand, improved agriculture productivity would be needed. A higher agricultural productivity means an increase in methods of agriculture like the
'slash and burn' technique, which often are not environmentally sustainable at all.
All these population / resource theories

Scooter Industry
International Marketing
Introduction In modern business it is extremely important for companies to have wide variety of tools, which enable them to analyse their
environment and their markets. Most commonly used tools are PEST analysis, SWOT analysis and Porter's Five Forces. In this case the most
appropriate tool is PEST analysis which can be further extended to PESTEL. Other variations such as SLEPT, PESTLE, STEEPLE and STEEPLED
are also possible. SWOT analysis and Porter's Five Forces require more speciп¬Ѓc information about the actual company and its market, but in this
case this information is not available. Brooks et al. (2004), say that PEST acronym stands for Political, Economic, Legal, Social and Technological
environmental ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Political environment assessment prior to entering a new market is therefore outmost important. Economical Economical factors include economic
growth, government spending levels, inп¬‚ation, exchange rates, unemployment levels and national and individual income. Manufacturers would
prefer to have politically stable countries, with low inп¬‚ation rates and steady growth of real GDP. Inп¬‚ation is analysed by Daniels and Radebaugh
(1998) as an important aspect of economic environment, because of its inп¬‚uence on interest rates, exchange rates and cost of living. Other economic
indicators have to be monitored and analysed as well. Gillespie (2007) warns about high interest rates, which can deter investments as capital becomes
more expensive. Strong currency can hurt exports because it raises the price in terms of foreign currency. Positive national income growth on the other
hand will increase demand for п¬Ѓrms products. GDP per capita is the indicator which will compare living standards in different countries.
Manufacturer is selling value–for–money scooter, which means he can compete in any country if there are no barriers to entry or other taxes which
will affect already low proп¬Ѓt margins. Developed countries will have free markets for scooter industry with low intervention from the government or
other authorities. Higher GPD per capita will translate to higher

Electric Vehicles Used Power From Galvanic Cells Or Batteries
With the invention of the first electric car in 1837 by chemist Robert Davidson of Aberdeen, there was the hope for cleaner transport system. The
electric vehicle used power from galvanic cells or batteries. He later in 1841 advanced to a seven–ton vehicle that used two direct reluctant motors. The
two motors had more energy than galvanic cells. The electric vehicle would move at a speed of four miles per hour. Electric vehicles were very
common in 18th and 19th century. Most people found them convenient, they as they met most of the environmental requirements in the world. The
first electric vehicle was innovated as a result of high prices of petrol. Electricity was one of the preferred method for propulsion of electric vehicle.
Gasoline ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The major cause of their ballooning demand in the market is their efficiency and environmental health. The vehicles do not emit pollutant gases. Like
the use of the sun, the use of electricity has not been associated to any malicious products. This factors has caused the global demand for the cars rise
uncontrollably. Unlike the fuel engine vehicles engine, the electric is less labor intensive. The vehicles also have low maintenance cost as compared to
internal combustion engine vehicles. At the same time, the source of energy, the electricity, has become the easiest form of energy generation by many
states in the world. Therefore, electric vehicles do not have energy dependency on imported fuels. Electrical energy can be obtained from solar, wind
and even nuclear. With many governments showing great efforts in increasing the power generated into the national grid, the possibility for running on
absolute electricity vehicles has hit the market.
However, the move has come with a limiting factor: charging stations. With the fact that the car battery may last for a while before demanding
recharge, there are no efforts by the governments of the businesses to invest in the sector. The charging systems are overwhelmed by the high demand
by electrical vehicle owners (Johnstone, Hascic, & Development., 2011). Despite that the demand for the vehicles is

A Brief Note On Subsidies Policy For Public Transport
An analysis of subsidies policy for public transport in UK
"subsidy means money given as part of the cost of something, to help or encourge it to happen" (cambridge dictionary, 2015). In transport,..
Main Body
Organisation and Policy
Glaitser et al (2006) stated In Great Britain, Department for Transport responsible to include posts covering public transport, transport in London, roads
and traffic national policy and aviation and shipping or logistic. They also suggest to public transport there is a 3 tier of government in charge of that
are department for transport, sub–state goverment and local authorities. For rail services, the authority and accountability exist in Great Britain and
sub–state government. While bus service, sub–state and local government authorities play the role. Subsidy given by the government through several
ways, among others for the bus, a government subsidy to all buses operating with the distribution of three areas: rural areas, metropolitan and territories
except london london. The subsidy for train through two ways are the operation and maintenance of infrastructure (White, 2009).
Why government do subsidy? goeverden et al (2006) stated subsidy is necessary for public transport. First, vulnerable groups such as low–income
households, those without driver's license, people with disabilities need to be motivated to avoid the problem of social exclusion. In this case the
subsidy serves as a 'social function'. Second, limit the use of private

How Urban Environments Has Made More Sustainable And What...
How Have Urban Environments Been Made More Sustainable And What More Needs To Be Done for the Future?
Introduction
The National Geographic Education define an urban environment as, 'the region surrounding a city. Urban areas are very developed, meaning there is a
density of human structures such as houses, commercial buildings, roads, bridges, and railways.(1)' The International Institute for Sustainable
Development define sustainable development as 'development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs. (2)' In 2014, approximately 54%(3) of the total global population live in urban environments. The global urban
population has grown significantly from 34% in 1960(3) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The provision of affordable mass transit provides residents of urban areas greater accessibility, which can provide them with more opportunities and
services. Furthermore, with the provision of a successful transport system, it is highly likely for the number of people using personal vehicles to fall.
This fall in the use of cars would mean that less harmful gases such as Carbon Monoxide, Nitrogen Oxide and Sulphur Dioxide released and so the
natural environment would benefit. With a successful transport system, accessibility is greatly improved, which can be beneficial economically for a city
. People are able to travel to and from work and the transport can also be used for trading goods and services. However, current mass transit is
unsustainable in urban cities due to its reliance on non–renewable fossil fuels and the pollution it creates has a significant impact on the environment.
Currently, transport is accountable for 20%–25% of world's energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions(1) and the current systems mostly run
on fossil fuels, which are expected to run out by 2088 according to ecotricity(2). In order to improve the sustainability of an urban area, the transport
systems, which need to be in place for economic and social reasons, need to become greener, cleaner and run on renewable energy. Current technology
is not currently in place to allow for this significant change and so gradual changes have been introduced in some of the world cities.
London's

North American and European Airline Industry Essay
North American and European Airline Industry
INTRODUCTION
The Airline industry is one of the world's largest industries generating over $300 billion in revenues in 2001 alone and additionally has the second
highest industrial growth rate, after the computer industry, with typical growth rates of 3–5% per annum over the last 20 years (Humphreys, 2003; BA
Fact book, 2002).
For the purpose of this assignment, freight/cargo airline activities will not be considered as freight travel consists of only 2 % of total airline activity
(see figure 3.1 and appendix 1) (BA Fact book, 2002,
ICAO, 2003). Furthermore, due to the nature of the airline industry and the Asian market being a lot smaller and internally focused, we
will ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This has had significant implications for an industry which relies on these passengers for approximately two thirds of its revenue (Economist, 2001).
The reduction in business passenger numbers has resulted not only in adding to the already existing overcapacity problem but also in increasing
competitive pressures, the resultant effect being a persistent downtrend in airfares. In fact, after adjusting for inflation airline revenues per passenger
kilometre are about half the level of 30 years ago (BA Fact Book, 2002). The birth of the low cost carriers and the increasing market share they have
acquired has further exacerbated this downward trend as passengers become more price sensitive.
1.2 Political Forces facing the airline industry
The airline industry is also very much in the political frontline (see figure 1.1). The implications of terrorism for the industry are evident from the
statistics – 2001 was only the second year in the history of modern civil aviation in which international air traffic declined (IATA, 2002) and, although
air traffic has since improved, it is nevertheless still below pre–September 11 levels. Furthermore, the knock on effects it has had in other areas of the
industry, most notably the vertiginous rise in the cost of insurance and security, has further added to the economic woes of the industry. Since the
attacks insurance companies immediately increased insurance premiums and reduced

Road Tax Persuasive Essay
There is nothing like the freedom of being in control of your vehicle on the open road and not having to relying on your spouse's or friends'
drivability or lack of concentration behind the wheel. However, during the morning and evening commutes there are zero open roads, and there are
entirely too many drivers on the road, so all the confidence you may have driving is washed away by absolute road congestion. What about the
back seat drivers that we love to secretly omit when traveling to our destinations? It's a gracious part of freedom that allows us to choose who rides
with us and who doesn't. Still, because there are millions of drivers that travel on a given route each day, our road companion decisions are less
decisive than we even recognize.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
PACommutes urges drivers to discover that "Carpooling is a great way to make new friends and start new professional relationships. To find other
commuters you are compatible with, use the Match & Ride tool" ("Car Pooling Benefits"). Portland, Oregon takes an incentivized approach for
companies, which includes benefits that trickle down to employees:
Federal and Oregon state tax laws make it possible for your business to offer a pre–tax transportation program to your employees. Because pre–tax
deduction reduces the amount of employees' taxable earnings, it also reduces the amount of FICA and unemployment taxes your company must pay.
Pre–tax deductions can include vanpool fares and transit passes. Your company may also take a tax credit equal to 35% of the eligible costs for
transportation–related programs such as subsidizing part or all of your employees' vanpool costs ("Carpool Incentives for the Portland Metro

Traffic Pollution
Over the past few months, there has been a growing concern over the worsening of traffic congestion particularly in Manhattan. The speed of traffic
in Midtown has declined by 23% since 2010. This traffic gridlock will cost the City over millions of dollars in wasted fuel, wasted time and carbon
emissions. This past summer, Mayor Bill de Blasio has proposed a millionaire tax to fund infrastructure improvements on the subway. Later in October
2017, he laid out a Five–Point Plan to reduce traffic congestion. Working closely with Con Edison, the Mayor has also set the goal for 20% of all city
vehicles to be electric by 2025. In addition to these initiatives, Governor Andrew Cuomo has appointed a panel to study congestion pricing and report
back to him by the end of the year.
The moderator and panelists of this discussion session at NYU School of Law on November 7, 2017 sought to identify the impacts and explore
plausible solutions to this perpetual problem. The discussion was moderated by Katrina Wyman from NYU School of Law and featured the following
panelists: (i) Iyad Kheirbek, Executive Director of the Air Quality Program at NYC Health; (ii) Sam Schwartz, CEO of Sam Schwartz Transportation
Consultants; (iii) Ashwini Chhabra, Policy Director at Uber; and (iv) Elizabeth Stein, an attorney in EDF's Clean Energy Program.
Mr. Kheirbek from NYC Health initiated the discussion by identifying some of the most common traffic–related pollutants (PM2.5, BC, NOx, etc.) and
their adverse health impacts (premature deaths, respiratory hospitalization, etc.). Based on the data collected by NYC Health, the largest contributor of
air pollutants are heavy–duty diesel trucks, which account for only 5% of total vehicle miles traveled (VMT) but 50% of the health impacts. Although
the air quality in the city has generally improved over the past seven years (PM2.5 and NO2 levels have gone down by 18% and 24% respectively),
higher pollution levels continue to plague many neighborhoods. These pollution hotspots include areas of heavy truck traffic in Manhattan, the Bronx,
North Brooklyn and Queens, particularly in communities near major roadways. A concerted effort is therefore required to reduce the vehicle emission
through

Budget Airlines
Task Three: Budget Airlines
CONTENTS
Who and what are budget airlines
Marketing environment
– Micro environment
– Macro environment
Sources of information
Segmentation
Targeting
Positioning
Marketing mix – price
Questions
Budget Airline Definition
п‚§Budget airlines don't have free meals and entertainment
Budget airlines don't issue tickets
Budget airlines have only one class – budget class
Budget airlines use secondary airports to cut the cost
Budget airlines sell directly to the public – no sale commissions
Budget airlines promote journey 'legs' separately
Budget airlines don't reward frequent travellers with air ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However some operators have reversed this, and are paid by local governments to land at some airports, as they expect to gain economic benefits from
this.
Media has a great impact on customer's choices. Budget airlines have recently been mentioned by the Media as the least environmentally friendly way

to travel. In society concern with 'green issues' budget airlines may need to switch in close future their marketing focus from rock bottom fares to
environmental responsibility.
Key microenvironmental issues likely to occur in next 3 years:
Continuation...
The success of budget airlines forced traditional operators to lower their prices by adapting internet sales and yield management techniques. However
they still struggle to compete with low prices offered by the LCCs. Further reductions in traditional airline ticket prices are expected.
The railways are likely to remain dominant for short journeys as most of the LCCs use small airports, which are often difficult to reach without a car.
Rail operators are also improving offered services and cutting down their ticket prices by selling through the internet and allowing passengers to find
lower fares when booking in advance.
The LCCs are a serious threat to regular airlines. British Midlands responded to the competition by launching its own budget airline 'bmi baby'.
Following its success more traditional carriers may decide in future to launch their own 'no frills' airlines.

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Congestion Charging System
Congestion in cities, especially large cities, become major problem of society. People need to travel on their job, shops, school, to do other activities
important for normal functioning and recreational activities. There are therefore, among the others, congestion charging systems. Congestion charging
is a system developed on principle that consumers should pay directly for costs they impose, in this case congestion, in order to use resources
efficiently. This system represent daily charge for driving vehicle in the center of the city, to provide better quality of the canter and to incurage people
to use public transport. With development of car industry and building new roads between the cities, long distance traveling was available to people.
Increasing the level of motorization... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Each of these types combine one or more technologies such as uses digital cameras and optical character recognition, satellite systems (Global
Positioning System – GPS), Global System for Mobile GSM, vehicles technologies (Vehicle Identification Number–VIN) ect. in order to perform three
basic function. Each system has some advantages and drawbacks such as: modern DSRC has a recognition accuracy of 99% or greater, while ANPR
accuracy is lower and it varies by facility and conditions (bad weather, dirt). Both of these technologies require roadside infrastructure which is
expensive to install, require maintenance which is also costly, occupies a space and if it's necessary it is hart or impossible to relocate, where satellites
and cellular networks don't require infrastructure. While some of this systems require one or more types of equipment, ANPR does not require
equipment in vehicle. DSRC systems require a transponders, satellite systems require an antenna, power source and digital

What Is Traffic Congestion?
Introduction
What is traffic congestion?
Traffic congestion is a term whereby congestion is mentioned as "clog", "impede" and "over utilised"(http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/congestion_report
/executive_summary.htm#what_is_congestion). This term is used to describe a traffic situation is with enormous amount of vehicle on the roadway,
causing the flow of vehicle to be inefficient. In another word, number of traffic is higher than the supply (capacity) of current highway facilities will
cause traffic congestion (Wan Hashim Wan Ibrahim 2009). According to IBM, its research states that a growth of 20% of the U.S nation population
between 1982 and 2001 leads to a leap of traffic congestion for about 236%. Therefore, there is no doubt that urbanisation of an area where population
density is too high will cause traffic congestion to occur. As time goes on to present days, this issue arises as one of the obstacles that brings negative
impacts to the urbanized world namely retarding the efficiency of economic activities and emergency vehicles in operations, waste of time and mental
torture while in a traffic jam, wastage of fuel consumption which leads to pollution, and road rage. As to make a better world, this issue must be
eliminated by implementing ways to manage this problem.
Aim
According to the 30th Australasian Transport Research Forum, it stated that the most frequently used travel mode for almost every trip purpose is
private vehicles. In present world with rapid urban development,

Geography Synoptic Essay
With reference to examples, assess the degree to which the level of economic development of a country affects planning and management in urban
areas.
The economic development of a country can be defined as the growth of industry, wealth, employment and the level of urbanisation. The planning and
management issues that are linked to economic development, are those associated with processes such as urbanisation, suburbanisation and
counter–urbanisation of cities. These may include pollution of water, air and noise. Other issues may be the increase in transport and waste, created by
people living, travelling through and working in urban areas. These problems need solutions, which often leads to planning and carrying out
redevelopment of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Despite great publicity only 8000 houses were built, which would on average house 40,000 people (in comparison to the 100,000 living in the favelas.)
Improvements have been attempted since, for example in 2000, when investment was put into Santo Andre. The aim was to alleviate poverty by
providing work for entrepreneurs, community healthcare workers and literacy programmes. So although this is an LEDC/RIC, it still faces
overpopulation problems; it does seem that the planning and management changes are aiding the over–population problem and improving the overall
quality of life.
In contrast Notting Hill is in the UK, an economically developed country with an average GDP (ppp) per capita of $35,494 in comparison to $11,719
in Brazil (World Bank 2011). Notting Hil is an area of London, an example of re–urbanisation; when people move into the city centre or inner city due
to regeneration. Gentrification is what has happened in Notting Hill, as individuals moved into old housing that was formerly in a state of despair and
refurbished and improved it. This changed the composition of the whole neighbourhood, because the affluent newcomers displaced the low–income
groups that formerly lived there. Often the new comers work in professional or managerial jobs. A positive outcome of this is that more affluent people
have been attracted to the area and therefore

Essay on Millau Viaduct Project Management
The Millau Viaduct is a cable–stayed road bridge which spans the valley of the river Tarn situated alongside the Township of Millau in Southern
France. The viaduct standing over 343 meters tall was the world's tallest cable–stayed bridge and was proposed as the missing link in the A75 auto
route that connects Paris in the north to Perpignan in the south. The Millau Viaduct was the product of 17 years of ideas, proposals, planning and
designs that resulted in shaving 40 miles off the former route through the region, a boom in local economic development and the completion of the one
of the world's most well managed and constructed projects.
Initiate
Business Case:
The initial objectives of the project are to provide a link in the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These teams where given five proposals for the viaduct with five defined project objectives that were to be followed in each proposal. Refer to
Appendix Figure (4) for images of proposed projects.
This approach was designed to gain further evaluation on already proposed designs, instead of receiving freshly proposed designs. The proposals were
submitted and critiqued by an independent committee setup within SETRA.
Selection of design:
In July of 1996 the party in charge of executing the work composed of Government representatives, Local officials, Engineers and Director of Roads
selected the multiple cable–stayed viaduct as the most appropriate solution based on the project scope. The viaduct had the lowest cost across all
proposals and also shortest build time. The architectural design was of the highest quality and in keeping with the local aesthetics. An architect's
impression is outlined in Appendix Figure (5).
Technical research was continued by SETRA with main project scope directed at: * Geology * Foundations * Design of pier and deck * Maintenance,
operation * User's behaviour * Building methods * Construction management * Cost analysis
Project Deliverables:
The decision by the GoF to

To What Extent Can Urban Areas Be Sustainable
Urban sustainability is the idea that an urban area can be organised without excessive reliance on the surrounding countryside and be able to power
itself with renewable sources of energy. The aim of this is to create the smallest possible environmental footprint and to produce the lowest quantity of
pollution possible, to efficiently use land, compost used materials, recycle it or convert waste–to–energy, and to make the urban area overall
contribution to climate change minimal. Therefore allowing the next generations and future generations to have the required resources without
compromising them.
It is estimated that over 50% of the world's population now lives in urban areas and that this will rise to 70% by 2050. Such a change will ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Curitiba recycles 2/3 of its household waste this figure is one of the highest in the world. The recycling plants are made up of recycled material and
employ people who find it hard to get jobs for example immigrants and disabled people, this makes the employees feel valued and it helps to improve
the lives.
Colour co–ordinating teams collect the waste that has been separated in inorganic and organic waste. It is then sorted and sent out to other recycling
plants to process. Cans are recycled at the fraction of the cost of producing new ones. There are also special teams, which go out and collect very
large items, which would be too difficult and possibly expensive for someone to try and recycle themselves so would be fly tipped as a result.
The green exchange was introduced in Curitiba in 1990, this scheme was to encourage the poor to recycle their waste in return for food produce or
bus transport tickets. This has proved to be a valuable service for the poor as they live in areas, which are hard for the recycling team to access. They
deliver their waste to a waste station and in return for their rubbish they can be exchanged for bus tickets, food, and school–books, this system was a
great success and saw Participation among Curitiba households reached 70% in the 1990s. Curitiba's strategy turned waste into a resource, thereby
unleashing a range of positives. The widespread problem of

Benefits of Congestion Charge in Tokyo
Benefits of Congestion Charge in Tokyo
Since the 1940s, motorization has increased rapidly around the world, particularly private vehicles. The trend has created both economic and
individual benefits. The development resulted in the prosperity of the metropolis, while regional areas declined steeply in scale. In Japan, the least
number of vehicles per household by prefecture was Tokyo with 0.497(Automobile Inspection Association, 2009). Nevertheless, there are chronic
enormous traffic jams in Tokyo. Congestion charging systems have been considered because many suburbanites have gathered to work, study and
make a purchase in the city. As a result of the consideration, the new systems have been practised in many cities, such as Oslo,... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
In 1997, likewise, Japan organised the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The treaty (United Nations,
1998) indicates:
It was to establish a legally binding international agreement, whereby all the participating nations commit themselves to tackling the issue of global
warming and greenhouse gas emissions.
Although Japan's target was a reduction of 6% from 1990 levels by the year 2012, it might be difficult to achieve the objective, but the definite
charging plan might inspire Japan to approach the aim effectively.
A heated debate about the influence on car businesses has become another argument against the use of congestion charge. It has been contended that
car consumption would experience a sharp decrease owing to the new device (Environment of Tokyo, 2010). It has been also claimed that the
automobile industry, which has been protected by the Japanese government since World War II and taken the major role in the economy (University
of Tokyo, 2004), would lose the power and might be difficult to compete with foreign companies. On the positive side, it has been asserted that the
changes could be a large number of opportunities for the Japanese motor vehicle industry because the new technologies, such as electric cars and
hybrid ones, could be developed (Nakamura,2010). These cars could provide not only cheaper charging costs and repairing fees for drivers but also
reductions in air

Traffic Congestion in London
The Urban Environment: Traffic congestion in cities is a problem throughout the world. Evaluate the effectiveness of one official initiative undertaken
to tackle this issue.
Today traffic congestion has become one of the major issues that exert an influence on towns and cities in economically developed countries. Chen and
Hai (2012,para1) explains that congestion takes place when the road space is overfilled by car users and speed of the traffic lessens, moreover, it is
regarded as a potential reason for air pollution or even climate change. One possible approach is considered to be the implementation of road pricing
policy, which would contribute to the decrease of traffic congestion rates, improvement of air ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Therefore, it is worth recalling that LCC has achieved the goal to reduce traffic congestion. Another aspect to observe is the scheme's influence on
ambient air pollution and general road condition. It is undoubtedly true that one of the main positive consequences from congestion charging scheme
has been the enhancements in air quality, reductions in environmental pollution and to cut the use of carbon–based fuels in central area. One might
argue that pollution level have changed slightly or even have grown in pre – and post–charging scheme period. It is widely believed that the
environment have not been positively affected by the vehicles' reduction in numbers for the reason that taxes cover only small part of the London. On
the other hand, Tonne et al (2008, 622) justify that NO2 and PM10 concentrations within the central area reduced noticeably in contrast to the Greater
London, where there were small variations in average concentration . On balance, the overall picture seems to be that the congestion charges has
improved air quality and considerably reduced emissions. To sum up, one possible solution for tackling the issue of traffic congestion has been
assessed, namely The

Congestion
Using the data and your economic knowledge, assess which is the best policy that the UK government could adopt to reduce congestion on the roads
(25 marks)
Market failure is where there is a misallocation of resources in the economy, either completely failing to provide a good or service or providing the
wrong quantity. A negativeexternality, which is the same as an external cost, occurs when the consumption or production of a good causes costs to a
third party, where the social cost is greater than the private cost.
There are a several reasons why roads have become increasingly congested, including the following: The real cost of driving has fallen because motor
cars, and even petrol, are relatively cheaper than they ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A reduction in quantity will therefore will reduce congestion as there will therefore be less cars on the road.
Thirdly, the government could adopt a road pricing system by charging for the use of road–space. Road pricing has been used in Singapore, where
electronic detectors are placed on bridges and drivers are charged for access to the road–space, that is, access to the road network.
One problem with schemes to alter people's behaviour to achieve desired outcomes is that the reverse can happen, and people behave perversely.
вЂЁFor example: speed cameras positioned at regular intervals on roads may encourage drivers to 'speed up' between cameras, speed bumps on
roads may encourage people to take longer trips to avoid them, hence increasing congestion and pollution, as the costs of driving in London have
increased, the illegal dumping of cars has also

Transportation : A Small Country, Israel 's Primary Mode...
Transportation
A small country, Israel's primary mode of transportation is via automobile, and the country is served by a modern road network. Congestion has
become a particularly bad problem in the Tel Aviv area, to the point that a government
–hired consultancy firm proposed instituting congestion charges
for cars entering the city during the busiest part of the day. This kind of system is similar to that used to control traffic in London, Singapore, and
Stockholm.
Israel Railways, the nation's rail system linking all the major coastal cities, as well as inland cities such as Jerusalem and Beersheba, is in the process
of being upgraded. The planned changes will better accommodate the system for commuter traffic. High–speed trains, electrification of the current rail
system, and upgrades and expansion of rail stations and adjacent parking areas are some of the projects either planned or underway. Current
projections are for the system to carry 40 million passengers by 2010, a huge jump, compared with the fewer than 3 million passengers that used the
system in 1990.
Israel's primary air hub is in Ben Gurion International Airport, located near the city of Lod, about 15 km (9 mi) southeast of Tel Aviv. Having operated
since 1936, the airport has undergone several expansions as the amount of air traffic has increased. El–Al, the Israeli former national air carrier, handles
most international flights, while Arkia and Israir run domestic flights to airports in Eilat, Haifa,

Reasons For The Government Intervention
ECON1020 ASSIGNMENT 2
Question 1: Reasons for government intervention
Governments only intervene in a market to correct for market failures, their objective to restore efficiency and increase economic well–being of society.
Market failure occurs when the market fails to allocate resources efficiently, the buyer & seller cannot reach a socially optimal point. Traffic
congestion is rivalrous in consumption because there is limited space on the road, however, the road has the ability to be over consumed thus making
it a common resource, because one person's use of the good does not diminish other people's use of it. The issue of traffic congestion is a negative
externality because when one person drives on the road, their presence reduces the speed of everyone else and thus increases the affected party's
journey time. The graph below (figure 1) shows the demand and supply of roads with Qmarket showing the equilibrium that the forces of supply and
demand have equalled. The private value is the drivers use of the roads when there is no traffic congestion e.g. non–peak hour. However, because their
presences are an negative externality. The demand curve shifts to the left and shown and the new demand curve is the social value, the supply and
demand now have an equilibrium at Qopt. The social value is the private value – externality.
Question 2: Public Policy Solutions
a)The use of congestion charges is a market based policy instrument in which the government will use to

Swot Analysis Of Bluewater
Bluewater Eric Kuhne is the architect behind ВЈ400 million Bluewater Shopping Centre which opened March 16, 1999. It is located in Kent with 240
acres surrounded by a further 50 acre landscape of lakes, parkland and trees. Its website boasts "Rising out of a former chalk quarry among 50
metre–high cliffs ... Bluewater's striking architecture is simply unique." The centre is triangular in shape with an anchor store at each point. There are
6 sections of the centre. They are; The Guildhall (situated between House of Fraser and John Lewis) boasts a selection of classic and high fashion
retail and lifestyle stores, The Village (situated off The Guildhall) has restaurants for fine dining, lifestyle stores and boutiques, Rose Gallery (situated
between... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It has 13,000 free parking spaces (an astonishing 90% of its customers come by car). Bluewater bus station services 3 London bus routes (96, 428
and 492) however is not part of Oyster card TFL system. It also facilitates Arriva buses (477, 490, 700) and Fastrack A and B. 1.7 miles from the
centre is the closest National Rail station servicing London Charing Cross via Woolwich, Arsenal and Lewisham and via Sidcup, Gravesend and
Gillingham. Bluewater has an annual footfall of 28 million and serves one of the largest and most affluent retail catchments in the UK. Over 6.5
million people with an available spend of ВЈ13 billion. 73% of its visitors are from top three Acorn categories (comfortable communities, rising
prosperity and affluent achievers) versus 63% in catchment. This shows how Bluewater attracts more affluent people from outside it's initial catchment

The London Program Has Cut Congestion
The London program has cut congestion from the original cordon by 20 to 30 percent (70,000 fewer cars per day), and by 14 percent in the western
extension (30,000 fewer cars per day). There has been a 6 percent increase in bus ridership and a 12 percent increase in cycling journeys into the
western addition during charging hours; and a 66 percent increase in cycling within the charging zone since it was introduced (Transport for London,
2009). As private vehicle traffic has dropped, some road space has been dedicated to transit and other purposes. Transport for London (TfL) announced
that constructionвЂђ related delays and changing use of road space contributed to increasing traffic congestion in the charging zone back to
preвЂђcharging zone levels, but that the number of vehicles was still significantly lower and that constructionвЂђrelated delays would have been
worse without the congestion charging zone in place (Mail OnвЂђLine, 2008). Many of these delays appear to be temporary, although some alterations
to roadways to promote alternative forms of transportation are permanent.
Carbon dioxide emissions dropped 15 to 20 percent, and fine particulates and nitrogen dioxide dropped 10 percent according to the Central London
Congestion Charging Impacts Monitoring Sixth Annual Report (TfL, 2008). This is especially important because London currently exceeds European
standards for nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and fine particulates (PM10). Transportation is the largest sources of both,

Tackling Environmental Pollution with Green Taxes
Introduction Green taxes were introduced objectively to tackle environment pollutions. According to (Fullerton, Leicester, & Smith, 2008), taxes on
things such as Landfill, industrial energy use (the climate change levy), aggregate levy, motor fuel differentiation, vehicle exercise duty differentiation
and central London congestion charge had either been introduced or reformed in the past 20 years to tackle environmental pollution. These taxes are
called Green Taxes or Environmental Taxes.
Global warming has brought a big concern on environmental issues in many countries, including U.K. Different studies have suggested the need for
swift and urgent actions to alleviate the possible costs of climate change. Introducing taxes so called environmental taxes, changes trade permits and
other economic measures might play an important role to achieve cost effective control of greenhouse gas emissions (Stern, 2007)
Figures from Office for National Statistics (ONS) shows that U.K government collected ВЈ41.4billions from environmental taxes in the year 2010
(Office for National Statistics, 2011), rising up to 4.8% in comparison to 2009. This implies that environmental tax revenues have increased
exponentially year on year basis, causing doubts to consumers' mind on two aspects. (a) Do environmental taxes benefit the government or consumers?.
(b) Are there alternatives to environmental taxes?. In answering the two questions, this report will review the literature of environmental

Public Transport And How It Can Be Prioritised Through...
Abstract
This paper addresses the importance of public transport and how it can be prioritised through traffic engineering. Numerous methods for giving public
transport priority have been researched and discussed. Examples are provided where those techniques are implemented and their performance is
evaluated. Research proves that priority to public transport in urban areas is feasible and can lead to reduced travel times while having a minor impact
on the traffic network.
1.Introduction
As cities are expanding and traffic congestion is increasing, there is growing demand for more regular and efficient public transport. This is in part to
reduce pollution and noise levels (European Commision Dictorate–General for Environment, 2004). European policy–makers and investors have in fact
influenced a modal shift towards more public, rather than private transport in recent years (Bund, n.d.).
Traffic engineering involves the planning and management of urban road infrastructures and networks (Institute of Transportation Engineers, 1999) for
various modes of transport, such as vehicles (private, public and commercial), bicycles and pedestrians. Its purpose is to find solutions to transport
infrastructures in order to provide the best transport systems for people and goods in terms of cost, time, safety and environmental impact.
There are three key benefits in prioritising public transport in urban environments. The first is that by reducing congestion, commercial transport
becomes

How The Character And Quality Of Open Space Differ Across...
How does the character and quality of open space vary in different parts of London, and what are the factors affecting this? London, an area of 1,572
square kilometers, is home to 8.7 million people. According to Greenspace Information for Greater London (GiGL), up to '39% of Greater London
can be classified as green open space' – 14.2m2 per resident, of which nearly half (17.88% of total space) is classified as being parks or woodland. In
this essay I will be discussing how the character and quantity of these open spaces differ across two areas, Tower Hamlets (TH) and The City, before
suggesting key factors affecting them. First though – we must define the question, by explaining the key terms. 'Open Space' can be interpreted in
different ways, however I understand it to refer to green space (parks, woodlands, gardens) but also the open river and canal space, or the open air
in the capital. I interpret 'character' as the type of open space, the size and location in relation to other land use (commercial, industrial or
residential), and overall 'feel' of the space. 'Quality' is interpreted as the standard of the space (for example how well maintained, features available
and overall air quality). Finally, the variation across the city refers to how the style and standard of these spaces differ across the 1000mile2 area,
comparing similarities, patterns and exceptions across boroughs. One variation in the character and quality between TH and The City is the

For every problem caused by urbanisation there is an...
Rapid urbanisation has caused a variety of problems, including transport congestion, lack of sufficient homes and living conditions, sanitary and health
care issues, and crime. For all these problems, city planners have attempted potential solutions, each with varying degrees of success. Cities including
London, Manila and Mumbai have several of the aforementioned problems, and have each tried their own potential solutions. This essay will discuss
how successful these schemes have been in resolving these issues.
As a result of an increased population inhabiting one area, traffic congestion is often a major issue resulting from urbanisation. In London, traffic is
evidently a problem. As it would be expected from a capital city home to more ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In terms of health, an example of an attempt in Mumbai is the Slum Sanitation Program, started in 1995 by an NGO, who built 330 new communal
toilet blocks in the slums; due to health also being detrimentally affected by exhaust emissions from traffic, dirty water, cramped living spaces
(increasing the spread of disease) and general cleanliness of homes, this has had little impact. Over all, it is evident that these attempts have not been
greatly successful, potentially due to the lack of money preventing any major plans like complete rejuvenation which would solve the problems.
As cities grow, problems grow with them. Solving these problems has been attempted in various ways by various people, and have each have had
different levels of success. In MEDC London, the issue of congestion was attacked in a much more structured way, and therefore did make some
impact, although for the moment, minimal. In LEDCs Mumbai and Manila, Governments have struggled to rectify their problems due to their lack of
money, as the scale of their modifications is too great due to such rapid urbanisation. In conclusion, I agree that more often than not there is an
effective solution for problems caused by urbanisation, but in many cases they are just too big and too expensive to be

Discuss the Pros and Cons of Implementing a Nationwide...
Discuss the pros and cons of implementing a nationwide road pricing scheme The introduction of a nationwide road pricing scheme has been
extensively considered in the UK. Early deliberations in the 'Smeed Report' implemented road pricing in 1962 using a colour coding system. With
computing and telecommunications changes in recent years there is potential for the road pricing scheme, which was a component of the labour
manifesto in 2005 using satellite navigation to track vehicle activity, to be developed and implemented. The concept of introducing a market for roads
through road pricing has become a highly discussed topic due to the complexity of the operation and how it could revolutionise the actions of drivers in
the future with a... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
People in a lower income bracket will be the ones who are hit hardest and have to change their driving behaviour as the road pricing is independent
of income, exhibiting price inelasticity. This increase in inequality which could be a result of road pricing can be illustrated using the Lorenz
curve which shows the distribution of wealth, with increased inequality leading to a shift away from the line of equality as shown by the arrow
showing a higher proportion of income going to a smaller proportion of people. There is a correlation between work flexibility and income so
people with less income will have to pay the peak time charges and the Lorenz curve will shift. As the main aim of the scheme is to reduce
congestion people may feel as though they are being 'Priced off the roads.' The Gini Co–efficient shows distribution between households, it was
recorded that following the London Toll introduction, the co–efficient increased from 0.2778 to 0.2785. Changes in road pricing have not been
perceived well by the public in the UK. The scheme has been viewed as an invasion of privacy due to the tracking technology. After a referendum in
Edinburgh 'the widespread political opposition was reflected in the vote: 74% of people voted against the plan'. An online petition against road
pricing was signed by 1.8 million people showing the depth of feeling against road pricing. However, with the highest fuel duty in the world being
increased above inflation each year, UK

Interpretations Of Sustainable Urban Transport Systems Of...
Interpretations of Sustainable Urban Transport systems of different international cities
Introduction
Sustainable development is the current holy grail of developers & planners across the globe. It is a roadmap to attain sustainability in any resource
using activity requiring intra–generational & inter–generational reproduction, where reserve use & living condition of present & future human
generation is being met without undermining the "integrity, stability & beauty" of natural biotic systems (Leopold, 1949). After Brundtland Report, the
term "Sustainable development" gained popularity and mainstream use (Brundtland, 1987). Sustainable development preaches that
socio–economic–ecological progresses are concomitantly attainable within ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(congestion, pollution, overpopulation etc.). Sustainable Urban transport sector was chosen to study & compare transport planning, policy &
implementation of different countries across the globe. It was found that countries already heavily developed in vehicular mode (private vehicle) is
having hard time shifting modal preference to sustainable urban transport systems (MRT, BRT, NMV); as this requires huge initial capital investment,
enthusiastic public participation & political statesmanship & sagacity & willingness to face hostile public reaction to change over (ie; Singapore–
modal shift from vehicular to public transport) (MoT, Singapore website, 2014). Countries like USA also faces huge public opposition (perception of
curtailment of freedom) & legal barrier (4th amendment, US constitution), (Richard, 2009). USA (San Francisco, Portland, New York, and Milwaukee)
has deconstructed freeways (Norquist, 2000); France (Paris) has converted Georges Pompidou Expressway into Paris–Plage (Paris Beach) (Charles
Siege, 2007) and South Korea (Seoul) has removed Cheonggye freeway to restore Cheonggyecheon river (Natalie, 2013). Achieving the balance
between progress and impact is a delicate dance choreographed through sustainable development planning, policy and pragmatic implementation. How
the described countries are faring will now be scrutinized.
Definition:
Sustainable development is "Development that meets the needs

Climate Change And Climate Adaptation
One of the most challenging global issue facing today's society is climate change, it is affecting all regions across the globe, with some areas
experiencing extreme weather events and heavy rainfall, whereas other regions are hit with droughts and heat waves. Climate change can be defined as
a "large–scale, long–term shift in the planet's weather patterns or average temperatures." (metoffice). Consequently, a range of challenges are occurring
to not only human settlements, but more importantly to the natural environment as well. It is becoming increasingly important for countries across the
globe to attempt to adapt and mitigate from the effects of climate change. Climate mitigation is "any action taken to permanently eliminate or reduce the
long–term risk and hazards of climate change to human life, property." (Global–greenhouse–warming.com). It can include enhancing the sinks of
greenhouse gases, as well as reducing the sources. Whereas climate adaptation, is referring to "the ability of a system to adjust to climate change
(including climate variability and extremes) to moderate potential damage, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with the consequences."
(Global–greenhouse–warming.com). Adaptation can include improving road infrastructure, so it would be able to withstand hotter temperatures, or
just simply change in behaviour shifts such as using less water. These two methods are essential and can be connected through strategic town planning,
and can be used to tackle climate change, through an array of implementations which will not only prepare the globe, but also reduce the impacts of
climate change.
Urban areas not only have a profound part in contributing to climate change, but these areas have also become extremely vulnerable to the impacts of
climate change, as more than half of the world's population are living in urban areas and global rate of urbanisation is evermore increasing. Cities can
be met with an increase in frequency of storms, flooding, landslides and heat waves. Higher temperatures also occur more frequently in urban areas
than rural or suburban surroundings, due to the urban heat island effect. This is "an area, such as a city or industrial site, that has consistently

Mobile Ipv4 And Ipv6 Problems And Implementation
Mobile IPv4 and IPv6 Problems and Implementation Mobile IPv4 and IPv6 are the future of mobile communications wirelessly and can help
greatly in the infrastructure and combination of mobile systems and internet. This usage of IP addresses in mobile would increase the need for
implementation of IPv6 as the new standard to replace IPv4 and increase the number of available addresses. However IP based mobile isn't perfect
and has its own host of problems and those will be discussed as well later as well as possible fixes in short and long term to these problems. The
main need to implement mobile IP is the fact that it can support more users and keep those users closer to the internet, meaning that the internet is
integrated into the system. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This can be a problem as more devices connect to and use a network the more data they use and can cause a network to become congested. A
solution to reduce congestion is to use many small wireless receivers within the range of a large tower to spread out the devices upon smaller
more confined networks when within cities and high density areas. And simply using long range low capacity towers when in the country side and
places where fewer devices will be on a network at any given time, this is a combination of macro cells and micro cells to ensure network stability.
At layer 2 comes the need to differentiate between devices on the network and needs a standard to work in place usually used at layer 2 in IP based
communications over the internet is Ethernet II and uses MAC addresses differentiating between devices by using a hexadecimal format. This is done
by burning a unique ID into a network card by a manufacturer, however rather than the normal Wi–Fi a better option for long range communications is
WiMAX. The differences in Wi–Fi and WiMAX is that WiMAX has an effective distance of up to 90km while Wi–Fi only has a range of up to 100m
and data rates on WiMAX is up to 40mbps compared to Wi–Fi with up to 54mbps. Next layer 3 the Network layer is where the Internet Protocol (IP)
will take place and be defined. There are two options to use here IPv4 or IPv6.

To What Extent Does Multi-Level Government Increase...
To what extent does multi–level government increase democracy and bring government closer to the people?
The United Kingdom consists of four countries; England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. As the UK is a unitary state, the main power is
centralised at Westminster. However, since 1997, power has been devolved to five different areas; the Scottish Parliament, the Welsh Assembly, the
Northern Ireland Assembly, the Greater London Assembly and elected mayors in a number of cities, such as London. There are also several levels of
local government, such as county and district councils and unitary authorities.
Devolution is the transfer of power from Westminster to regional bodies, such as the Scottish Parliament and the Welsh... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This therefore brings power closer to the Scottish people, through the Scottish Parliament, but in hand it takes power away from the English people.
This may be because there is no purely English devolved body in comparison to the Scottish Parliament, Welsh Assembly and Northern Ireland
Assembly. Power is also brought closer to the people as devolved bodies can hold referendums; however, on the other hand, they are limited on what
they can hold referendums about.
On the other hand, devolution had failed to resolve the problem of voter apathy, for example, barely 1 in 4 of the electorate voted in favour of the
Welsh Assembly. The use of PR in the devolved assemblies has weakened the link between elected representatives and their constituents. The
Conservatives argue that devolution has undermined the unity of the UK, and some argue that the Barnett formula is too generous towards the
Scottish. Also, most importantly, it is argued that devolution raised the problematic West Lothian question.
Devolution has not brought power closer to the people in that regional councils only have limited power and are 'tokenistic'. The Scottish Parliament
and Welsh Assembly are merely symbols of national identity, for example. Also, councils have fixed

A Brief Note On The Pollution Control Programme
1.1.1Extra fuel consumption
Due to traffic jam, extra fuel consumption is a big problem for a developing country like India. The government is buying this extra amount of fuel
with hard cash. This is considered a national loss.
1.1.2Vehicle operating cost
Vehicle operating cost is directly proportionate to the traffic jam. Avehicle operator applies more breaks and accelerates again and again. So, the
lifetime of vehicle parts and fuel consumption will be more in road jams. Traffic jam actually increases VOC. Figure 8: Mapping of congestion cost
1.2Impact on pollution level
According to the report on (Status of the vehicular pollution control programme in India) released in march 2010 by Central Pollution control Board,
Ministry ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Residents following laws with the intention of development of town can reduce traffic jam in Samalkha town up to great extent. In order to provide
training to drivers of motor vehicles, four Institutes of Driving Training and Traffic Research (IDTRs) are being established in the districts of the State
such as Rohtak, Bahadurgarh, Bhiwani, Kaithal with a total budget of about 100 Crore Rupees, but few people's approaching to these institutes in state.
Table 2 shows charges for training in these institutes is quite low but still not many people coming to these institutions.
Table 2: represents the charges in above mentioned institutes for drivers' training.
COURSEDURATIONCHARGES IN RUPEES
HMV/LMV– commercial1 day400
Hazardous1 day400
Hazardous1 day400
HMV/LMV–commercial1 day400
HMV/LMV1 day400
Conductor License1 day300
Badge–Training1 day300
Skill TestHalf day350
Competency testHalf day350

2.2Strict traffic law implementation
Most people think that traffic jam in Samalkha town can be reduced by restricting heavily loaded trucks. It can be done by implementing traffic law
strictly. If each and every traffic policeman perform his duty then it will be easy to implement rules.
2.3Increasing pedestrian facilities
As per the survey results, most of the people like to travel on foot for shopping and other administrative works in Samalkha

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